Unit 4 : Tr ansducer sand Pr essure measur ement

4.1 I nstrumentation System-Block diagram, function of each block.

4.2 Differ ence between sensor sand transducer with examples.
4.3 Classification of tr ansducer .
4.4 Electrical Transducers:
a) Resistive transducers- Linear and Angular potentiometers, strain gauge, load cell.
b) Capacitive transducer.
c) Inductive transducer –LVDT, RVDT.

4.5 Working of piezoelectr ic tr ansducer , classification, examples.

4.6 Pr essur e measur ement:
Pressure and its units, types - Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric, Vacuum.
4.7 Classification of Pr essur e measuring devices.
4.8 Method of pr essur e measurement-
Bourdon tube with LVDT as secondary transducer
A transducer is an electronic device that converts signal from one form to another.

Common examples include microphones, loudspeakers, thermometers, position and pressure

sensors, and antenna.

4.1 I nstrumentation system

1. Primar y Sensing Element:-

It isalsoknown as"First Sensing Elements― TheElement (Part) of an instrument which makes
first contact with the measure and is called the primary sensing element.
For example, In Ammeter (which is used to measure current), the coil carrying the current to be
measured is the primary sensing element

2. Var iableconver sion Element:-

The output of the Primary sensing element may not be suitable for the actual measurement
system.
A variable conversion element merely converts the output signal of the primary sensing
element into a more suitable variable or condition useful to the function of the instruments
Also keep in mind, that the original information about the measurand must be retained
during the process of such conversion.
3.V ariable Manipulation Element:-
The level of the output from the Variable conversion element may not be enough for the next
stage
It manipulates the signal represented by some physical variable, to perform the intended task
of an instrument.
4. Data Transmission Element:-
If the elements of the system are physically separated, it is necessary to transmit the data from
one stage to the other. So we need this Data Transmission element
5. Data pr esentation Element:
It performs the translation function, such as present the data in a suitable form so that it is easily
understood by the observer and for this the Data Presentation Element is used
4.2 Difference between sensor and transducer .

4.3 Classification of transducer

Active and Passive Transducer s

On the basis of the requirement of electricity, transducers are of two types:

o Active tr ansducers operate on receiving an external electric current. This current is known
as an excitation signal. This signal is modified into an output signal. For example, an LED is
an active transducer because on receiving electrical current it converts the electrical energy
into light energy.
o Passive tr ansducers operate on receiving an external signal, which they then convert into an
electrical signal. For example, an LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) converts
rectilinear motion into electrical energy.

Primar y and Secondary Tr ansducers

On the basis of the role of the transducing element, transducers are divided into:

o Primar y transducers are generally the transducers that respond to external stimulation and
general output for that signal. The output is generally a change in any factor affecting the
secondary transducer.
o Secondar y tr ansducer s are the ones that convert the output of the primary transducer into an
electrical signal.

Analog and Digital Tr ansducers

Based on the output signal, transducers are classified into:

 o Analog tr ansducers: These transducers produce an output signal that is proportional to the
input signal. Examples include potentiometers, variable resistors, and strain gauges.
o Digital transducer s: These transducers produce an output signal that is in digital form.
Examples include encoders, photo-interrupters, and hall effect sensors

Tr ansducer and inver se Tr ansducer

Based on the conversion, transducers are classified into:

o Tr ansducer s: Converts a non-electrical quantity into an electrical quantity. Examples

include pressure gauges, strain gauges, photo-conductive cells, and therms-couples.
o I nver se tr ansducer s:Converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical
quantity. Examples include piezoelectric crystals, transnational and angular moving-coil
elements, and ammeters or voltmeters.

W r ite one example of each type: (i) Active tr ansducer (ii) Pr imar y tr ansducer . (iii) Electr ical
tr ansducer . (iv) Digital tr ansducer .

