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Textbook of
Kinesiology
Textbook of
Kinesiology
VD Bindal PhD LPT (USA)

Associate Professor and Head
Division of Physiotherapy
Lakshmibai National Institute of Physical Education
(Deemed to be University)
Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
The Health Sciences Publisher

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© 2018, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers
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Textbook of Kinesiology
First Edition: 2018
ISBN 978-93-5270-452-1
Printed at
Dedicated to
My Loving Grandchildren
Devashish, Aarna and Anaya
Preface
My interest in kinesiology prompted me to resign my 11 years long service at the State Government of Rajasthan and
accept the assignment at the present institute where I have been working almost for 30 years now.
The human body has complex systems which is subject to both mechanical and biological laws and principles. How
effectively and efficiently one performs depends upon both the mechanical and biological aspects of functions as they are
directly related to physical performance.
The general approach to the book, Textbook of Kinesiology is to provide possible information needed mostly by the
physical educators and physiotherapists though it has broad application across any discipline that incorporates movement
science, such as the Sports Coaching, and the Athletics. The basic facts, concepts and principles of kinesiology and the
science of human movement are primarily organized as to be contained in any standard textbook of physical education
and physiotherapy.
The contents of the book are broken into 3 major Sections and further into 16 Chapters. The First Section, i.e. Introduction
and Fundamentals contains 3 Chapters; Introduction to Kinesiology, Anatomical and Physiological Fundamentals of Human
Motion, and Basic Biomechanical Concepts. The Second and a major Section of the book, i.e. Kinesiology of Body Regions is
dealt with in 9 Chapters in great length covering various body regions, i.e. Shoulder Girdle, Shoulder, Elbow and Radioulnar
Joints, Wrist and Hand, Pelvic Girdle, Hip, Knee, Ankle and Foot, and Spine. The Third Section, i.e. Motor Skills: Principles
and Application includes 4 Chapters, one each on Posture, Locomotion, Application of Kinesiology to Selected Daily Life
Activities and Sports Skills, and Prevention of Sports Injuries: The Mechanical and Kinesiological Viewpoint.
I do not claim this book entirely my original work, rather acknowledge with a great humility all the work and contribution
that I have used of many great authors and scholars (some mentioned and many not) in preparing and organizing the
subject material in this book. I am is particularly indebted to Shri Jitendar P Vij (Group Chairman) and Mr Ankit Vij (Group
President) of M/s Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd, New Delhi, for their acceptance of this book for publication.
I am very thankful to Mr Ajay Mathe, who typed the manuscript as directed, and also to Mr VS Parmar, Ashish Aronkar and
many others, who helped directly or indirectly, in preparing and bringing about this book.
The book is comprehensive, readable and well illustrated and it is hoped that it will prove to be a useful textbook to
the students and teachers of physical education and physiotherapy, to whom kinesiology as a subject is taught in various
colleges and universities in India. The book also contains Glossary, and Index towards the end. The suggestions from the
readers are welcome for further improvement.
VD Bindal
Contents
Chapter 6: Elbow and Radioulnar Joints 94

Section I Introduction and
Elbow 94
Fundamentals
Radioulnar Joints 95
Muscles of Elbow and Radioulnar Joints 95
Chapter 1: Introduction to Kinesiology 3
Chapter 7: Wrist and Hand 100
Major Contributions: Past and
Current 5 Ligaments of Wrist and Hand 101
Aims and Objectives of Kinesiology 9 Movements of Wrist and Hand 102
Practical Application of Kinesiology: Muscles of Wrist and Hand 105
In Physical Education and Physical
Medicine 11 Chapter 8: Pelvic Girdle 112
Role and Importance of Kinesiology Movements of Pelvic Girdle 113
In Physical Education and Sports 12 Muscles of the Pelvis 115
Chapter 2: Anatomical and Physiological Chapter 9: Hip 116

Fundamentals of Human Movements 116
Motion 14 Muscles 117
The Skeletal System 14
Muscular System 27 Chapter 10: Knee 126
Neuromuscular Concepts 36 Movements 127
Nervous Control of Voluntary Muscles 128
Movements 45
Chapter 11: Ankle and Foot 131
Chapter 3: Basic Biomechanical Concepts 50
Bones and Joints of Foot 131
Gravity 50 Movements 133
Center of Gravity 50 Muscles of the Ankle and Foot 137
Line of Gravity 51
Base of Support 51 Chapter 12: Spine 143
Axes and Planes 52 Structure 144
Equilibrium and Stability 55 Movements 145
Force 58 Muscles 147
Motion 62
Levers 68
Section III Motor Skills: Principles

Section II Kinesiology of
and Applications
Body Regions
Chapter 4: Shoulder Girdle 79 Chapter 13: Posture 157

