CULTURAL CONCEPT

Culture refers to the shared values, beliefs, customs, behaviours, and artifacts that characterize a
group or society. It encompasses the way people live, including their language, religion, cuisine,
social habits, music, and arts. Culture is learned and transmitted through generations, shaping a
community’s identity and influencing their worldview.

Key aspects of culture:

1. Beliefs and Values: Core ideas about what is right or wrong, important or trivial. For
example, the belief in individual freedom in Western societies or the emphasis on
community and family in many Eastern cultures.
2. Customs and Traditions: Practices passed down over time, such as holidays, rituals, and
social norms. For instance, celebrating Diwali in India or Thanksgiving in the United
States.
3. Language: The means of communication, reflecting and shaping cultural identity. For
example, French culture is closely tied to the French language.
4. Arts and Literature: Creative expressions like music, dance, and literature. For instance,
the traditional Indian dance form Odissi is part of Indian culture, while jazz is part of
American culture.
5. Social Norms and Practices: Accepted behaviours, such as greeting practices, dress codes,
or table manners. For example, bowing as a sign of respect in Japan or shaking hands in
the West.

Examples:

Indian culture: Includes practices like touching the feet of elders, celebrating festivals like Holi
and Diwali, and having a deep respect for spirituality and family.

American culture: Emphasizes individualism, freedom, and innovation, with customs like
celebrating Independence Day and widespread use of fast food.

Culture shapes how individuals see the world and interact with one another, playing a crucial role
in building communities.

An artifact refers to any object made or used by humans, typically of historical or cultural
significance. Artifacts are tangible items that provide insights into the daily lives, customs, and
technologies of past or present societies. They help researchers and historians understand how
people lived, what they valued, and how their cultures evolved.

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Examples of artifacts:

Ancient pottery from an archaeological site, which can reveal details about the diet and daily
activities of a civilization.

Tools or weapons, such as stone tools used by early humans, providing evidence of technological
advancement.

Cultural artifacts, like religious symbols, traditional clothing, or artwork, reflecting a society’s
beliefs and artistic expressions.

In a broader sense, an artifact can also refer to anything produced by human activity, whether
physical objects, technologies, or even digital data.

Cuisine refers to a style or method of cooking that is characteristic of a particular country, region,
or culture. It includes the ingredients, techniques, and dishes specific to that area or tradition.

Examples:

Italian cuisine: Known for pasta, pizza, and olive oil-based dishes.

Indian cuisine: Rich in spices, with dishes like curry, biryani, and naan bread.

Japanese cuisine: Famous for sushi, ramen, and tempura.

Cuisine reflects the history, geography, and cultural practices of a region.

Culture: Definition
According to Tylor (1924) culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,
morals, law, custom, and other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.

Graham Wallas: Culture is an accumulation of thoughts, values and objects; it is the social heritage
acquired by us from preceding generation through learning.

Geert Hofstede (1980): Culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the
members of one group or category of people from another.

Material culture and Non-material Culture

Material culture consists of manmade objects such as house, tools, implements, food, clothing,
technology and other material items. It is referred to as civilization.

Non-material culture consists of the words the people use, the language they speak, the beliefs,
values they cherish, habits, rituals, ceremonies people follow or observe.

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Characteristics of Culture
1. Culture is learned: Culture is learned through the process of socialization.

2. Culture is transmitted: Culture is transmitted from generation to generation

3. Culture is diverse: It varies from society to society of country to country.

4. Culture is universal as well as unique: It is found in all societies with its own specific cultural
pattern.

5. Culture is shared: customs, traditions, values, morals etc. are all shared by people in the society.

6. Culture is static as well as dynamic Culture has permanence but it changes over time. We find a
gradual modification or growth in the present Indian culture when we compare it with the culture
of the vedic times.

