Module 5- Computer

Network
 Computer Network
Computer networking refers to interconnected computing devices that can
exchange data and share resources with each other. These networked devices
use a system of rules, called communications protocols, to transmit information
over physical or wireless technologies.
How does a computer network work?
● Nodes and links are the basic building blocks in computer networking. A
network node may be data communication equipment (DCE) such as a
modem, hub or, switch, or data terminal equipment (DTE) such as two or
more computers and printers. A link refers to the transmission media
connecting two nodes. Links may be physical, like cable wires or optical
fibers, or free space used by wireless networks.
● In a working computer network, nodes follow a set of rules or protocols that
define how to send and receive electronic data via the links. The computer
network architecture defines the design of these physical and logical
components. It provides the specifications for the network’s physical
components, functional organization, protocols, and procedures.
What do computer networks do?
● Computer networks were first created in the late 1950s for use in the military
and defense. They were initially used to transmit data over telephone lines
and had limited commercial and scientific applications. With the advent of
internet technologies, a computer network has become indispensable for
enterprises.
● Modern-day network solutions deliver more than connectivity. They are critical
for the digital transformation and success of businesses today. Underlying
network capabilities have become more programmable, automated, and
secure.
What do computer networks do?
Modern computer networks can:

Operate virtually

The underlying physical network infrastructure can be logically partitioned to create multiple "overlay" networks. In an overlay computer network,
the nodes are virtually linked, and data can be transmitted between them through multiple physical paths. For example, many enterprise networks are
overlaid on the internet.

Integrate on a large scale

Modern networking services connect physically distributed computer networks. These services can optimize network functions through automation
and monitoring to create one large-scale, high-performance network. Network services can be scaled up or down based on demand.

Respond quickly to changing conditions

Many computer networks are software-defined. Traffic can be routed and controlled centrally using a digital interface. These computer networks
support virtual traffic management.

Provide data security

All networking solutions come with in-built security features like encryption and access control. Third-party solutions like antivirus software,
What are the types of computer network architecture?
Computer network design falls under two broad categories:

1. Client-server architecture

In this type of computer network, nodes may be servers or clients. Server nodes provide resources like
memory, processing power, or data to client nodes. Server nodes may also manage client node behavior.
Clients may communicate with each other, but they do not share resources. For example, some computer
devices in enterprise networks store data and configuration settings. These devices are the servers in the
network. Clients may access this data by making a request to the server machine.

2. Peer-to-peer architecture

In Peer-to-Peer (P2P) architecture, connected computers have equal powers and privileges. There is no
central server for coordination. Each device in the computer network can act as either client or server.
Each peer may share some of its resources, like memory and processing power, with the entire computer
network. For example, some companies use P2P architecture to host memory-consuming applications,
such as 3-D graphic rendering, across multiple digital devices.
What is network topology?
The arrangement of nodes and links is called network topology. They can be configured in different ways to get different outcomes.
Some types of network topologies are:

Mesh Topology:
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In Mesh Topology, the
protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.
Star Topology:
In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node and all
other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such
as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have
repeaters in them. Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many
popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a single cable. It
transmits the data from one end to another in a single direction. No bi-directional feature is in bus topology. It is a
multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus
Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA,
Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.
Ring Topology:
In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices.
A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone wants to
send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99
nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e.., it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is
used by the workstations to transmit the data.
Tree Topology :
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology,
SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) protocols like DHCP and SAC are used.
Hybrid Topology :
This topology technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied above. It is
used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or
can be a combination of various types of topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that
has been discussed earlier.
Types of area networks

The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different computers via any medium. LAN,
MAN, and WAN are the three major types of networks designed to operate over the area they cover. There are
some similarities and dissimilarities between them. One of the major differences is the geographical area they
cover, i.e. LAN covers the smallest area; MAN covers an area larger than LAN and WAN comprises the largest of
all.

