Meaning of Criminology

Criminology is the scientific study of crime, criminal behavior, and the societal responses to
crime. It involves understanding the causes of crime, the nature of criminal behavior, and
how societies deal with offenders and the consequences of crime. It incorporates multiple
disciplines, including sociology, psychology, law, political science, anthropology, and
economics, to explore the broader aspects of criminal behavior and societal reactions to it.

Criminology also focuses on the institutions and processes related to crime, such as law
enforcement, judicial systems, and corrections, as well as the policies aimed at preventing
and controlling crime.

Nature of Criminology:

Criminology is interdisciplinary and dynamic, evolving with changes in societal values, laws,
and scientific advancements. It combines both theoretical and empirical approaches to
understand criminal behavior and how society can effectively prevent or respond to it.

1. Scientific Discipline:
o Criminology adopts a scientific approach, relying on research and data to
analyze criminal behavior and crime trends. This means it uses empirical
evidence, statistical analysis, and theoretical frameworks to develop a deeper
understanding of crime.
2. Interdisciplinary Approach:
o Criminology draws from various disciplines such as sociology (societal
factors), psychology (individual behavior), biology (genetic and physiological
factors), and law (legal systems and justice). This diversity allows
criminologists to look at crime from multiple perspectives.
3. Theoretical and Practical:
o Criminology is both theoretical (developing ideas about the causes of crime
and its effects) and practical (applying knowledge to create policies, improve
the justice system, and prevent crime).
4. Focus on Human Behavior:
o Central to criminology is the study of human behavior—why individuals
commit crimes and how society influences and reacts to such behavior. It also
explores the effects of crime on victims, communities, and society at large.
5. Normative:
o Criminology addresses norms, deviance, and social control. It investigates
how laws and legal systems define and respond to crime, as well as how
societal norms influence what is considered criminal behavior.

Scope of Criminology:

The scope of criminology is broad and covers multiple dimensions of crime and its
consequences. Key areas within the field include:

1. Study of Crime:
o Criminology seeks to understand what crime is, how it is defined legally and
socially, and how it evolves over time. It examines various forms of crime,
 from traditional offenses like theft and murder to emerging crimes such as
cybercrime and organized crime.
2. Study of Criminal Behavior:
o Criminologists study the characteristics, motives, and psychology of
individuals who commit crimes. This includes understanding the biological,
psychological, and social factors that influence criminality, as well as
analyzing patterns and trends in criminal behavior.
3. Crime Prevention:
o A crucial component of criminology is understanding how to prevent crime.
This involves studying the effectiveness of different crime prevention
strategies, such as community policing, rehabilitation programs, and social
policies that address the root causes of crime (e.g., poverty, education,
unemployment).
4. Penology (Study of Punishment):
o Penology deals with the study of punishment, rehabilitation, and correctional
systems. Criminologists examine the effectiveness of various forms of
punishment, including imprisonment, probation, parole, and restorative justice,
in deterring crime and rehabilitating offenders.
5. Victimology:
o Victimology is a branch of criminology that focuses on the victims of crime. It
looks at the impact of crime on individuals, the role of victims in the criminal
justice process, and ways to support and compensate victims.
6. Criminal Justice Systems:
o Criminology also studies the functioning of criminal justice institutions,
including police, courts, and correctional facilities. This involves examining
how laws are enforced, how offenders are prosecuted and sentenced, and how
correctional systems manage offenders.
7. Sociological Impact of Crime:
o The scope of criminology extends to understanding the social and economic
impact of crime on communities and society as a whole. This includes
studying how crime affects public safety, social stability, and economic
development, as well as how social inequalities influence crime rates.
8. Criminal Law:
o Criminologists study criminal law and legal principles, analyzing how laws
are created, enforced, and changed over time. This involves exploring how
legal systems define crimes and how those definitions reflect broader societal
values and power structures.