7. Culture gives satisfaction. It is defined as the process through which human beings satisfy their
wants.

Cultural Change and Cultural Lag

According to Kingsley Davis, the cultural change includes all changes occurring in any branch
of culture including science and technology, art, philosophy, etc. as well as changes in the forms
and rules of social organisation

According to Dressler and Carms, “cultural change is the modification or discontinuance of

existing ‘tried’ and ‘tested’ procedures transmitted to us from the culture of the past as well as
introduction of new procedures”.
Cultural change is basic to extension, as through extension efforts we seek to introduce changes in
the behaviour of the people.
Example: Adoption of Mould board plough replacing country plough, culture change takes place
through (a) discovery and invention and by (b) diffusion and borrowing.

Cultural lags occur when some parts of the people’s culture do not change at the same rate as do
other parts.

Example: When people have increased production through adoption of new technology, but have
failed to create value addition of the produce for more profit.

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Intangible Cultural Heritage
Tangible: Something that is physical and can be touched or seen (e.g., a book, a building).

Intangible: Something that cannot be touched or physically measured, often related to emotions,
ideas, or qualities (e.g., love, knowledge, culture).

According to United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)

intangible cultural heritage includes oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals and
festivals, knowledge and practices concerning nature. UNESCO's convention for safeguarding of
Intangible Cultural Heritage was adopted and ratified by 157 countries.
On December 4, 2013, the intergovernmental committee under UNESCO held a meeting at Baku
enlisted "Manipuri's Sankirtan" and Bangladesh’s “Traditional art of Jamdani Weaving" are
declared intangible cultural heritage of humanity.

Sankirtana of Manipur which narrates the lives and deeds of Lord Krishna is included in the
National Inventory by India's Sangeet Natak Academy. The Academy’s archives hold
approximately 40 hours of video of Sankirtana performances including 25 solo performance and
18 group performances, audio etc. Sankirtan is practiced primarily by the Vaishnava community
of Manipur. The theology (the study of the nature of God and religious belief.) and lore (a body of
traditions and knowledge on a subject or held by a particular group, typically passed from person
to person by word of mouth.) of Krishna is central to the performances.

Importance of Culture
Man cannot survive as man without culture. It is essential for man's social life. Culture has been
fulfilling a number of functions.

These are presented following Shankar Rao (2012):

1. Culture provides knowledge which is essential for the physical, social and intellectual existence
of man. Culture preserves knowledge and helps in transmission from generation to generation.

2. Culture defines attitude, values and goals. Various issues such as our religion, marriage, family
planning etc. are conditioned by culture. Our values concerning private properties, fundamental
rights, etc. are influenced by our culture.

3. Culture directs and confines the behaviour of an individual. It rewards his noble works and
punishes the ignorable ones.

4. Culture exercises a great, influence on the development of personality. No child can develop
human qualities in the absence of cultural environment.

5. Culture defines social situation and living condition. It determines our food habit, dress code,
behaviour pattern and other aspects in daily life.

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6. Culture also plays an important role in agriculture. Farming activities are also controlled by the
culture in rural area.

SOCIAL CONTROL
Social control refers to the control of society over the individual. Social control implies a system
of device through which society controls the activities of individual members. According to
Ogburn and Nimkoff, social control refers to the patterns of pressure which a society exerts to
maintain order and established rules.

Formal and Informal Control

The State enacts law, legislation, military force, police force, administrative devices for the
purpose of social control. Different political, religious and other associations or institutions,
institute control over the behviour of the members. These are called formal control. It is
deliberately created. Punishment is given for violators of formal control.

Informal control includes public opinion, sense of justice, customs, folkways, mores, religion,
morality and such other agents. These are deep rooted people's practice. No specific punishment
would be given to the violators of informal control. Informal control is more effective in primary
social groups such as family, neighbourhood, tribe, rural community.

Agencies of Social Control

Customs

Customs represent a kind of informal social control. According to Maclver and Page, 'the socially
accredited ways of acting are the customs of society'. It regulates man's entire action his dressing,
eating, speaking, working, celebrating festivals etc. all are controlled by customs. Man learns
customs from his very childhood and continuously obeys them. Customs are rarely opposed by
people. These are more influential and dominant in the primitive society than in the modern
society.

Customs and habits are closely related. Custom is a social phenomenon and socially recognized.
Habit is an individual phenomenon and learnt individually.