(i) Active transducer :-Thermocouple, piezoelectric, photovoltaic cell

(ii) Pr imar y tr ansducer:- Bourdon tube, bellows,
(iii) Electr ical tr ansducer.:- LV DT,RVDT, Hall effect, strain gauge, ultrasonic
meter, optical pyrometer, radiation pyrometer

(iv) Digital tr ansducer :- Linear Encoder, digital taco generator

4.4 Electrical Transducers:

a) Resistive transducer s- 1) Linear and Angular potentiometers
Potentiometer is a passive component that works on moving the slider across the full length of the
conductor. The input supply voltage is applied to the entire length of the resistor. The output
voltage is measured as voltage drop between fixed and movable contact. The slider is adjusted
manually over the resistive strip to change the resistance value from zero to a higher value.When
the resistance changes, the current flowing through circuit changes. Hence according to Ohm‘s
law, the resistive material also changes.
L inear Potentiometer is a passive component that works on moving the slider across the full
length of the conductor.
 Rotar y potentiometer uses a rotational mechanism to alter the point of contact that exists between
the circular resistor and the wiper terminal

2) Strain gauge

As we know that the resistance is directly dependent on the length and cross-sectional area of a
conductor, which is given by

R= ρL /A
Where,
Resistance
 ρ = resistivity

‗L‘ = Length

‗A‘ = cross-sectional area

W or king :

functioning of a strain gauge entirely depends on the electrical resistivity of an object.

When an object gets stretched within its limits of elasticity and does not break permanently, it
becomes thinner and longer, resulting in high electrical resistance.
If an object is compressed and does not deform, but, broadens and shortens, results in decreased
electrical resistance. The values obtained after measuring the electrical resistance of a gauge helps
to understand the amount of stress-induced.

The excitation voltage is applied at the input terminals of a gauge, while the output is read at the
output terminals

Applications
In the field of mechanical engineering development.
To measure the stress generated by machinery.
In the field of component testing of aircraft like; linkages, structural damage etc.

3) Load Cell

A load cell, also known as a force transducer or force sensor, works by converting a mechanical
force into an electrical signal. Strain gauge load cells: Use strain gauges to detect measurements. The
gauges are bonded to a beam or structural member that deforms when weight is applied.
The working principle of a load cell depends on the type of load cell, but generally involves the
following steps:

1. Deformation

When a force is applied to the load cell, the spring element or beam deforms slightly.

2. Strain gauge change

The deformation of the spring element or beam causes the shape of the strain gauges attached to it
to change.

3. Electrical signal

The change in the shape of the strain gauges is measured as a change in electrical signal.

b) Capacitive transducer .

The equationsbelow expressthe capacitance between the platesof a capacitor Where A – overlapping area of
platesin m2
d – the distance between two plates in
meter
ε – permittivity of the medium in F/m

εr – relative permittivity
ε0 – the permittivity of free space
The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the displacement, pressure and other physical
quantities. It is a passive transducer that means it requires external power for operation. The
capacitive transducer works on the principle of variable capacitances. The capacitance of the
capacitive transducer changes because of many reasons like overlapping of plates, change in
distance between the plates and dielectric constant.
The capacitive transducer contains two parallel metal plates. These plates are separated by the
dielectric medium which is either air, material, gas or liquid. In the normal capacitor the
distance between the plates are fixed, but in capacitive transducer the distance between them are
varied. As the distance between two plates is changes, value of capacitance is also changes.
The capacitive transducer uses the electrical quantity of capacitance for converting the mechanical
movement into an electrical signal. The input quantity causes the change of the capacitance which
is directly measured by the capacitive transducer.

c) I nductive tr ansducer – R VDT.

The design and construction of RVDT is similar to LVDT. The only difference is the shape of the
core in transformer windings. LVDT uses the soft iron core to measure the linear displacement
whereas RVDT uses the Cam-shaped core (Rotating core) for measuring the angular
displacement.
Case 1: W hen the core is at the Null position: When the core is at the null position then the
flux linkage with both the secondary windings will be the same. So the induced emf (Es1 and
Es2 ) in both the windings will be the same. Hence the Net differential output voltage E0= Es1
– Es2 will be zero (E0 = Es1 – Es2 = 0). It shows that no displacement of the core.
Case 2: W hen the core r otates in the clockwise dir ection: When the core of RVDT rotates in
the clockwise direction. Then, in this case, the flux linkage with S1 will be more as compared to
S2. This means the emf induced in S1 will be more than the induced emf in S2. Hence Es1 > Es2
and Net differential output voltage E0 = Es1 – Es2 will be positive. This means the output
voltage E0 will be in phase with the primary voltage.
Case 3: W hen the core r otates in the anti-clockwise direction: When the core of RVDT rotates
in the anti-clockwise direction. Then, in this case, the flux linkage with S2 will be more as
compared to S1. It means the emf induced in S2 will be more than the induced emf in S1. Hence
Es1 < Es2 and Net differential output voltage E0 = Es1 – Es2 will be negative. This means the
output voltage E0 will be in phase opposition (180 degrees out of phase) with the primary voltage.
Applications

➢ Throttle lever position feedback

➢ Reeler / Dereeler
➢ Fuel V alves as well as Hydraulic
➢ Modern machine tools

L VDT

W orking:-
An LV DT transducer comprises a coil former on to which three coils are wound.
The primary coil is excited with an AC current, and secondary coiil consist of two winding.