Movements 80 Introduction 157
Muscles of the Shoulder Girdle 81 Types of Posture 158
Static Versus Dynamic Posture 159
Good Posture 161
Chapter 5: Shoulder 86 Poor or Bad Posture 162
Movements 87 Static Positions 162
Muscles of the Shoulder Joint 88 Postural Defects 165
x Textbook of Kinesiology
Chapter 14: Locomotion 173 Chapter 16: Prevention of Sports Injuries:

Walking 173 The Mechanical and
Running 185 Kinesiological Viewpoint 208
Common Deviations of
Dissipation of Force 208
Normal Gait 189
Landing 209
Catching 210
Chapter 15: Application of Kinesiology Summary of Mechanical and
to Selected Daily Life Kinesiological Principles Related
Activities and Sports to Prevention of Injuries 212
Skills 192 Bibliography215
Daily Life Activities 192 Glossary217
Sports Skills 200 Index 223
SECTION I
Introduction and
Fundamentals
Introduction to Kinesiology

Anatomical and Physiological Fundamentals

of Human Motion
Basic Biomechanical Concepts

1
CHAPTER
Introduction to Kinesiology
are all motor acts. When the individual opens his eyes or
DEFINITION speaks, it is by motor acts. The muscular response stops to
The term “Kinesiology” is a combination of two Greek exist only upon the paralysis or death.
verbs “Kinein”, meaning “to move”, and “logos” meaning Movement is so generally observable in living
“to discourse” or “to the study”. As such, kinesiology may organisms that it has attracted the attention of man ever
be defined as a science which investigates and analyzes since we have a record of his philosophic and scientific
human motion. interests in himself and the world around him. Even the
The study of the human body as a machine for lower animals know that movement is a sign of life. They
the performance of work has its foundations in three are always quick to detect any motion near them, especially
major areas of study namely, mechanics, anatomy, if they are fearful of danger. Many will take a position of
and physiology; more specifically, biomechanics, complete immobility when they are aware of danger. Or
musculoskeletal anatomy, and neuromuscular physiology. they will move very cautiously and slowly to prevent their
The accumulated knowledge of these three fields forms movement from being clearly visible or remarkable.
the basis for the study of human movement. Man seems to think in terms of movement. A study of
Some authorities refer to kinesiology as a science the art of nearly all primitive people shows that it deals
in its own right; while there are others who claim that largely with active participants in war, sports, or routine
kinesiology is not a true science because the principles occupations. We hardly find reclining, sitting or standing
on which it is based are derived from basic sciences such figures which are entirely passive in their attitude. The
as anatomy, physiology, and physics. In any event, the gods, in all the art forms, were usually taking part in man’s
unique contribution of kinesiology is that it selects from activities. Man and animals, as depicted in carvings,
many sciences those principles that are relevant to human sculptures, drawings and literature, are active creatures.
motion and systematizes their application. As such, as From earliest times, motor skill and human movement
a modern science, kinesiology not only must adapt the had art, religious and militarily values.
practices and standards, but must also make use of all It is obvious that how a machine can be used depends
those facts and principles gathered by other sciences upon the way it is made; its structure, the material of which
which can contribute to a complete understanding of the parts are composed, and the way they are put together.
man’s movements. It is also known that two machines may perform the similar
From the time we stretch and start to waken in the function with different degrees of effort and efficiency.
morning until we lie down again for sleep at night, This too is the result of structural quality and arrangement.
practically everything we do is the result of changing The human mechanism has many of the characteristics of
muscular contractions. Even the thoughts of an inactive other machines. Complete understanding of the human
man produce changes in the muscular response. The motion necessitates a knowledge of anatomy, both gross
period of rest and sleep is often thought of as one of the and microscopic.
inactivity, but respiration must continue, heart action Movement can take place only as normal body
slows but never stops, and the body is rolled, turned, functioning proceeds. For example, muscle-contraction
flexed, and extended during the sleeping period. These is not an isolated process, which occurs independently of
4 SECTION I: Introduction and Fundamentals
the rest of the body. The nervous, circulatory, respiratory, lower limbs downward, providing a relationship of body
digestive, and excretory systems all have their part to play segments that would enable descendents to stand on two
in this phenomenon. As such, the science of physiology rather than four feet.