Criminology, with its interdisciplinary nature, plays a vital role in understanding crime,
criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system. It aims to not only explain why
individuals commit crimes but also to develop effective methods for preventing and
addressing criminal behavior. By examining crime from multiple perspectives—legal, social,
psychological, and biological—criminology helps shape policies and practices that promote
justice, reduce crime, and improve the functioning of criminal justice systems.
Introduction to Pre-Classical, Classical, and Neo-Classical Theories of Crime

Theories of crime have evolved over time, influenced by how societies understand human
behavior, punishment, and justice. Here’s a simplified overview of these three major stages in
crime theory:

1. Pre-Classical Theories (Before the 18th Century)

Before organized ideas about crime and punishment emerged, people often attributed
criminal behavior to supernatural forces, such as evil spirits or demons. Punishments were
severe and arbitrary, often involving public humiliation, torture, or execution. The focus
wasn’t on understanding why someone committed a crime but on deterring others through
fear. Society believed that crime was a result of moral weakness or divine punishment.

Key Points:

 Crime was seen as a sin or the work of evil forces.

 Punishment was harsh and unpredictable.
 No focus on fairness or the causes of crime.

2. Classical Theories (18th Century)

Classical criminology, influenced by Enlightenment thinkers like Cesare Beccaria and

Jeremy Bentham, introduced the idea that people commit crimes based on free will and
rational choice. According to this view, people weigh the costs and benefits of their actions
before deciding whether or not to commit a crime. Classical theorists believed that
punishment should be fair, proportionate to the crime, and used as a deterrent to prevent
others from committing crimes.

Key Points:

 Crime is a choice made by individuals using rational thinking.

 Punishment should be swift, certain, and proportional to the crime.
 The goal of punishment is to prevent future crimes through deterrence.

3. Neo-Classical Theories (19th Century)

Neo-classical criminology expanded on classical ideas by acknowledging that not everyone

has the same level of free will or rationality. For example, children, people with mental
illnesses, or those under extreme duress may not fully understand the consequences of their
actions. Therefore, punishment should take these factors into account, allowing for more
flexibility and fairness in sentencing.

Key Points:

 Crime is still based on rational choice, but circumstances (like age or mental state)
affect a person’s ability to make rational decisions.
 Punishment should be individualized based on the specific circumstances of the
offender.
 There is room for mercy and rehabilitation in addition to deterrence.
In summary, pre-classical theories viewed crime as something caused by evil forces, while
classical theories emphasized rational choice and deterrence, and neo-classical theories added
a layer of understanding that not everyone is equally capable of making rational decisions.

Positive Theories of Crime: Constitutionalism, Morphological Theories, Psychological,

and Psycho-Analytical Theories

Positive theories of crime focus on understanding criminal behavior through scientific

observation and evidence rather than relying solely on abstract ideas of free will. These
theories look for biological, psychological, and environmental factors that influence why
people commit crimes. Let’s explore these concepts in simpler terms:

1. Constitutionalism and Morphological Theories

These theories focus on the physical and biological traits of individuals, suggesting that some
people may be predisposed to criminal behavior based on their body type or genetic makeup.

Constitutionalism Theory

This theory, most notably proposed by William Sheldon in the 1940s, categorized people into
three body types and suggested that each body type is associated with particular personality
traits that could influence behavior, including criminal tendencies.

 Endomorphs: Soft and round body shape, believed to be sociable and relaxed.
 Mesomorphs: Muscular and athletic build, thought to be more aggressive and assertive.
 Ectomorphs: Thin and fragile, associated with being introverted and restrained.

According to Sheldon, mesomorphs were more likely to engage in criminal behavior due to
their physical strength and aggressive tendencies.

Morphological Theories

These theories examine physical traits (like facial features or body structure) to identify
potential criminal tendencies. For example, Cesare Lombroso, often referred to as the "father
of criminology," believed that criminals could be identified by physical abnormalities, such
as large jaws, sloping foreheads, or certain facial asymmetries. He referred to criminals as
"born criminals" with atavistic traits (primitive, evolutionary traits).

Key Points:

 Focus on physical characteristics and body types.

 Suggest that certain biological traits may predispose individuals to crime.
 These ideas have largely been discredited in modern criminology.

