1.

Popular methodology

 Approaches, methods, procedures, and techniques

 Approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the

nature of language teaching and learning. It is axiomatic. It
describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught.
 Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of
language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which
is based upon, the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic,
and a method is procedural. Within one approach, there can be
many methods.
 The originators of the method have arrived at decisions about
types of activities, roles of teachers and learners, the kinds of
material that will be helpful, and some models of syllabus
organization.
 Technique is implementational (được thực hiện)- that which
takes place in a classroom. It is a particular trick, stratagem, or
contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective.
Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in
harmony with an approach as well.
 Procedure is an ordered sequence of techniques (chuỗi theo trật
tự nào đó). For example, a popular dictation procedure starts
when students are put in small groups. Each group then sends
one representative to the front of the class to read (and
remember) the first line of a poem which has been placed on a
desk there. Each student then goes back to their respective group
and dictates that line. Each group then sends a second student up
to read the second line. The procedure continues until one group
has written the whole poem.

2.1. The Grammar-Translation Method

Principal characteristics:
• Analyze its grammar rules and apply this knowledge to the task of
translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language.
• Reading and writing are the major focus
  Words are taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study, and
memorization
• The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice
• Accuracy is emphasized
• Grammar is taught deductively (diễn dịch)
• The student's native language is the medium of instruction.

1.2. The Direct method

• Arrived at the end of 19th century
• Was the product of a reform movement that was reacting to the
restrictions of grammar-translation.

 Principles and procedures:

• Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.
Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
• Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression
organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and
students in small, intensive classes.
• Grammar was taught inductively. (quy nạp)
• New teaching points were introduced orally.
• Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and
pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
• Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
• Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.

 Drawbacks:

- It required teachers who were native speakers or who had nativelike

fluency in the foreign language

- Critics pointed out that strict adherence to Direct Method principles was
often counterproductive since teachers were required to go to great lengths to
avoid using the native tongue when sometimes a simple brief explanation in the
student's native tongue would have been a more efficient route to
comprehension.

1.3. Audiolingualism

• Theory of language:
 -Language was viewed as a system of structurally related elements for the
encoding of meaning, the elements being phonemes, morphemes, words,
structures, and sentence types.

-Foreign language learning is a process of mechanical habit formation (sự hình

thành thói quen không suy nghĩ)

-Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the
target language are presented in spoken form before they are seen in written
form

-Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis

-The meanings that the words of a language have for the native speaker can be
learned only in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation

• Objectives

- Short-range objectives: listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation,

recognition of speech symbols, and ability to reproduce these symbols in
writing.

- Long-range objectives "must be language as the native speaker uses"

• The syllabus: The language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking,
reading, and writing.

• Learner and teacher roles:

-Learners play a reactive role by responding to stimuli and thus have little
control over the content, pace, or style of learning.

-The teacher is central and active; the teacher-dominated method

• The role of instructional materials

Tape recorders and audiovisual equipment.

1.4. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) or Communicative

approach
• CLT is "like an extended family of different approaches.

• one of the things that CLT embraces within its family is the concept of how language
is used.
• A major strand of CLT centers around the essential belief that if students are
involved in meaning-focused communicative tasks, then 'language learning will take
care of itself.

• Activities in CLT typically involve students in real or realistic communication, where

the achievement of the communicative task they are performing is at least as important
as the accuracy of their language use. Thus, for example, role-play and simulation
(sự mô phỏng) (where students act out real communication in a classroom setting)
became very popular in CLT.

Approach

• Theory of language:

- starts from a theory of language as communication. The goal of language teaching is

to develop "communicative competence”.

- Communicative competence: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence,

discourse competence, and strategic competence. (Canale and Swain, 1980)

• Theory of learning: little has been written about learning theory.

 Design

• Types of learning and teaching activities:

- functional communication activities: comparing sets of pictures and noting

similarities and differences; working out a likely sequence of events in a set of
pictures; discovering missing features in a map or picture, solving problems from
shared clues.

- Social interaction activities include conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues

and role plays, skits, improvisations, and debates.

 Characteristic features:

- systematic attention is paid to functional as well as structural aspects of language.

- CLT is learner-centered.

Learner and teacher roles:

-Learner: negotiator

-Teacher:

• facilitate the communication process

• act as an independent participant

• Other roles assumed for teachers are needs analyst, counselor, and group process
manager

Criticisms about CLT

• Insufficient focus on explicit grammar instruction: CLT places a strong emphasis on

communication and meaningful language use, which sometimes results in less explicit
instruction on grammar rules and structures.