as a whole has basic contributions to make to kinesiology. When some of the tree-dwelling animals returned
The field of mechanics is a logical source to kinesiology. to ground life and found bipedal locomotion profitable,
One of the essential features of kinesiology is that it treats the human foot was developed. The heels developed and
all motor acts as mechanical events. Man can be regarded lengthened, providing a rear for the base of support. The
as a machine, a device for transmitting energy. He takes in forepart of the foot developed to provide the front of the
fuel, which can be converted to energy, and the energy can base. According to many experts, the foot in human is one
in turn be utilized to do work. Though the machine of man such peculiar structure that differentiates man from other
existed thousands of years before the man-made machines, animals. The bony structures between the heel and ball of
understanding of mechanical principles was not derived foot are compactly fitted together, enabling them to bear
from observation of human movement. Man observed the the weight of the body and transmit it to the ball of the foot
movement of external objects and means by which objects or the toes. This compactness enables man to rotate his
could be moved, and then formulated general laws and weight about the metatarsophalangeal joints, an action
principles. These enabled him to construct simple and that is impossible in animals such as the ape.
complex devices for doing work. As the foot took over the weight-bearing function, the
Fundamental to the understanding of man’s forelimbs were freed for manipulation of external objects.
movements is the realization that he is a living organism In such manipulative skills, man exceeds all animals, and
and that his structure and behavior have been shaped according to many experts, the hand and the opposable
by his anthropologic ancestors. His backbone is credited thumb in man are his unique structural features. The
to him by the fish family, who developed that structure primates that still live in trees have five digits at the distal
when the surface of the earth was covered with water. ends of the limb, and the first of these digits can close
When part of the earth’s surface was raised above the against the other four digits as a branch of tree is clasped.
water, the animal life, to survive on land, had to develop Man inherited his hand but developed his foot.
new structural forms for locomotion. The body needed to Each species inherits a basic design that will be
be lifted above the earth’s surface and yet maintain some modified by its mode of maintaining life. As man’s
contact with it; fins were gradually shaped into legs and ancestors developed the ability to balance on two feet,
feet. Because air does not support the body mass, as does they also modified their forms of locomotion, i.e. walking,
water, the backbone and the newly developed legs needed running, leaping, and jumping. The free forelimbs
material to better resist gravitational pull, and thus the developed the ability to throw and strike, to pull and push,
cartilaginous tissue changed to bone. To escape enemies and to lift. The practice of these skills further modified the
and to secure food, rapid locomotion was needed, and structure, without a change in its basic design.
primitive legs lengthened to the thighs and legs of present Apart from the changes and modifications in the
quadrupeds. bony structures, those parts of the body involved in
In these changes and in those that followed is seen movement, primarily the muscular and nervous systems,
the capacity of living organisms to adapt structure and were also modified. Since structure and function develop
behavior to the demands of the environment. The demand simultaneously, they are interrelated to each other. Man
of environment, as quadruped walking changed to biped does not choose his structure, that is inherited from
walking, resulted in structural modifications in pelvic, species that preceded him. Similarly, he does not choose
leg and toe bones, and in gluteal muscles, to meet out the his basic movement patterns, as they too, are inherited.
functional requirements. However, within limits, structure can be modified by
With the growth of plants and trees on the land, some environment, exercise, and nutrition. His movements
animal forms escaped ground enemies by choosing an also have limitations imposed by inheritance of structure
arboreal or tree–like life. Here a new means of locomotion of bones and joints, of muscles, and of nerve patterns.
developed, that of grasping branches and swinging These can be modified to some extents, but not changed
the suspended body from limb to limb. This type of life basically.