2. Psychological Theories

Psychological theories of crime focus on the mental processes and emotional issues that
influence criminal behavior. These theories explore how a person’s upbringing, personality,
and mental state can contribute to their likelihood of committing crimes.
Behavioral and Cognitive Theories

These approaches suggest that criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others. If
a person is exposed to environments where crime is common or acceptable, they may adopt
these behaviors themselves. Cognitive theories, on the other hand, focus on how people think
and how distorted thinking patterns can lead to criminal actions.

Personality Theories

Some theories link criminality to personality traits like impulsivity, aggression, or lack of
empathy. For example, criminals may score high on traits like psychopathy, which involves a
lack of remorse or understanding of the consequences of their actions.

Key Points:

 Crime may be learned from others or result from faulty thinking.

 Certain personality traits, such as impulsiveness or aggression, may increase the likelihood of
criminal behavior.

3. Psycho-Analytical Theories

Psycho-analytical theories, based on the work of Sigmund Freud, explore the unconscious
mind and how internal conflicts and unresolved childhood issues can influence criminal
behavior. Freud's model of the mind includes three parts: the id, ego, and superego.

 Id: Represents basic desires and instincts (e.g., aggression, hunger, sex).
 Ego: Acts as the rational part of the personality, balancing the id’s desires with reality.
 Superego: Represents moral values and societal norms, acting as a person’s conscience.

According to Freud, if a person’s id is too strong (leading to uncontrolled desires) or if their

superego is too weak (failing to regulate behavior), it may result in criminal actions. For
example, individuals with unresolved early childhood trauma may develop aggressive or
antisocial behaviors as they grow older.

Key Points:

 Focuses on unconscious desires and childhood experiences.

 Criminal behavior may arise from unresolved psychological conflicts.
 Weak moral development (superego) or overpowering desires (id) can lead to crime.

In summary, constitutionalism and morphological theories focus on physical traits as

causes of crime, psychological theories emphasize mental processes and learned behaviors,
and psycho-analytical theories explore deep-seated unconscious conflicts from childhood.
Together, these positive theories attempt to scientifically explain why some individuals are
more likely to engage in criminal behavior.
Sociological Theories of Crime: Differential Association, Subculture, Ecological, and
Anomie Theory

Sociological theories of crime emphasize the influence of social environments, relationships,

and community structures on criminal behavior. These theories look at how individuals are
shaped by their surroundings, including the people they interact with, the norms they
encounter, and the economic or social pressures they face. Let’s break down some key
sociological theories:

1. Differential Association Theory

Proposed by Edwin Sutherland in the 1930s, Differential Association Theory suggests that
criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others. People learn the techniques,
motivations, and rationalizations for committing crimes from the people they associate with,
particularly within close personal groups like family, friends, or peers.

 Key Idea: Crime is learned, not inherited or biologically determined.

 People are more likely to commit crimes if they are surrounded by individuals who
view criminal behavior as acceptable or rewarding.
 The more exposure a person has to crime-supporting attitudes, the more likely they
are to engage in criminal activity.

Example: A teenager who grows up in a neighborhood where gangs are prevalent might
learn that stealing or violence is acceptable from their peer group and may adopt these
behaviors.

2. Subculture Theory

Subculture Theory argues that certain groups in society develop their own values and norms
that are distinct from the mainstream. These subcultures may develop in response to social
exclusion or inequality, and they often promote behaviors that are considered deviant by the
broader society. Members of a subculture may commit crimes because their group norms
encourage it, even if those actions are criminal in the larger society.

This theory was developed by sociologists like Albert Cohen, who studied how young people
in disadvantaged areas form delinquent subcultures in response to the frustration of not being
able to succeed in mainstream society.

 Key Idea: People commit crimes because they belong to a subculture that values
behavior that violates mainstream norms.
 Crime becomes a way to gain status or respect within the subculture.
 Subcultures often form in response to social inequality or blocked opportunities.

Example: In a gang subculture, committing crimes like theft or drug dealing may be a way
for members to gain respect and power within their group.