Folkways

'Folk' means people and 'ways' refers to their behavioural habits. The word means literally "the
ways of the folk".

Folkways refer to the repetitive petty acts of the people. These are the approved forms of behaviour
in specific situation. Folkways usually arise without prior intension in the process of living.

Example: If black cat crosses the road when a man goes out, he will not move further presuming
that he may meet with an accident. Greeting others with folded hands, or shaking hands or saying
hello, when answering the phone are examples folkways.
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Folkways are not as compulsive and obligatory as laws or morals. Violations of folkways are not
punished by formal means. But violators are put to gossip, slander (make false and damaging
statements about someone) and ridicule.

Mores

Mores (singular more) are the pattern of behaviour considered essential by society. Mores are
positive actions that ought to be done.

Example Saluting the flag, standing during the national anthem. Mores deals with the moral aspect.
They are morally right and their violation morally wrong. A prohibition against pork is important
mores of Muslim society.
The difference between folkways and mores is largely a matter of degree to which they are
enforced. Folkways may be violated without punishment but if the mores are violated, the
individual or group may be divided or disturbed and even punished. Mores, of course, are much
more compulsive than folkways. They are not norms but rather guide for behaviour.

Social importance or functions of Customs, Folkways and Mores

Customs, folkways and mores represent different kinds of social norms. Customs give guidance
for people in every activity. It can enlighten man in his social life. Customs are basic to collective
life. They are more influential and dominant in primitive society than in the modern society.
Customs are rarely opposed.

The folkways are the foundation of every culture. It reduces our mental strain and nervous tension.
Human infants learn the folkway through the elders. Folkways contribute to the order and stability
of social relations.
Mores always exert (force or influence) direct pressure on our behaviour. They mould our character
and restrain our tendencies. More brings the people together to form into a cohesive group. Mores
are the guardians of social solidarity

Taboos

Negative mores prescribe behaviour pattern. They are called 'taboos'. Taboos are negative actions
that ought not and should not be done. They put severe restrictions on one's behaviour pattern.

Example:

In Odisha, as in many other regions, there are several cultural and social taboos based on tradition,
religion, and social norms. Some examples include:

1. Menstruation taboos: Women are traditionally not allowed to enter temples or participate
in religious rituals during menstruation, as it is considered impure.

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 2. Eating certain foods during religious periods: Non-vegetarian food, including fish and
meat, is avoided during festivals like Kartika Purnima or in sacred months such as
Margashira.
3. Widow remarriage: Although changing slowly, traditionally, widow remarriage was
frowned upon, especially in rural areas of Odisha.
4. Touching a cow with shoes on: It is considered disrespectful to touch cows, which are
revered in Hinduism, while wearing shoes.

These taboos are rooted in local culture and are changing with time, especially in urban areas.

Rituals

Rituals are the religious means by which the purity of the individual and the social life becomes
guaranteed. A ritual is prescribed whenever the individual or the social group initiates an activity
and it is repeated.

Example:

Before an individual Brahmin start consuming food in the dish, he is required to draw a circle
round the dish and apportion (share) some grains of cooked rice to the God. Besides, there are
rituals, relating to birth, marriage, or death and even rituals before agricultural operations.

Rituals are the pattern of behaviour or ceremony which has become the customary way of dealing
with certain situations, or is the pattern that has been established by law. Rituals are periodically
or repeatedly performed.
Example: Performing the marriage ceremony, death and funeral ceremony.

Examples in Odisha:

Here are some examples of prominent rituals in Odisha:

Rath Yatra, Chhau Dance, Pinda Daan at Puri, Manabasa Gurubar and Nuakhai etc.

These rituals reflect Odisha’s deep cultural and religious traditions.

Sanctions

Sanctions refer to the reward or punishments used to establish social control. The basic purpose of
sanction is to establish socially acceptable behaviour of group, community or larger society.
Sanctions are applied in various ways. They may be positive or negative. Positive sanction includes
verbal method such as praise, flattery, giving rewards, medals, titles etc. Negative sanction includes
gossip, slander, threats, commands, censorship, satire etc.