modified body structure, the distal ends of the forelimbs Motor skill must be studied with the realization that it
were shaped into hands, and the proximal end of the is not the result of experiences of a single life span. From
forelimb developed a joint capable of great movement. birth to maturity, each individual will have at his command
Gravitational force pulled the torso or the trunk and motor responses that will to some degree meet the needs
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Kinesiology 5
of each growth stage. Such responses are man's heritage, zz Aristotle (384–322 BC) is usually given the title “father
gifts from ancestors who inherited to their descendants of kinesiology”. About three centuries before Christ,
bone, muscle, and nerve structures and patterns of motor Aristotle wrote, “the animal that moves makes its
behavior that they have found to be valuable. Each heritage change of position by pressing against that which is
is made with a wise condition; the successor must use and beneath it. Hence, athletes jump further if they have the
exercise the gift to bring to fulfillment its potential value. weights in their hands than if they have not, and runners
Kinesiology is not an isolated science, sufficient in itself run faster if they swing their arms, for in extension of
in methods, knowledge, or contribution. It is a composite the arms there is a kind of leaning upon the hands and
of several of the sciences. It requires wide information and wrists.” Hart said, “from the point of view of mechanics,
it offers opportunity for application of principles and laws. we may regard Aristotle’s work as the starting point of a
Man designs the machine, he builds as best he can chain of thought which played an important part in the
for the purpose he desires. We inherit our biological and evolution of the subject.
physical make-up. But our human machinery is designed Aristotle was the first to analyze and describe the
cleverly enough, for the demands we make upon it. complex process of walking, in which rotatory motion
However, if the demands continue beyond the scope of is transformed into translatory motion. Aristotle’s
this human machine, nature makes every effort possible to treatise, Parts of Animals, Movements of Animals and
make the necessary adaptations. Progression of Animals, described for the first time
the actions of the muscles and subjected them to
MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS: PAST AND CURRENT geometrical analysis. The ideas expressed by Aristotle
were the forerunners of the ideas of Newton, Borelli
The origin and development of kinesiology are briefly and others. His concepts of leverage, gravity, and laws
traced chronologically and logically. The mention of of motion were remarkably accurate.
the history of kinesiology may be found in treatises and zz Another Greek, Archimedes (287–212 BC), a renowned
medical histories. Kinesiology reaches back to the first mathematician, determined hydrostatic principles
scientific concepts of movement that man was able to governing floating bodies which are still accepted as
comprehend, although some of the basic ideas had been valid in the kinesiology of swimming. The broad scope
known and used from olden times. Its roots are certainly of Archimedes inquires included the laws of leverage
deep in the beginnings of medical history. and problems related to determining the center of
gravity. Principles originally developed by Archimedes
Ancient Era are still used in determinations of body composition.
The Greeks were among the first to practice so-called zz The Romans, who did not hesitate to recognizing
scientific thinking, as opposed to thinking based on and utilizing the best from the culture of the nations
emotional and spiritual ideas. The Greek philosophers they conquered, brought to Rome concepts of Greek
believed in the unity of body and mind. Their interpretation medicine. Claudius Galen (131–201 AD), a Roman
of man’s activity was mechanistic, in accordance with their physician brought the science of anatomy to Rome.
materialistic interpretation of the universe. His discoveries and forthright attitude made him
zz Hippocrates (460–370 BC) advocated the concept the outstanding anatomist and physiologist until the
that man should base observations on and draw fifteenth century. In his essay “De Motu Musculorum”
conclusions from only what he perceived through his he distinguished between motor and sensory nerves,
senses (particularly the senses of touch, sight, hearing, and between agonist and antagonist muscles, described
and smell) without recourse to the supernatural. He tonus, and introduced terms such as diarthrosis and
recognized the physiological effect of a common place synarthrosis which even today are of major importance
activity such as walking. For example, he wrote that in the terminology of arthrology. The idea that muscles
walking should be rapid in winter and slow in summer; were contractile seems to have originated with Galen.
unless it be under a burning heat; that fleshy people He taught that muscular contraction resulted from the
should walk faster, thin people slower. passage of “animal spirits’ from the brain through the
Hippocrates, and Aristotle a Century or so later, nerves to the muscles.
devised certain empirical theories of anatomical
structure and human mechanics. Though there was Renaissance
much of truth in their ideas, but the beginnings of the Following Galen’s muscle studies, kinesiology like other
scientific approach came much later. fields of science did not develop for over a thousand years
due to the then prevailing neglect of physical exercise and zz Francis Glisson (1597–1677) demonstrated through
bodily development. During the Renaissance, German, phelthysmographic experiments that muscles do
English, French, and Italian physiologists and physicists contract, and that viable tissue had the capacity to
attacked the problem of analyzing animal and human react to certain stimuli.