3. Ecological Theory (Social Disorganization Theory)

Ecological Theory, also known as Social Disorganization Theory, was developed by the
Chicago School of sociology in the early 20th century. It examines how certain areas or
neighborhoods have higher rates of crime due to social and environmental factors like
poverty, unemployment, and lack of community cohesion.

 Key Idea: Crime is a result of social disorganization, meaning a breakdown in the

community's ability to regulate behavior.
 Factors like poverty, broken families, poor education, and lack of social institutions
(e.g., schools, churches) can weaken social control, leading to higher crime rates.
 Urban areas with frequent population turnover or economic deprivation are more
likely to have high crime rates.

Example: A neighborhood where there is high poverty and constant migration might struggle
to establish strong social networks or institutions that help prevent crime, leading to higher
criminal activity.

4. Anomie Theory (Strain Theory)

Developed by sociologist Robert Merton in the 1930s, Anomie Theory (also called Strain
Theory) focuses on the gap between societal goals (like wealth, success, and status) and the
means available to achieve those goals. When people are unable to achieve success through
legitimate means (e.g., hard work, education), they may feel "strain" or frustration and turn to
crime as an alternative way to achieve these goals.

Merton identified five ways people adapt to this strain:

 Conformity: Accepting societal goals and working toward them through legitimate
means.
 Innovation: Accepting societal goals but using illegitimate means (like crime) to
achieve them.
 Ritualism: Abandoning societal goals but still following societal rules (e.g., working
in a low-paying job).
 Retreatism: Rejecting both societal goals and means (e.g., dropping out of society,
using drugs).
 Rebellion: Rejecting societal goals and means and advocating for new ones (e.g.,
joining a revolutionary group).

Key Idea: Crime occurs when individuals experience a disconnect between society's
expectations and their ability to meet those expectations through legal means.

 People may turn to crime as a way to cope with or overcome this "strain."
 Crime is a response to social pressures and inequalities.

Example: A person living in poverty who desires financial success may turn to theft or drug
dealing if they feel they cannot achieve success through education or employment.

Summary:

 Differential Association Theory: Crime is learned through close relationships with

others.
 Subculture Theory: Crime is a result of belonging to a group with values that
conflict with societal norms.
  Ecological (Social Disorganization) Theory: Crime is higher in socially
disorganized neighborhoods with poverty, unemployment, and weak community ties.
 Anomie (Strain) Theory: Crime occurs when people are unable to achieve societal
goals through legitimate means and feel strain, leading them to use crime as an
alternative.

Each of these theories highlights the role of social interactions, environments, and pressures
in shaping criminal behavior, moving beyond individual choice to understand crime as a
social phenomenon.

The greatest contribution of the positive school to the development of criminal science
lies in its shift in focus from the crime and its punishment to the personality and
characteristics of the criminal. This shift marked a significant departure from the classical
school of criminology, which primarily focused on crime as a rational choice and punishment
as a deterrent. Instead, the positive school introduced the idea that crime is a symptom of
underlying social, biological, or psychological factors that influence an individual's behavior.

Key Contributions of the Positive School:

