The DNA

NAME :- SARAS VERMA
CLASS :- XII-B
ROLL NO. :- 28
TOPIC :- THE DNA
This is to certify that Saras Verma of
Class XII-(B) of New Way Senior
Secondary School ,Aliganj has
successfully carried out the
investigatory project entitled
“The DNA” under the supervision of
biology teacher Dr. Keerti Shukla
for the academic year 2024-2025.
All the work related to the project done
by the candidate herself. The
approach towards the subject has
been sincere and scientific.
Teacher’s sign Examiner sign
Principal’s sign
I would like to express my special
thanks of gratitude to my subject
teacher (Dr. Keerti Shukla) as well as
our principal ma’am
(Mrs. Jyoti Wanchoo) who gave me
the golden opportunity to this
wonderful project on the topic
(The DNA ) which also helped me in
doing lot of research and I came to
know about so many new things
I am really thankful
to them.
Saras Verma
XII-B
Introduction
DNA Structure
Components of DNA Structure
 DNA Structure Backbone
DNA Discovery
 When was DNA Discovered?
Who Discovered DNA?
 DNA Sequencing
The Future of DNA
Conclusion
Bibliography
DNA is self-replicating material that’s in every
living organism. In simplest terms, it is a carrier
of all genetic information. It contains the
instructions needed for organisms to develop,
grow, survive, and reproduce. It’s one long
molecule that contains our genetic “code,” or
recipe. This recipe is the starting point for our
development, but DNA’s interaction with outside
influences such as our lifestyle, environment,
and nutrition ultimately form the human being.
While most DNA is found in the nucleus of a cell,

a small amount can also be found in the
mitochondria, which generates energy so cells
can function properly. Perhaps the most
fascinating part of the process is the fact that
nearly every cell in your body has the same
DNA.
DNA Structure:-
The DNA structure can be thought of like a twisted
ladder. This structure is described as a double-helix, as
illustrated in the figure above. It is a nucleic acid, and
all nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides. The DNA
molecule is composed of units
called nucleotides, and each nucleotide is composed of
three different components, such as sugar, phosphate
groups and nitrogen bases.
The basic building blocks of DNA are nucleotides, which

are composed of a sugar group, a phosphate group, and
a nitrogen base. The sugar and phosphate groups link
the nucleotides together to form each strand of DNA.
Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine
(G) and Cytosine (C) are four types of nitrogen bases.
These 4 Nitrogenous bases pair together in
the following
way: A with T, and C with G. These base
pairs are essential for the DNA’s double
helix structure, which resembles a twisted
ladder.
The order of the nitrogenous bases
determines the genetic code or the DNA’s
instructions.
DNA Structure Backbone
The DNA molecule consists of 4 nitrogen bases, namely adenine
(A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and Guanine (G) which ultimately
forms the structure of a nucleotide. The A and G are purines and
the C and T are pyrimidines.
The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions. These strands

are held together by the hydrogen bond that is present between
the two complementary bases. The strands are helically twisted,
where each strand forms a right-handed coil and ten
nucleotides make up a single turn.
The pitch of each helix is 3.4 nm. Hence, the distance between
two consecutive base pairs (i.e., hydrogen-bonded bases of the
opposite strands) is 0.34 nm.
The DNA coils up, forming
chromosomes, and each chromosome
has a single molecule of DNA in it.
Overall, human beings have around
twenty-three pairs of chromosomes in
the nucleus of cells. DNA also plays an
essential role in the process of cell
division.
DNA discovery
DNA was first observed by a German biochemist
named Frederich Miescher in 1869. But for many
years, researchers did not realize the importance
of this molecule. It was not until 1953 that James
Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and
Rosalind Franklin figured out the structure of
DNA — a double helix — which they realized
could carry biological information.
Watson, Crick and Wilkins were awarded the

Nobel Prize in
Medicine in 1962 "for their discoveries concerning
the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its
significance for information transfer in living
material." Franklin was not included in the award,
although her work was integral to the research.
[Related: Unraveling the Human Genome: 6
Molecular Milestones].
When Was DNA Discovered?
What we know about DNA today can be largely
credited to James Watson and Francis Crick, who
discovered the structure of DNA in 1953. Despite
there being many important and contributing
discoveries both before and after their work, this is
the year they discovered DNA’s double helix, or
spiraling, intertwined structure, which is
fundamental to our current understanding of DNA as
a whole.
Who Discovered DNA?
The full answer to the question who discovered DNA is complex,
because in truth, many people have contributed to what we know
about it. DNA was first discovered by Friedrich Miescher, but
researchers and scientists continue to expound on his work to this
day, as we are still learning more about its mysteries. As it turned
out, Miescher’s discovery was just the beginning.
Credit for who first identified DNA is often mistakenly given to James
Watson and Francis Crick, who actually just furthered Miescher’s
discovery with their own groundbreaking research nearly 100 years
later. Watson and Crick contributed largely to our understanding of
DNA in terms of genetic inheritance, but much like Miescher, long
before their work, others also made great advancements in and
contributions to the field.
 1866 – Before the many significant discoveries and findings,
Gregor Mendel, who is known as the “Father of Genetics,” was
actually the first to suggest that characteristics are passed
down from generation to generation. Mendel coined the terms
we all know today as recessive and dominant.
 1869 – Friedrich Miescher identified the “nuclein” by

isolating a molecule from a cell nucleus that would later
become known as DNA.
 1881 – Nobel Prize winner and German biochemist Albrecht