• Limited attention to accuracy: CLT prioritizes fluency and communication over accuracy,
which means that errors are tolerated to some extent to promote natural and spontaneous
language production.

• Teacher's role and expertise: CLT requires teachers to act as facilitators and create
opportunities for communication rather than being the primary source of language input.
Critics argue that this places a heavy burden on teachers to design and manage
communicative activities effectively, requiring a high level of expertise and experience.

1.5. Task-based learning (TBL)

• Task-based learning or TBL is sometimes referred to as task-based instruction

(TBI) or task-based language teaching (TBLT). It is, according to David Nunan,
the realization of CLT philosophy

• Task-based learning makes the performance of meaningful tasks central to the

learning process. (Việc thực hiện các nhiệm vụ là trung tâm của quá trình.)

The Willis TBL Framework

• The Pre-task stage: The teacher explores the topic with the class and may
highlight useful words and phrases, helping the students to understand the task
instructions. The students may hear a recording of other people doing the same
task.

• The Task cycle stage: The students perform the task in pairs or small groups
while the teacher monitors from a distance. The students plan how they will tell
the rest of the class what they did and how it went, and they then report on the
task, either orally or in writing, and/or compare notes on what has happened.

• The Language focus stage: The students examine and discuss specific features
of any listening or reading text that they have looked at for the task and/or the
teacher may conduct some form of practice of specific language features that the
task has provoked and offer 'offline correction.
 1.6. Presentation, practice, and production (PPP)
• T presents an item of language in a clear context to get across (get it) its
meaning (through a text, a situation, a dialogue, etc.)
• Students are then asked to complete a controlled practice stage, where they
may have to repeat target items through choral and individual drilling, fill gaps,
or match halves of sentences
• Students are given a communication task such as a role-play and are expected
to produce the target language and use any other language that has already
been learned and is suitable for completing
1.7. Total Physical Response (TPR)

 TPR can be used to teach and practice many things.

 Vocabulary connected with physical actions (smile, chop, headache,

wriggle)
 Tenses past/present/future and continuous aspects (Every morning I clean
my teeth, I make my bed, I eat breakfast)
 Classroom language (Open your books)
 Imperatives/Instructions (Stand up, close your eyes)
 Storytelling

 Some advantages:

 It is a lot of fun, students enjoy it and it can be a real stirrer in the class. It
lifts the pace and the mood.
 It is very memorable. It helps students to remember phrases or words.
 It is good for kinaesthetic learners who need to be active in the class.
 It can be used in large or small classes. It doesn't matter how many students
you have as long as you are prepared to take the lead, the students will
follow.
 It works well with mixed-ability classes. The physical actions get across the
meaning effectively so that all the students can understand and use the target
language.
 It doesn't require a lot of preparation or materials. As long as you are clear
about what you want to practice (a rehearsal beforehand can help), it won't
take a lot of time to get ready.
 It is very effective with teenagers and young learners.
 It involves both left- and right-brained learning.

 Some disadvantages:

 Students who are not used to such things might find it embarrassing. This
can be the case initially but I have found that if the teacher is prepared to
perform the actions, the students feel happier about copying. Also, the
 students are in groups and don't have to perform for the whole class. This
pleasure is reserved for the teacher.
 It is only suitable for beginner levels.
 While it is clear that it is far more useful at lower levels because the target
language lends itself to such activities I have also used it successfully with
Intermediate and Advanced levels. You need to adapt the language
accordingly.
 You can't teach everything with it and if used a lot it would become
repetitive. I completely agree with this but it can be a successful and fun way
of changing the dynamics and pace of a lesson used in conjunction with
other methods and techniques.

1.8. The lexical approach

- "The Lexical Approach implies a decreased role for sentence grammar, at least
until post-intermediate levels. In contrast, it involves an increased role for word
grammar (collocation and cognates) and text grammar."

- An understanding of words and word combinations (chunks) is the primary

method of learning a language.

- The idea is that, rather than have students memorize lists of vocabulary, they
would learn commonly used phrases.

 Benefits:

- Early emphasis on receptive skills, especially listening, is essential.

- De-contextualized vocabulary learning is a fully legitimate strategy.

- The role of grammar as a receptive skill must be recognized.

- The importance of contrast in language awareness must be recognized.