1. Focus on the Criminal, not the Crime: The classical school treated crime as a
violation of social contract and emphasized punishment to deter individuals from
committing offenses. However, the positive school, led by criminologists like Cesare
Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo, argued that understanding the
criminal's personality, including biological, social, and environmental influences, is
crucial to addressing criminal behavior. Lombroso's theory of "born criminals"
introduced the idea that criminal tendencies could be linked to biological anomalies or
atavism, reflecting a throwback to primitive traits.
2. Scientific Approach to Criminology: The positive school aimed to bring scientific
methods into criminology. It promoted the use of empirical research, statistics, and
observations to study criminals and identify patterns in their behavior. This
methodology represented a move away from abstract philosophical discussions and
towards a more evidence-based understanding of crime. The school encouraged
criminologists to investigate social, psychological, and biological factors that could
predispose individuals to commit crimes.
3. Rehabilitation over Retribution: By focusing on the personality and circumstances
of the offender, the positive school contributed to the idea that criminals could be
rehabilitated rather than simply punished. It promoted the belief that understanding
the root causes of criminal behavior could lead to more effective strategies for
preventing crime, such as social reform, medical treatment, or psychological
counseling. This shift in focus laid the groundwork for the modern penal systems'
emphasis on rehabilitation over retribution.
4. Determinism in Criminal Behavior: One of the core tenets of the positive school is
the concept of determinism in criminal behavior. The school argued that individuals
do not freely choose to commit crimes but are influenced by factors beyond their
control, such as genetics, social environment, and psychological conditions. This
deterministic view challenged the classical notion of free will and moral
responsibility, suggesting that criminal behavior is, to some extent, predictable and
preventable through intervention.
 5. Individualized Justice: The positive school emphasized the need for individualized
justice, where each criminal case is treated uniquely based on the offender's
personality, background, and motivations. This approach contrasts with the classical
school's belief in equal punishment for equal crimes. The positive school advocated
for flexible sentencing that considers the offender's potential for reform, their personal
circumstances, and the likelihood of recidivism.

Criticisms of the Positive School:

While the positive school contributed significantly to the development of criminal science, it
has also faced criticism. One major criticism is that some early proponents, especially
Lombroso, oversimplified the causes of criminal behavior by attributing it to biological
determinism. His ideas about the physical appearance of criminals have been debunked as
pseudoscience. Moreover, the positive school’s emphasis on determinism could potentially
undermine personal accountability and fail to address the moral dimensions of crime.

Conclusion:

The positive school revolutionized criminology by shifting attention from crime and
punishment to the study of the criminal. It introduced the idea that crime is not just a result of
individual choice but can be influenced by biological, social, and psychological factors. This
shift laid the foundation for modern criminology, which continues to emphasize the
importance of understanding the offender's personality in the context of crime prevention,
rehabilitation, and individualized justice. By focusing on the causes and conditions of
criminal behavior, the positive school helped develop more humane and scientifically-
informed approaches to crime and punishment.

The positivist school of criminology, which emerged in the late 19th century, pioneered
the scientific understanding of crime and criminality. Its key contribution was the shift
from viewing crime as a result of free will and rational choice to considering the biological,
social, and psychological factors that influence criminal behavior. The positivist approach has
significantly influenced the development of criminal policy and the administration of
criminal justice by emphasizing empirical research, rehabilitation, and individualized justice.
However, the school also faced criticism for its deterministic outlook and some reductionist
theories, particularly in its early formulations.

Key Contributions of Positivist Criminologists:

1. Scientific Approach to Crime: The positivists, led by figures like Cesare Lombroso,
Enrico Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo, introduced a scientific approach to understanding
crime. Lombroso, often considered the father of positivist criminology, proposed that
criminals were biologically different from non-criminals. His theory of "born
criminals" suggested that criminal behavior was inherited and could be identified
through physical anomalies, such as facial features or body shape. While Lombroso’s
theories of biological determinism have been largely discredited, his approach paved
the way for the study of crime using empirical and scientific methods, rather than
relying on philosophical or moral reasoning.
 Ferri and Garofalo expanded Lombroso’s ideas by incorporating social and
environmental factors into their analyses of criminal behavior, moving beyond purely
biological explanations. This holistic approach contributed to the foundation of
modern criminology, where social, economic, and psychological influences on crime
are studied rigorously.

2. Understanding of Crime Causation: The positivist school challenged the classical

school’s notion that individuals commit crimes solely due to free will and rational
choice. Instead, positivists argued that crime is the result of multiple factors, including
biology, psychology, and environment. This led to a more nuanced understanding of
crime causation, which, in turn, influenced the development of policies aimed at
addressing these underlying causes.

The introduction of the concept of criminal typology—which categorized criminals

based on factors such as biology, psychology, and social environment—allowed
criminologists to explore the diversity of criminal behaviors. These classifications
helped inform early criminal policies, such as different treatments for different types
of offenders (e.g., the distinction between habitual offenders and those who
committed crimes due to temporary circumstances).