movements. These studies form the real beginning of our zz Alfonso Borelli (1608–1679), an Italian physicist and
modern understanding of the problem. one of the pupils of Galileo, combined the sciences
It was not until the time that the scientific awakening of mathematics, physics, and anatomy in first treatise
known as the Renaissance was perhaps initiated, and on kinesiology, “De Motu Animalium”, published in
further advanced in the field of kinesiology by one of the 1630 or 1631. Borelli applied Galileo’s mathematical
world’s greatest scientists in the history, Leonardo da Vinci principles to movement and sought to demonstrate
(1452–1519). He was an artist, engineer and scientist who that animals are machines. One expert Steindler
is given credit for developing modern science of anatomy. regards Borelli as the father of modern biomechanics
He studied the structure of man, especially noting the of the locomotor system. Borelli recognized that
relation of the center of gravity to balance and motion bones serve as levers and are moved by muscles in
during different movements. He made these observations accordance with mathematical laws. He also believed
while developing a treatise on painting. that the movements of animals are affected by other
Da Vinci’s ability to draw the action of muscles when forces, such as air and water resistance, and poor or
the human body was performing a dynamic act was of good mechanical position. Because of these beliefs,
great value to medical students and to the science of Hirt called Borelli the father of modern kinesiology.
kinesiology. He described the mechanics of the body Borelli has even been given credit for discovering
in standing, walking up and down hill, in rising from a the reciprocal action of muscles, a concept which
sitting position and in jumping. Da Vinci was probably Sherrington is thought to have conceived much later.
the first to record scientific data on human gait. zz Isaac Newton (1642–1727) laid the foundation of
zz Since scientific contributions of Da Vinci were hidden modern dynamics. Particularly important to the future
from the world almost for 200–300 years after his of kinesiology was his formulation of the three laws of
death and which have only recently been discovered motion which express the relationships between forces
and published, it was left to others to add to man's and their effects and are in use today. Newton is also
knowledge in this area. Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), credited with the first correct general statement of the
considered to be the developer of the modern concept parallelogram of force, based on his observation that
of anatomy, was one of them. His drawings, which a moving body affected by two independent forces
portray muscles in action in a living, moving human acting simultaneously moved along a diagonal equal to
being, are in keeping with the spirit of the Renaissance. the vector sum of the forces acting independently. And
zz Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was a noted mathematician thus basis for the mechanical analysis of movement
and astronomer. Although he is known as one of the was established. Since two or more muscles may pull
experts of natural law and made accessible to man on a common point of insertion, each at a different
two instruments, the telescope and microscope, angle and with different force, the resolution of vectors
his contributions to the field of kinesiology are of this type is a matter of considerable importance in
enormous. He is credited with “laying firm foundation the solution of academic problems in kinesiology.
of mechanics.” Galileo’s alleged experiments on the zz James Keill (1674–1719), in his studies of muscular
rate of acceleration of falling bodies from the leaning contraction, calculated the number of fibers in certain
Tower of Pisa in 1590 or 1591 laid the basis for our muscles, and assumed that on contraction, each
present concept of the rate of falling objects in sports muscle fiber became spherical and shortened. He also
and athletics. He demonstrated that the acceleration established the amount of tension developed by each
of a falling body is not proportional to its weight and fiber to lift a given weight.
that the relationship of space, time and velocity is the zz Albrecht Haller (1708–1777), a great Swiss physiologist
most important factor in the study of motion. Galileo of the eighteenth century brought into clear focus the
also proved that the trajectory of a projectile through concept of independent irritability and excitability of
a resistance-free medium is a parabola. His work muscle tissue. The idea that contractility is an innate
gave impetus to the study of mechanical events in property of the muscle was first established by Haller.
mathematical terms, which in turn provided a basis for zz Luigi Galvani (1737–1798), a professor of anatomy at
the emergence of kinesiology as a science. the University of Bologna, Italy, made the discovery
that was the forerunner of the concept of irritability erect position primarily by tension of ligaments, with
of muscles. During experiments on muscle and nerve little or no muscular exertion. The publication of “Die
preparations, he noted the contraction of muscle when Mechanik der menschlichen Gerverkzeuge” published
the leg of a frog contacted metal and devised an arc of by the Webers in 1836 still stands as the classical work,
two metals with which muscle contractions could be which firmly established the mechanism of muscular
induced. action on a scientific basis.