Kossel, who is credited with naming DNA, identified nuclein as a
nucleic acid. He also isolated those five nitrogen bases that are
now considered to be the basic building blocks of DNA and RNA:
adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T) (which is
replaced by uracil (U) in RNA).
 1882 – Shortly after Kossel’s findings, Walther Flemming

devoted research and time to cytology, which is the study of
chromosomes. He discovered mitosis in 1882 when he was the
first biologist to execute a wholly systematic study of the
division of chromosomes. His observations that chromosomes
double is significant to the later- discovered theory of
inheritance.
 Early 1900s – Theodor Boveri and Walter Sutton were

independently working on what’s now known as the Boveri-
Sutton chromosome theory, or the chromosomal theory of
inheritance. Their findings are fundamental in our
understanding of how chromosomes carry genetic material and
pass it down from one generation to the next.
1944 – Oswald Avery first outlined DNA as the transforming
principle, which essentially means that it’s DNA, not proteins,
that transform cell properties .
1944 – 1950 – Erwin Chargaff discovered that DNA is

responsible for heredity and that it varies between species. His
discoveries, known as Chargaff’s Rules, proved that guanine
and cytosine units, as well as adenine and thymine units, were
the same in double-stranded DNA, and he also discovered that
DNA varies among species.
Late 1940s – Barbara McClintock discovered the mobility of

genes, ultimately challenging virtually everything that was
once thought to be. Her discovery of the “jumping gene,” or
the idea that genes can move on a chromosome, earned her
the Nobel Prize in Physiology.
1951 – Roslind Franklin’s work in X-ray crystallography began

when she started taking X-ray diffraction photographs of DNA.
Her images showed the helical form, which was confirmed by
Watson and Crick nearly two years later. Her findings were only
acknowledged posthumously.
1953 – Watson and Crick published on DNA’s double helix

structure that twists to form the ladder-like structure we think
of when we picture DNA.
DNA sequencing
DNA sequencing is technology that allows researchers
to determine the order of bases in a DNA sequence.
The technology can be used to determine the order of
bases in genes, chromosomes, or an entire genome. In
2000, researchers completed the first full sequence of
the human genome, according to a report by the
National Human Genome Research Institute.
The Future of DNA:-
The future of DNA has great potential. As researchers and
scientists continue to advance what we know about the
complexities of DNA and the insights it codes for, we can imagine
a world with less and better-managed disease, longer life spans,
and a personalized view of medicine that’s specifically applicable
to individuals rather than the population as a whole.
DNA insights are already enabling the diagnosis and treatment of

genetic diseases. Science is also hopeful that medicine will
advance to be able to leverage the power of our own cells to fight
disease. For example, gene therapy is designed to introduce
genetic material into cells to compensate for abnormal genes or
to make a therapeutically beneficial protein.
How To Do More With Your DNA
Until recently, individuals were sources of samples in the
traditional research model. Today, the gap between
research and individual is closing and the community is
coming together to contribute health data to support
research at scale, advance science, and accelerate
medical discoveries at LunaDNATM.
If you’d like to help researchers better understand you,

your family, and your family health history, take the
LunaDNA family health history survey or share your DNA
data file. The more people who come together to
contribute health data for the greater good, the quicker
and more efficient research will scale, and improve the
quality of life for us all
DNA forms the basis for life. The
discovery of DNA Structure has led
to major strides in research ,
medicines , agriculture and other
fields.
 www.google.com
 www.wikipedia.com
 Youtube

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NAME :- SARAS VERMA

While most DNA is found in the nucleus of a cell,

The basic building blocks of DNA are nucleotides, which

The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions. These strands

Watson, Crick and Wilkins were awarded the

 1869 – Friedrich Miescher identified the “nuclein” by

 1881 – Nobel Prize winner and German biochemist Albrecht

 1882 – Shortly after Kossel’s findings, Walther Flemming

 Early 1900s – Theodor Boveri and Walter Sutton were

1944 – 1950 – Erwin Chargaff discovered that DNA is

Late 1940s – Barbara McClintock discovered the mobility of

1951 – Roslind Franklin’s work in X-ray crystallography began

1953 – Watson and Crick published on DNA’s double helix

DNA insights are already enabling the diagnosis and treatment of

If you’d like to help researchers better understand you,

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