3. Rehabilitation over Punishment: One of the most important contributions of the

positivist school was the emphasis on rehabilitation rather than punishment.
Positivists believed that if criminal behavior was the result of biological,
psychological, or environmental factors, then punishing criminals without addressing
these root causes would be ineffective. Instead, they advocated for policies that
focused on rehabilitating offenders and reintegrating them into society.

This shift toward rehabilitation influenced the development of criminal justice

systems that prioritize reform over retribution. Positivist ideas contributed to the rise
of probation, parole, and indeterminate sentencing, all of which aim to tailor
punishment to the individual and their capacity for rehabilitation. The idea of
individualized justice, where each offender’s background and circumstances are
considered when determining punishment, is rooted in positivist thought.

4. Development of Criminal Policy: Positivist criminology had a major impact on the

formulation of criminal policy. By emphasizing the scientific study of criminals and
the factors that contribute to crime, positivist criminologists laid the groundwork for
modern criminal policies focused on prevention, treatment, and social reform. For
example, positivist ideas contributed to the establishment of juvenile justice systems,
where the focus is on rehabilitation and education rather than harsh punishment for
young offenders.

Policies aimed at crime prevention were also influenced by positivist criminology.

By studying the social and environmental conditions that lead to crime, positivists
advocated for reforms that addressed poverty, unemployment, education, and family
issues as ways to reduce criminal behavior. This led to the creation of social welfare
programs and urban planning efforts aimed at reducing crime by improving living
conditions.
 5. Influence on Criminal Justice Administration: In terms of criminal justice
administration, positivist ideas brought about important reforms in the way offenders
are treated within the system. The positivist school’s focus on scientific analysis and
individualized treatment contributed to the establishment of systems like parole
boards, psychiatric evaluations, and the use of social workers in criminal justice. This
helped shift the focus of criminal justice administration from a purely punitive
approach to one that also considers the offender’s potential for reform.

Furthermore, the positivist emphasis on preventative measures rather than reactive

punishment influenced modern policing strategies, criminal investigations, and
corrections. The idea that the criminal justice system should focus on crime
prevention through early intervention and rehabilitation has become a cornerstone of
many contemporary criminal justice systems.

Criticism of the Positivist School:

1. Biological Determinism and Reductionism: One of the most prominent criticisms of

early positivist criminology, particularly Lombroso’s theories, is its over-reliance on
biological determinism. Lombroso’s assertion that criminal behavior could be
identified through physical traits, such as skull shape, has been widely discredited as
pseudoscientific. Critics argue that these ideas were reductionist, oversimplifying
complex social behaviors and leading to biased or discriminatory practices based on
superficial physical attributes.

The danger of biological determinism is that it can lead to stereotyping and the
marginalization of certain groups based on perceived inherent characteristics. This
aspect of positivism, particularly in its early stages, ignored the role of free will and
agency in human behavior and risked treating criminals as biologically inferior or
inherently flawed.

2. Neglect of Free Will and Morality: Another critique of positivist criminology is its
neglect of free will and moral responsibility. By focusing on determinism, positivists
sometimes downplayed the role of individual choice in committing crimes. Critics
argue that while external factors such as biology and environment influence behavior,
individuals still have the ability to choose their actions, and a criminal justice system
that ignores personal responsibility risks undermining moral accountability.

Positivist theories also risk promoting over-medicalization of crime, where offenders

are seen as "patients" to be treated rather than individuals who are responsible for
their actions. This can lead to a paternalistic system that treats criminals as passive
objects rather than autonomous agents.

3. Policy Implications and Social Control: Some critics argue that positivist ideas have
been used to justify social control policies that disproportionately target marginalized
groups. For instance, policies based on the idea of "crime-prone" individuals or
communities can lead to profiling and increased surveillance of certain populations,
reinforcing social inequalities. Positivism’s emphasis on treating criminals could also
be seen as contributing to the expansion of state power in the regulation of deviant
behavior.
Conclusion:

The positivist school made significant contributions to the understanding of crime by shifting
the focus from moral or legalistic views to scientific, empirical research on the causes of
criminal behavior. Its influence is evident in the development of modern criminal policy, with
its emphasis on rehabilitation, individualized justice, and crime prevention. However, its
deterministic approach and early focus on biological explanations of crime have been
criticized for their reductionism and potential for discrimination.