zz In Lecture series on muscle motion, John Hunter zz Jues Amar is perhaps one of the greatest contributors to
(1728–1793), a great anatomist, described the structure the field of kinesiology in the area of efficiency of work
and muscular function in considerable detail, and body mechanics. His book, “The Human Motor”
including the origin, insertion, and shape of muscles, published in 1914, and translated into English in 1920,
the mechanical arrangement of their fibers, the two was an attempt to bring in one volume all the known
joint problem, contraction and relaxation, strength, physiologic and kinesiological principles involved
hypertrophy, and many other aspects of the subject. in industrial work and in the performance of certain
The lectures of Hunter are regarded as summarizing sports movements.
all that was known about kinesiology at the end of the zz John Hughlings Jackson (1834–1911), the father of
eighteenth century. modern neurology, made definite contributions to
knowledge pertaining to the control of muscular
Nineteenth Century Onwards movement by the brain. Jackson is given credit for the
famous expression “nervous centers know nothing of
The nineteenth century saw still greater contributions. The
muscles; they only know of movements.”
basic facts of neuromuscular functioning were revealed by
zz Charles Edward Beevor (1854–1908), after careful study
the work of such men as the Weber brothers, Sherrington,
and Helmholtz. Additional experimental evidence through of the muscular actions involved in the movements of
following decades re-affirms many theories of nervous certain joints, proposed that the muscles be classified
stimulation and inhibition, and muscular reaction. as prime movers, synergic muscles, fixators, or
Scientists such as Braune, Fischer, Duchenne, Marey, and antagonists. He was of the opinion that the antagonistic
many others studied the problems of muscle mechanics, muscles always relaxed in strong resistive movements.
of body balance, and of locomotion. It was in these years In this respect, Beevor was influenced by the work of
that the science of kinesiology was really founded. charles Sherrington (1857–1952), who advanced the
zz Guillaume Benjamin Amand Duchenne (1806–1875) theory of the reciprocal innervation and antagonistic
was a great investigator, who devoted much of his muscles in a number of papers published near the end
time and effort to discovering the function of isolated of the Nineteenth Century.
muscles by stimulating them electrically. He initiated to zz Karl Culmann (1821–1881), a German engineer,
classify the functions of individual muscles in relation developed a hypothesis that led to the trajectory theory
to body movements. Duchenne’s book “Physiologie des of the architecture of bones. This led Julius Wolff (1836–
movements” published in 1865 has been claimed to be 1902) to develop his famous “Wolff’s Law”, “Bones in
one of the greatest books of all times. their external and internal architecture conform with
zz Adolf Eugen Fick (1829–1901) made important the intensity and direction of the stresses to which
contributions to our knowledge of the mechanics of they are habitually subjected”. Wolff believed that
muscular movement and evolved the terms, isotonic the formation of bone results both from the force of
and isometric. The present theory of resistive exercises muscular tensions and from the weight of the body
is also based on his contributions. coupled with gravitational pull, which is considered a
zz The Weber brothers, Ernst Heinrich (1795–1878), major contribution on skeletal development.
Wilhelm Eduard (1804–1891), and Eduard Friedrick zz Bassett has proposed a restatement of Wolff’s law in
Wilhelm (1806–1871) investigated the influence of modern terms: “The form of the bone being given, the
gravity on limb movements in walking and running. bone elements place or displace themselves in the
And that the gravity is often the force that propels a direction of the functional pressures and increase or
walker forward, causing him to fall unless balance is decrease their mass to reflect the amount of functional
reestablished. They were also among the first scholars to pressure.
study the path of the center of gravity during movement. zz John C Koch, in his paper, “Laws of Bone Architecture”
They also believed that the body was maintained in the concluded that the compact spongy materials of bone
are so composed as to produce maximum strength with hypertrophy develops only after a muscle is forced
a minimum of material and that in form and structure to work intensively, which was later demonstrated
bones are designed to resist in the most economical experimentally by Werner W Siebert.
manner the maximum compressive stresses normally zz B Morpurgo showed that increased strength and
produced by the body weight. Koch also commented hypertrophy are a result of an increase in the diameter
that alterations in posture increase the stress in certain of the individual fibers of a muscle, not a result of an
regions and decrease it in others, and that if postural increase in the number of muscle-fibers.