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Tradition

Tradition is a belief, principle or way of acting which people in a particular society or groups have
continued to follow for a long time.

Example:

Reading "The Ramayana" or "The Mahabharat" in the evening by the member of a family
generation after generation is a tradition of the family.

In Odisha, traditions like celebrating Raja festival, where girls and women enjoy swings and
celebrate womanhood, Pakhala Bhata Day, honoring the local dish of fermented rice, and Bali
Jatra, a festival commemorating ancient maritime trade, are widely observed with cultural pride.

Law
Law is the most powerful formal means of social control in the modern society. Laws are a form
of social rule emanating from political agencies. These are enacted by a proper lawmaking
authority. Violation of law is followed by penalties and punishment determined by the authority of
the State. Laws are enforced with the help of the police, the court and sometimes the armed force.
Morality

It is concerned with the conceptions of goodness and evil. Morality refers to that body of rules and
principles concerned with good and evil as manifested to us by conscience. These rules are
admitted by the community. Honesty, truthfulness, kindness, sacrifice, service mindedness etc.
represent some of the moral concepts. Morality act as a guide of human behaviour. It is an effective
means of informal social control.

Norms

Norms are the established behaviour patterns for the members of a social system. It is expected
that the member of a society shall follow the norms. A person who deviates from the norm is
generally regarded as a deviant by other members of the system. An individual who first adopts a
new technology may be regarded as a deviant by others.

Values: Definition

1. Young 1959, "Values are abstract and often unconscious assumptions of what right and
important.

2. Betrand 1958, "Values are ideas as to whether objects or behaviour are good. bad, desirable or
the like".
In simple words, values may be defined as measure of goodness or desirability.

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Characteristics of values

1. Values are socially created: Values are socially created through the interrelationships of its
members. These are not inherited or biologically determined.

Example: The values such as respect to parents or teachers, fundamental rights, helpfulness,
cooperation, privacy etc. are developed through the process of socialization.

2. Values are learned: These are acquired through the process of learning at house, in the school
and through the process of socialization.

3. Value systems vary from culture to culture: Since culture varies in their practices, customs,
forms of living and functioning, value system is not identical in all societies or communities.

Example: In Odisha evening meal (Dinner) is generally taken after 9 P.M. singly or jointly but in
Mizoram dinner is served at around 6 P.M. jointly by all the members of the family.

4. Values are abstract in nature: Values are abstract attitude on which there is a social consensus
about its goodness or desirability.

Example: Values such as democracy, freedom, respect for fundamental rights are abstract values.

5. Values are socially shared: Individuals in the society may have individual values but the value
systems of societies are shared with others.

6. Values are stable, deep rooted and subject to change: Values are deeply attached with the mores
and culture of the society. But with the passage of time values are changing.

Example: The caste system in India imposed restrictions to only endogamy marriage (An
individual has to marry within his or her group). Brahmin has to marry a Brahmin. With the change
of value system and the introduction of Special Marriage Act 1956 exogamy marriage is possible
between a Brahmin and other caste member.

7. Values may conflict with one another: Values may conflict with one another. We find multiple,
overlapping and sometimes even opposing value system in the same society.

Example: Mahatma Gandhi cherished the value of "non-violence movement" against the British
whereas, Netaji and other patriots opposed the value of Mahatma Gandhi for the same purpose.
Society accepted both the value system and considered both are desirable.

8. Value system consists of ranked alternative: Values frequently represent alternatives and
behaviour is determined by the priority level of the value.

Example: In rural Bengalee family the eldest son generally does not agree to marry until his adult
sister's marriage is not performed. Priority in marriage is given to the daughter in a family except
in exceptional cases.

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Types of Values

According to Chitambar (1997) three types of values have been identified.

1. Ultimate Values or Dominant Values

The values which assist to control the behaviour of individuals and groups are called ultimate
value. Ultimate values express the general views of the society and it is abstract in nature and often
not attainable. Examples: Values such as democracy, freedom, the right to dissent etc,

2. Intermediate Values

It is derived from ultimate values. After rephrasing the ultimate value intermediate values are
obtained and implemented through socially prescribed rules or norms. Important social institutions
viz. Government, religion, education generally serve this intermediate value.
Example: The government provides free public education and freedom to worship God.