Despite these criticisms, the legacy of positivist criminology remains central to modern
criminology and the criminal justice system. Its contributions continue to shape contemporary
debates on how best to address the causes of crime and administer justice in a fair and
humane manner.

1. Lombroso's Classification of Criminals:

Cesare Lombroso, an Italian criminologist and a key figure in the positivist school, proposed
one of the earliest scientific classifications of criminals in his theory of biological
determinism. He suggested that criminal behavior was an inherited trait and that criminals
could be identified through physical anomalies or "atavistic" features, resembling primitive
human ancestors. Lombroso categorized criminals into several types:

1. Born Criminals:
o Lombroso believed that some individuals were born with a predisposition to
commit crimes due to biological defects. These individuals were considered
evolutionary throwbacks to an earlier stage of human development. They
exhibited atavistic traits such as asymmetrical faces, large jaws, and abnormal
skull shapes.
2. Insane Criminals:
o This category included individuals whose criminal behavior resulted from
mental illness, insanity, or psychological disorders. Unlike born criminals,
their crimes were seen as the product of abnormal brain functioning rather
than inherited traits.
3. Criminaloids:
o Criminaloids were individuals who did not possess innate biological
tendencies toward crime but were pushed into criminal activity by social,
economic, or environmental factors. Lombroso viewed them as "occasional
criminals" who were more susceptible to committing crimes due to external
pressures rather than intrinsic predisposition.
4. Habitual Criminals:
o Lombroso identified this category as people who turn to crime over time, often
due to repeated exposure to criminal environments or lifestyles. While they
may not have been born criminals, their frequent involvement in criminal
activities turned them into repeat offenders.
5. Epileptics:
o Lombroso associated epilepsy with certain forms of criminal behavior,
believing that epileptic individuals were more prone to violent and impulsive
 actions. This classification reflected the medical and psychological
explanations he tried to incorporate into his broader theory of crime.

While Lombroso’s ideas laid the foundation for biological and psychological theories of
crime, many of his specific claims, particularly those about physical traits, have been
discredited by modern criminology.

2. Radical Criminology:

Radical criminology emerged in the 1960s and 1970s as a critical response to traditional
criminology. It is grounded in Marxist theory, which views crime as a product of social and
economic inequalities within capitalist societies. Radical criminologists argue that the
criminal justice system serves the interests of the ruling class by maintaining social control
over the poor and working class, rather than addressing the root causes of crime.

Key features of radical criminology include:

1. Crime as a Social Construct:

o Radical criminologists argue that laws are created by the powerful to protect
their interests and maintain the status quo. Therefore, crime is not inherently
immoral but is defined by the dominant social and economic order. Acts that
threaten the interests of the ruling class are labeled as criminal, while harmful
behaviors by the elite, such as corporate crime, are often overlooked or
inadequately punished.
2. Focus on Class Conflict:
o Radical criminology emphasizes the role of class conflict in the production of
crime. It views crime as a response to the inequalities and injustices inherent
in capitalist societies. Poverty, unemployment, and lack of access to resources
drive marginalized groups to commit crimes, while the criminal justice system
disproportionately targets and punishes the poor.
3. Critique of Traditional Criminology:
o Radical criminologists critique traditional criminology for focusing on
individual offenders and psychological explanations for crime, rather than
addressing the structural conditions that lead to criminal behavior. They argue
that traditional theories fail to recognize how capitalist societies criminalize
certain behaviors to maintain control over oppressed populations.
4. Advocacy for Social Change:
o Radical criminology calls for a transformation of society to address the root
causes of crime, such as poverty, inequality, and exploitation. It advocates for
systemic change, including reforms in the economy, social welfare, and the
criminal justice system, to create a more just and equitable society.