Local Area Network (LAN) –

LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal computers and workstations
can share data, tools, and programs. The group of computers and devices are connected together by a switch, or
stack of switches, using a private addressing scheme as defined by the TCP/IP protocol. Private addresses are
unique in relation to other computers on the local network. Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN,
connecting them to the larger WAN.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –
MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN and smaller area as compared to
WAN. It connects two or more computers that are apart but reside in the same or different cities. It covers a large
geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need
high-speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN range in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan
Area Network.
Wide Area Network (WAN) –
WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical area, although it might
be confined within the bounds of a state or country. A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting to other
LANs via telephone lines and radio waves and may be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization)
or accessible to the public. The technology is high speed and relatively expensive.
Wired/Wireless Networking
On basis of physical medium, there are 2 types of networks:
(a) Wired Network: As we all know, “wired” refers to any physical medium made up of cables. Copper wire,
twisted pair, or fiber optic cables are all options. A wired network employs wires to link devices to the Internet or
another network, such as laptops or desktop PCs.
(b) Wireless Network: “Wireless” means without wire, media that is made up of electromagnetic waves (EM
Waves) or infrared waves. Antennas or sensors will be present on all wireless devices. Cellular phones, wireless
sensors, TV remotes, satellite disc receivers, and laptops with WLAN cards are all examples of wireless devices.
For data or voice communication, a wireless network uses radiofrequency waves rather than wires.
Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together. One of
these wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as ground reference. In addition to the signal sent
by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.

Twisted Pair is of two types:

• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

There are three common types of bounded media in the data transmission. They are

• Twisted-Pair Cable,

• Coaxial Cable, and

• Fibre-Optic Cable.

Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of
electric current. Optical fibre is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm thick). The wires are twisted together in a helical form to reduce electrical interference from similar
pair. Identification is the reason behind coloured plastic insulation.

Advantages

• It has high speed capacity.

• Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.

Disadvantages

• Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable.

• Provides less protection from interference.

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh. Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding also
eliminates crosstalk. It is faster than unshielded and coaxial cable.

Advantages
• It can be used for Analog or Digital transmission

• It increases the signalling rate.

• It eliminates crosstalk.

Disadvantages

• It is difficult to manufacture
Coaxial Cable

● Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other.
● Copper is used in this as a central conductor. It is surrounded by PVC installation.
● Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as a second conductor which completes the
circuit.
● The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The outermost part is the plastic cover which
protects the whole cable.
Advantages

• It is used in long distance telephone lines.

• It transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.

It has higher noise immunity.

• It transmits data without distortion.

• The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when compared to twisted pair
cable

Disadvantages

• Single cable failure can fail the entire network.

• If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop

Fiber Optical Cable

A fibre-optical cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. In fibre optical cable, light
moves only in one direction. For two way communication to take place a second communication must be made
between the two devices. Optical fibres use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is
surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the two materials must be such
that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it.
Fiber Optical Cable

Advantages

Fibre optic has several advantages over metallic cable:

• It is resistant to corrosion.

• It shows greater immunity to tapping.

Disadvantages

• It has unidirectional light propagation.

 Types of Wireless Communication Technologies

The devices used for wireless communication are cordless telephones, mobiles, GPS units, wireless computer parts, and satellite
television.

Bluetooth

It is named after a Danish king named Harald Bluetooth. Bluetooth is used to connect different electronic devices wirelessly to
a system for transferring and sharing data. Cell phones are connected to hands-free earpieces, wireless keyboard, mouse and
mike to laptops with the help of Bluetooth as it transmits information from one device to other device.

Infrared

Infrared technology is a type of wireless communication technology to transfer data between two infrared enabled devices
through infrared radiation. This technology plays very important role in wireless data communication. Infrared is used in
devices such as the mouse, wireless keyboard and printers.Unlike Wi-Fi and Bluetooth technologies, infrared network signals
cannot penetrate walls or other obstructions and work only with a direct line of sight.
Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi is a low-cost wireless communication technology. A WiFi setup consists of a wireless router which serves a
communication hub, linking portable device with an internet connection. This network facilitates connection of many
devices depending on the router configuration. These networks are limited in range due to the low power
transmission, allowing the user to connect only in the close proximity.
Radio link

• A radio link is a wireless connection (also called wireless Point-to-Point connection) between two nodes, or radio units, in a data network.