- Teachers should employ extensive, comprehensible language for receptive purposes.

- Extensive writing should be delayed as long as possible.

- Nonlinear recording formats (e.g., mind maps, word trees) are intrinsic to the Lexical
Approach.

- Reformulation should be the natural response to student error.

- Teachers should always react primarily to the content of student language.

Limitation: While the lexical approach can be a quick way for students to pick
up phrases, it doesn't foster much creativity. It can have the negative side effect of
limiting people's responses to safe fixed phrases
Manage classroom
1. Using the voice

-Variety

+Teachers need to be audible

+ Teachers do not have to shout to be audible. Good voice projection is more important than
volume (though the two are, of course, connected). Speaking too softly or unpleasantly loudly
is both irritating and unhelpful for students.

+ In one particular situation, teachers often use very loud voices, and that is when they want
students to be quiet or stop doing something

+ It is worth pointing out that speaking quietly is often just as effective a way of getting the
student’s attention since, when they realize that you are talking, they will want to stop and
listen in case you are saying something important or interesting.

-Conservation

 breathe correctly so that they don’t strain their larynxes

 vary their voices throughout the day, avoiding shouting wherever possible, so that they
can conserve their vocal energy

2. Talking to students

 rough- tune their language. Be aware of 3 things

-> Consider the kind of language that students are likely to understand.

-> Think about what to say to the students and how best to do it

-> Consider the manner (in terms of intonation, tone of voice)

+ To be successful at rough-tuning, all we have to do is speak at a level that is more or less

appropriate

+ use physical movements and gestures such as shrugging the shoulders for “who cares’ or
scratching the head to show puzzlement.

+ Many teachers also use gestures to demonstrate things like the past tense (pointing back
over their shoulders)

+ They use facial expressions to show emotions such as happiness and sadness

+ They mime to demonstrate (diễn đạt bằng hành động) actions such as opening a book or
filling a glass and drinking. Gesture, expression, and mime should become a natural adjunct to
the language we use, especially with students at lower levels.
3. Giving instruction

 attract the students’ attention

 use simple language and short expressions

 be consistent

 use visual or written clues

 demonstrate

 break the instructions down

 target your instruction

 be decisive

- It is important to check that the students have understood what they are being asked to do.
This can be achieved by:

 asking a student to explain the activity after the teacher has given the instruction

 getting someone to show the other people in class how the exercise works

 Ask a student to translate the instructions into their mother tongue a check that they
have understood them.

4. Student talk and teacher talk

+TTT (Teacher Talking Time)

+STT (Student Talking Time)

+ Overuse of TTT is inappropriate because the more a teacher talks, the less chance there is
for the students to practice their speaking and other things such as reading and writing

+ A good teacher maximizes STT and minimizes TTT

-Good TTT may have beneficial qualities

 If teachers know how to talk to students, if they know how to rough-tune their
language to the student’s level, then the students get a chance to hear language that is
certainly above their productive level, but which they can more or less understand.
Such comprehensive input- where students receive rough-tuned input in a relaxed and
unthreatening way- is an important feature in language acquisition

 TTQ (Teacher Talking Quality)

 engage students with stories and interaction, using appropriate comprehensible input
will help them to understand and acquire the language

 good teachers use their common sense and experience to get the balance right.
5. Using the L1

The potential value of using L1:

 Once we have given instructions for an activity, we can ask students to repeat the
instructions back to us in the L1

 When we have complicated instructions to explain, we may want to do this in the L1

 where students need individual help or encouragement, the use of the L1 may have
very beneficial effects.

 Using the students’ L1 may help them to see connections and differences between the
L1 and the L2 and, occasionally, the teacher’s use of the L1 may help them to
understand things that they are finding difficult to grasp.

 Making use of the students’ L1 does not mean we should abandon the commitment to
creating an English environment. Although we have seen that the L1 can be used as an
enabling tool, English should predominate in an English lesson, especially where the
teacher is concerned since, as we have seen, he or she is the best provider of
comprehensible input that the students have got.

What if students keep using their language

- Talk to them about the issues

Teachers should try to get their students' agreement that overuse of their own language
means that they will have less chance to learn English

- Encourage them to use English appropriately

- Only respond to English use

Teachers can make it clear by their behavior that they want to hear English. They can ignore
what students say in their own language.

- Create an English environment

- Keep reminding them

6. Creating lesson stages

-starting a lesson: a clear start to the lesson is necessary

 Tapping chalk or pen on the desk audibly

 Clapping your hands

 Closing the door

 Saying Right, Ok, or something similar.