3. Specific values

Specific values are often stated in specific terms. The subdivision of intermediate values is called
specific values.

Example: Specific value in regard to public education may be expressed in terms of preference of
type of school, classroom and other facilities.

The following examples may clarify the nature of three types of values.

1. Ultimate value: Universal Primary education by the centre or State.

2. Intermediate value: Provision of free public education.

3. Specific value: (i) construction of adequate schools, (ii) provision of qualified teachers, (iii)
content of courses of instruction, etc. and (iv) adequate measures for preventing drop-outs,
nutrition health etc.
Functions of Value

1. Values act as a means of social control: Values encourage people to do the right things, to
act which is desirable. It is true that man cannot be absolutely free in society. Values guide
them and forbid to do the unjustified work.
2. Values provide for stabilities in the social interaction: Sociologists argued that shared
values form the basis for social unity and social solidarity. Since a group share the values
of other groups, the members of the group see other groups as "people like themselves".
3. Values help bring about some kind of adjustment: Values help people to adjust with others
to live peacefully with other communities.

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 Example: The Indian people cherish the value of "the principle of co-existence" with
different communities, then each community do not disturb in the cultural activities of
others.

There are some values which are considered as obstacles to social change. These are:

(i) Fatalism: belief in fate, rather than in one's own ability to change things.

(ii) Conservatism: emphasis on the past, preserving it and continuing it.

(iii) Familism: Subordination (Subordination refers to the act of placing someone or something in
a lower rank or position of authority.) of individual accomplishments and goals to those of the
family.

Technological change requires behavioural change on the part of the people. Until the values and
beliefs change, the behavioural change shall not occur. Mass media, demonstration, training,
information technology may be used to help people change their values and beliefs from traditional
to modern.

Values and Norms

Values are the attitude, ideas held by individuals, groups or society as a whole. For example, the
Hindus go to the temple and worship, the Muslims recite a prayer in the Mosque or the Christians
pray in the Church. In each case religious worship and respect to God in different forms constitute
the value of that community. During puja and prayer silence, calm and quiet atmosphere is
maintained by the devotees and other people gathered there. This appropriate and acceptable
behaviour in particular situation is called Norms. Similarly, a society cherish the value of
"privacy". So, an individual who is not member of the family, when wants to enter the house of
others, he has to seek permission. Here seeking permission is an acceptable behaviour pattern and
it is called norms. Values and norms go together. Social values form an important part of culture
of the society.
Beliefs

Beliefs which are closely related to values are the mental convictions one has about the truth or
actuality of something (Sofranko, 1984). Beliefs refer to what people believe or accept to be true.
There are beliefs of what is right or wrong, proper or improper lucky or unlucky etc.

Values and beliefs tend to be culture specific and are important elements in the change process

Examples of Belief System

Das and Tayeng (2010) conducted a study on Traditional Food of Adi people in Arunachal Pradesh
and identified few belief systems.
Beliefs on Hunting and Food habit

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1. The older generation of Adi people (a collective tribe living in Himalayan hills of Arunachal
Pradesh) believe that if someone especially hunters consume snake or wild animal like tiger, it will
affect their hunting skill.

2. Fermented food such as soybeans are avoided when the men folk go for hunting as it will bring
ill luck to them.

3. Husband of pregnant women does not hunt wild animal like monkey as they believe that the
new born baby's behaviour will be like that of monkey.
4. Pregnant women believe the following and avoid consuming food containing the meat of -

(a) Monkey (child will behave restlessly like the monkey)

(b) Pig's tail (child will be hyperactive and busy like the constant movement of tail).
(c) Insect like Pumnger (larvae) (child will move his head constantly)

(d) Pareek (Jungle fowl) because child will be born with red spot / patches on any part of the body.

(e) Avoid drinking water in Colocasia leaf as it is believed that child will be born with squinted
eyes.

(f) Women avoid eating Colocasia corns because they belief that during delivery the baby will be
choked with the mucilage of the corn.

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