alterations are maintained, the inner structure of the zz The photographic techniques of Marey and Muybridge
affected bones is altered. opened the way for two German scientists and
zz F Pauwels attempted to demonstrate that muscles anatomists, Christian Wilhelm Braune (1831–1892) and
and ligaments act as traction braces to reduce the Otto-Fischer (1861–1917), to study the human gait by
magnitude of stress in the bones. Though Pauwels means of photographic devices. They also developed
work was criticized by F Gaynor Evans, nevertheless, an experimental method to determine the center of
the theory of functional adaptation to static stress gravity of the human body, and the report of which
remains a major hypothesis in the study of skeletal they published in 1889 became very famous. Today’s
development. JH Scott has reviewed the material in concepts on posture appear to have had their origin in
the field in an effort to construct a working hypothesis the experiments of Braune and Fischer.
of the developmental and functional relationships zz Rudolf A Fick (1866–1939), a German who followed on
which exist between the skeletal system and the the work of Braune and Fischer, eventually became one
neuromuscular system. of the outstanding authorities in the field of mechanics
zz Henry Pickering Bowditch (1814–1911), demonstrated of joint and muscular movement. Fick’s contention
the treppe phenomenon (1871), the “all or none” that for people of different races and cultures, there is
principle of muscle contraction (1871), and the no one posture that is normal for all still holds true.
indefatigability of the nerves (1890). zz The late Nineteenth and early Twentieth Centuries were
zz Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (1829–1905), a famous most productive of physiological studies closely related
Russian physiologist declared in 1863, “all the endless to kinesiology. L Ranvier, about 1880, discovered the
diversity of the external manifestations of the activity of difference in the speeds of contraction of red and white
the brain can be finally regarded as one phenomenon– muscle, which according to Granit, brought functional
that of muscular movement.” aspects into the focus of subsequent research.
zz Etienne Jules Marey (1830–1904), a French physiologist zz Wedenski demonstrated during 1880 the existence of
was so interested in human movement that he action currents in human muscles, although practical
developed photographic means for use in biological use of this discovery had to await the invention of
research. Marey, and Robinson both were convinced a more sensitive instrument, until W Einthoven
that human movement was the important function of developed the string galvanometer in 1906. The
man and affected all his other activities. physiological aspects of electromyography were first
zz Eadweard Muybridge (1831–1904), also through his discussed in a paper by H Piper, of Germany, during
photographic skill, brought a new tool to kinesiological 1910–1912, however, interest in the subject did not
investigation. Animal Locomotion (1887), an eleven become widespread in the English speaking countries
volume work was one of the publications of Muybridge, until the publication of a report by ED Adrian in 1925.
and The Human Figure in Motion contains much of his By utilizing electromyographic techniques, Adrian
original work. Using 24 fixed cameras and two portable demonstrated for the first time that it was possible
batteries of 12 cameras each, he was able to take to determine the amount of activity in the human
pictures of animals and people in action. muscles at any stage of a movement. The development
zz Angelo Mosso (1848–1910), a scientist of the Nineteenth of the electromyograph represents one of the greatest
century made an important contribution to the study advances in kinesiology.
of kinesiology, the invention of the ergograph in 1884. zz In the study of the physiologic aspects of striated
This instrument, now available in several specialized muscular activity, three names are very important.
versions, has become a nearly indispensable tool for The brilliant studies of Archibald V Hill in the oxygen
the study of muscular function in the human body. consumption of muscle, of Hugh E Huxley in the
zz The study of developmental mechanics was introduced ultrastructure of striated muscle, and of Andrew F
by Wilhelm Roux (1850–1924) who stated that muscular Huxley in the physiology of striated muscle distinguish
them as the world’s leading authorities in their which have significantly contributed to our knowledge
respective fields. concerning the “Why” of human movement.
zz Arthur Steindler (1878–1959)’s publications “Mechanics The modifications which a man makes in his
of Normal and Pathological Locomotion in Man”, in environment cause a change in his structure. Alterations
1935, and later a larger and more complete Volume, of structure affect the relationship between the various
“Kinesiology of the Human Body under Normal and components and result in changes in function. Thus,
Pathological Conditions” in 1955 have become classics man to some extent is his own architect.
in the field and an important contribution to our zz The kinesiologists are no longer satisfied to deal merely
understanding of body mechanics. Goldthwaite also with the mechanical analysis of human movement. The
wrote on posture and body mechanics in connection Society for Behavioral Kinesiology defines Behavioral
with health and disease. The ideas of Steindler and Kinesiology as "the science of the structures and
Goldthwaite were later transmitted from a static to a processes of human movement and their modification
dynamic concept. McCloy, Fenn Cureton, Elftman, by inherent factors, by environmental events, and by
Karpovich and others were very much interested in the therapeutic intervention".