The excitation is applied to the primary winding and the armature assists the induction of
current in to secondary coils.
When the core is exactly at the center of the coil then the flux linked to both the secondary
winding will be equal. Due to equal flux linkage the secondary induced voltages (Vo1 &
Vo2) are equal but they have opposite polarities. Output voltage Vo is therefor e zer o.
This position is called ―null position‖
Now if the core is displaced from its null position toward sec1 then flux linked to sec1
increases and flux linked to sec2 decreases. Therefore Vo1 > V o2 and the output voltage
of LVDT Vo will be positive
Similarly if the core is displaced toward sec2 then the V o2 > Vo1 and the output voltage of
LVDT Vo will be negative

Applications
 1. LVDT used to measure force
2. LVDT used to measure strain
3. LVDT used to measure weight
4. LVDT used to measure tension
5. LVDT used to measure pressure

4.5 W or king of piezoelectr ic tr ansducer , classification, examples.

A piezoelectric transducer consists of quartz crystal which is made from silicon and oxygen
arranged in crystalline structure (SiO2).

When some mechanical pressure is applied across two faces of a quartz crystal, a voltage
proportional to the applied mechanical pressure appears across the crystal. Thus the potential
difference generated on the crystal due to its property.
Applied pressure causes change in physical dimension of crystal piece.

When a voltage is applied across the crystal surfaces, the crystal is distorted by an amount
proportional to the applied voltage. This phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect.

Application:

They are used in seismographs to measure vibrations in rockets.

In strain gauges to measure force, stress, vibrations etc
Used by automotive industries to measure detonations in engines.

4.6 Pr essure measur ement: Pressure and its units, types - Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric,
Vacuum.
Pressure is defined to be the amount of force exerted per area. P = F A So to create a large amount
of pressure, you can either exert a large force or exert a force over a small area (or do both).

• The following areunits of Pressure

Pascals (Pa or N/m2)—N stands for newton which is SI unit of pressure
Psi - Pounds per square inch (PSI)
Bar – 105 Pascals
mm Hg-millimeters of Mercury 1mm of Hg = 1 Torr
Torr – 133.32 Pa
cm H2O – 1 cmH2O = 98.068 Pa1.

➢ Atmospheric pr essure (Bar ometr ic Pr essure):-

It is defined as pressure exerted by the air surrounding to the earth .

➢ G auge pr essure
It is the pressure measured with the helpof pressur e measur ing instr ument’ in which atmospheric
temperature is taken as datum

➢ Absolute pr essure
It is defined as total pressure including atmospheric pressure acting on a surface area

Atmospher ic pr essure + G auge Pressure

➢ Vacuum pressur e
It is the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.

Atmospher ic pr essur e - G auge pressur e

4.7 Classification of Pr essure measur ing devices.

Classification of Pressure measuring devices

1) Non elastic Pr essure tr ansducer /manometer
U Tube manometer
Well type manometer
Inclined type manometer
Barometer
2) Elastic Pr essur e Transducer /Mechanical
Bourdon tube
Bellows
Diaphragms
Capsule
 3) Electr onics Pr essure Tr ansducer
Inductive type :Bourdon tube with LV DT
Diaphragms with Strain Gauge(Resistive)
Capacitive Pressure Transducer
Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer
4) Measur ement of vacuum
McLeod gauge
Thermal conductivity gauge
Pirani gauge
Thermocouple gauge

4.8 Method of pr essure measur ement-

Bourdon tube with LVDT as secondary transducer

The pressure measurement using bourdon tube and LVDT is shown in the figure.
In this, the bourdon tube act as primary transducer and LV DT which follows the output of bourdon
tube act as a secondary transducer.
The bourdon tube senses the pressure and converts it into a displacement.
The free end of bourdon tube shows this displacement.
A cord is used to connect the free end of bourdon tube to the core of LVDT as shown in figure.
When the free end shows the displacement, the core of LVDT also moves.
This movement of core is proportional to the displacement of free end, which is proportional to the
applied pressure.