Radical criminology has been influential in the development of critical criminological

theories, including feminist, race, and queer criminologies, which examine how power and
inequality shape criminal behavior and the criminal justice system.
3. Anomie:

Anomie is a concept introduced by French sociologist Émile Durkheim to describe a state of

normlessness or social instability caused by the breakdown of societal norms and values. In
the context of crime, anomie refers to a situation where individuals are unable to achieve
societal goals (such as wealth, status, or success) through legitimate means, leading to
feelings of frustration and deviance.

Key aspects of the concept of anomie:

1. Social Disorganization:
o Anomie arises when rapid social change or a breakdown in the social fabric
disrupts the established norms and rules that guide behavior. This lack of
social regulation creates uncertainty and confusion about how individuals
should behave, leading to deviant actions or criminal behavior.
2. Merton’s Strain Theory:
o Building on Durkheim's concept, American sociologist Robert K. Merton
developed strain theory, which explains how anomie leads to crime.
According to Merton, when society emphasizes certain cultural goals (e.g.,
wealth) but provides unequal access to legitimate means of achieving these
goals (e.g., education, employment), individuals may experience strain or
pressure to achieve success through deviant or illegal means. This strain is
particularly felt by marginalized groups who lack access to opportunities.
3. Types of Adaptation:
o Merton identified five ways individuals adapt to strain caused by anomie:
1. Conformity: Accepting both societal goals and the legitimate means to
achieve them.
2. Innovation: Accepting societal goals but using illegitimate means to
achieve them (e.g., theft, fraud).
3. Ritualism: Abandoning societal goals but still adhering to legitimate
means.
4. Retreatism: Rejecting both societal goals and means, leading to
withdrawal from society (e.g., substance abuse).
5. Rebellion: Rejecting existing societal goals and means and advocating
for new ones, sometimes through radical or criminal means.

The concept of anomie has had a significant impact on the development of sociological
theories of crime, particularly those focused on how social structures and inequalities
contribute to criminal behavior.
4. Bonger’s Theory or Economic Theory of Crime:

Willem Bonger, a Dutch criminologist and Marxist thinker, developed an economic theory
of crime that linked criminal behavior to the structure of capitalist society. He argued that
crime is a result of the economic conditions created by capitalism, where the pursuit of profit
and competition for resources lead to inequality, exploitation, and social disintegration.
Bonger’s theory can be summarized as follows:

1. Capitalism and Crime:

o According to Bonger, capitalist societies prioritize profit and individual gain
over collective well-being. This leads to the exploitation of the working class
by the bourgeoisie, creating economic inequalities and social discontent. In
such a system, individuals are more likely to commit crimes as a way to
survive or cope with their disadvantaged economic conditions.
2. Moral Degradation:
o Bonger argued that capitalism encourages selfishness, greed, and competition,
which erodes social solidarity and moral values. The pursuit of wealth and
success at the expense of others leads to alienation and a decline in ethical
behavior, making individuals more prone to criminal activity.
3. Class and Crime:
o Bonger emphasized that crime is not evenly distributed across social classes.
The working class, who experience economic hardship and exploitation, are
more likely to engage in property crimes (e.g., theft, robbery) as a means of
survival. Meanwhile, the ruling class engages in white-collar crime and
corporate crime, which are often overlooked or under-punished due to their
social power and influence.
4. Criminal Justice System as a Tool of the Elite:
o Bonger, in line with Marxist thought, believed that the criminal justice system
is designed to protect the interests of the bourgeoisie. Laws are created to
criminalize the behaviors of the working class while overlooking the harmful
actions of the elite. As a result, the working class is disproportionately targeted
and punished, while the crimes of the wealthy are often ignored or treated with
leniency.

Bonger’s economic theory of crime is influential in radical criminology and continues to

shape critical perspectives on how economic inequalities contribute to criminal behavior. His
work highlights the connection between socioeconomic conditions and crime, challenging the
notion that crime is solely the result of individual choices or moral failings.