 Scanning the whole class will also help to focus everyone's attention on you.
- when an activity has finished and/or another one is about to start, it helps if teachers make
this clear through the way they behave and the things they say. It helps students if they are
made aware of the end of something and the beginning of what is coming next.

- For such changes of direction to be effective, the teacher first needs to get the students'
attention.

 clap their hands

 speak loudly, saying things like, 'Thank you… now can I have your attention,
please?'

 speak quietly in order to force the students to listen to them

 raise his or her hand

- Finishing the lesson

 making the finishing point clear

 summarizing and evaluating

 farewells and socializing

7.1. Whole class teaching

Advantages of whole-class grouping

 It reinforces a sense of belonging among the group members, something that we as

teachers need to foster

 It is suitable for activities where the teacher is acting as a controller, good for giving
explanations and instructions, presenting material

 It allows teachers to 'gauge the mood' of the class in general

 It is the preferred class style in many educational settings where students and teachers
feel secure when the whole class is working in lockstep and under the direct authority
of the teacher

Disadvantages of whole-class grouping:

 It favors the group rather than the individual. Everyone is forced to do the same thing
at the same time and the same pace.

 Individual students do not have much of a chance to say anything on their own.

 Many students are disinclined (dislike) to participate in front of the whole class since
to do so brings with it the risk of public failure.

-It may not encourage students to take responsibility for their learning. Whole-class teaching
favours the transmission of knowledge from teacher to student rather than having students
discover things or research things for themselves.
-It is not the best way to organize communicative language teaching or specifically task-based
sequences. Communication between individuals is more difficult in a group of 20/30 than it is
in groups of four or five. In smaller groups, it is easier to share material, speak quietly and
less formally, and make good eye contact. All of these contribute to successful task resolution.

Orderly rows (xếp theo hàng ngang truyền thống)

 The teacher has a clear view of all the students and the students can all see the teacher.

 Lecturing is easier

 Orderly rows allow the teacher to work with the whole class

 Some activities are especially suited to orderly rows: explaining a grammar point,
watching a video/ DVD or a PowerPoint (or other computer-based) presentation, or
using the board or an overhead projector.

 especially appropriate for smaller groups (fewer than 20 students)

 In a horseshoe, the teacher will probably be at the open end of the arrangement

 In a circle, the teacher's position - where the board is situated - is less dominating.

 With horseshoe and circle seating, the classroom is a more intimate place, and the
potential for students to share feelings and information through talking, eye contact, or
expressive body movements (eyebrow-raising, shoulder-shrugging, etc.) is far greater
than when they are sitting in rows.

Separate tables

 In some classrooms students sit in groups at separate tables, whether they are working
as a whole class, in groups or pairs.

 Separate tables are more difficult to 'teach to' in whole-group activities, depending, of
course, on the size of the room and the group.

7.2. STUDENTS ON THEIR OWN

Advantages of individualised learning:

 It allows teachers to respond to individual student differences in terms of pace of

learning, learning styles, and preferences

 It is likely to be less stressful for students than performing in a whole-class setting or

talking in pairs or groups.
  It can develop learner autonomy and promote skills of self-reliance and investigation
over teacher-dependence.

 It can be a way of restoring peace and tranquility to a noisy and chaotic classroom.

Disadvantages of individualised learning:

 It does not help a class develop a sense of belonging. It does not encourage
cooperation in which students may be able to help and motivate each other.

 When combined with giving individual students different tasks, it means a great deal
more thought and materials preparation than whole-class teaching involves. When we
work with individual students as a tutor or resources, it takes much more time than
interacting with the whole class.

7.3. PAIR WORK

Advantages

 increases the amount of student speaking time

 allows students to work and interact independently, thus promoting learner

independence.

 allows teachers time to work with one or two pairs while the other students continue
working.

 promotes cooperation, helps the classroom to become a more relaxed and friendly
place, and allows Ss to share responsibility.

 relatively quick and easy to organize.

Disadvantages

 frequently very noisy

 Students in pairs can often veer away from the point of an exercise; chances of
misbehavior are greater (distraction)

 not always popular with students, many of whom feel they would rather relate to the
teacher as individuals than interact with another learner who may be just as
linguistically weak as they are.

 choice of paired partner can be problematic, especially if students frequently find

themselves working with someone they are not keen on.