• Each radio unit consists of a transceiver (a device that can both send and receive communication) and a highly directive antenna. The
antenna only emits or receives power in the direction it is pointing.

The two radio units are mounted and are directed towards each other with no obstacles, such as buildings, in between them that can hinder
or disturb the transmission.

• As the connection is very directive it enables very high signal to noise ratio and thereby high data rates.

• The primary downside is that radio links require direct so called line-of-sight for optimum performance. Compared to fibre the
connection is less stable as bad weather can interrupt the connection, in particular at higher frequencies.
Microwave Link

• Microwave is a line-of-sight wireless communication technology that uses high frequency beams of radio waves to provide
high speed wireless connections that can send and receive voice, video and data information.

• One of the reasons microwave links are so adaptable is that they are broadband.

• They require no equipment or facilities between the two terminal points, so installing a microwave link is often faster and
less costly than a cable connection.

• Microwaves are also able to penetrate rain, fog and snow, which means bad weather doesn’t disrupt transmission.
Satellite link

• Satellite communication is one of the wireless technologies, used to transfer the signals from the transmitter to a receiver with the help of satellites.

• It is widely spread all over the world allowing users to stay connected virtually anywhere on the Earth.

• The Satellites used in this mode of communication, communicate directly

with the orbiting satellites via radio signals.

• The process of satellite communication begins at an earth station. Here an installation is designed to transmit and receive signals from a satellite in
orbit around the earth.

• The transmission system from the earth station to the satellite through a channel is called the uplink. The system from the satellite to the earth station
through the channel is called the downlink.
Pervasive Computing
● An emerging trend associated with emerging trend associated with
embedding microprocessors in day to day objects, allowing them to
communicate information.
● It is also called as ubiquitous computing and it signifies “existing
everywhere”, they are totally available and consistently connected.
Cloud Computing

A physical site called a data center houses a common pool of computer resources (such as hardware, software,
and services like servers and internet storage). Your cloud service providers have data centers all around the
world.
Cloud computing is a methodology for providing on-demand network access to a shared pool of programmable
computing resources that can be quickly supplied and released with no administration effort or service provider
contact.
Cloud computing is an internet-based computing model in which several network connections and computer
systems are used to provide online services. Users at a distance who have access to the internet can readily
access the cloud and its services, and these services and information can be shared among several computers
and users if they are all linked.
Types of Clouds

The four types of access to the cloud are public, private, hybrid, and community:
(a) Public Cloud: The public cloud makes it possible for anybody to access systems and services. Because of its
openness, the public cloud may be less secure. The public cloud is one in which cloud infrastructure services are
made available through the internet to the public or large industrial groups. The infrastructure in this cloud model is
owned by the company that delivers the cloud service, not by the consumer.
Example: Microsoft Azure, Google App Engine
(b) Private Cloud: A private cloud is one in which cloud infrastructure is set aside for a single organization’s
exclusive use. Organizations, third parties, or a mixture of both own, manage and operate it. In this architecture,
the cloud infrastructure is provisioned on the organization’s premises but hosted in a third-party data center.
Organizations will benefit from the private cloud over public cloud since it gives them more flexibility and control
over cloud resources. Example: E-bay
Types of Clouds

(c) Hybrid Cloud: Hybrid cloud, as the name implies, is a blend of different cloud models, such as public cloud,
private cloud, and community cloud. This model utilizes all the models that are a component of it. As a result, it will
combine scalability, economic efficiency, and data security into a single model. The complexity of creating such a
storage solution is a downside of this strategy.
(d) Community Cloud: The community cloud model distributes cloud infrastructure among numerous
organizations to support a specific community with shared issues. Cloud infrastructure is delivered on-premises or
at a third-party data center in this manner. Participating organizations or a third party manage this.