mechanics of human movement and moved the field The kinesiology students of the future may be required
of kinesiology into a new era. to distinguish five subdivisions within the discipline; (1)
zz The interest in the subject of posture has declined Structural and Functional Kinesiology, dealing with the
among kinesiologists in the USA during few decades inter-relations between the structure and function of the
probably, partly due to the general acceptance of a body; (2) Exercise Physiology, or the correlation between
saying that "the physiological benefits obtained from kinesiology and basic sciences such as physiology and
correction of common postural defects are mostly biochemistry; (3) Biomechanics, the investigation of
imaginary", and partly due to the growing realization human movement by means of the concepts of classical
that individual differences almost prevent valid physics and their derivatives in the practical engineering;
generalizations. Perhaps much of the effort in earlier (4) Developmental Kinesiology, the relation of kinesiology
times was devoted to the study of static posture, which to growth, physical development, nutrition, aging etc; and
is now being directed to research concerning dynamic (5) Psychological Kinesiology, the study of the mutualities
locomotion. Wallace Fenn (1893–1971), Plato Schwartz, of movement with such topics as body image, self image,
Verne Inman, Herbert Elftman, Dudley Morton, and esthetic expression, personality, cultural communication,
Steindler are among the few scientists who have made motivation etc.
important contributions to knowledge concerning this Currently new devices for studying human movement
aspect of kinesiology. are being used by many investigators which include
zz The use of cinematography for kinesiological studies cinematography, electronic stroboscope, force platforms,
of athletes and industrial workers has become electromyography, electrogoniometer, etc. The researchers
quite common. A relatively recent and important in kinesiology are sharing technical skills and equipment
development in the study of human motion is the use of with anatomists, engineers, mathematicians, physicists,
cineradiographic techniques. Advances in techniques, physiologists, and psychologists, etc. in furthering and
in future may make it possible to record the complete advancing the science.
sequence of musculoskeletal movements rather than
only a fraction of them. A fascinating new parameter AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF KINESIOLOGY
was opened up with the invention of the Electronic
Stroboscope by Harold Edgerton. This instrument Some of the important aims and objectives of kinesiology
which is capable of exposures as short as one-millionth are described below:
of a second, can record in a series of instantaneous zz To understand the human structure, and analyze the
photographs, an entire sequence of movement. This human movements, and their underlying principles:
apparatus seems particularly promising for analysis of This is probably one of the most important aims and
the various sequences of skilled movements. objectives of kinesiology. Kinesiology is the basic
Now, psychologists, psychoanalysts, psychiatrists, science in preparation of professionals of human
and other social scientists have become interested in motion, whether they are in physical education,
investigating the psychosomatic aspects of kinesiology. physical therapy, athletic training or other related
The studies of JH Van Den Berg, Edwin Straus, and profession. It provides us the knowledge about various
Temple Fay are some of the representative analyses parts of the locomotor system. In kinesiology we get
to learn what muscles, bones and joints are involved zz To improve the human structure and fitness: This
in a particular movement, and to what extent; what is also one of the important objectives and functions
principles of mechanics are involved in the movements of the kinesiology to aid the improvement of human
or the activities; what is the effect of gravity and other structure through the intelligent selection of activities
forces on the muscular system; and how the bones and the efficient use of the body. The human structure
serve as the anatomic levers in the human body and improves with use provided it is used in accordance
how the muscles provide the necessary force to move with the principles of kinesiology and efficient human
the body levers. Kinesiology thus helps us to learn and motion.
analyze all these aspects and the movements of the Kinesiology also helps to improve the general
human body and discover their underlying principles physical condition and fitness of the individuals
to improve performance. through systematic exercise program.
zz It helps to organize, integrate, and make application zz To help understand the problems of movement
of facts and principles of basic and contributing efficiency and economy: Kinesiology contributes to
sciences such as anatomy, physiology and mechanics help analyze the physiological cost, energy budgeting
in the analysis of the human motion: Anatomy deals and muscular timing of the physical activity and
with the description of internal structure of muscles, movements. The structure and mechanics of human
bones and other tissues, however it is not analytical. performance are not ignored in the economic world as
Physiology tells us about the properties of the muscles well. Many industries employ an efficiency expert who
and that all muscles possess a certain degree of tonus, is usually both a psychologist and an engineer, and
but does not enable us to know the interrelationship of whose responsibility includes determination of ways
these and other facts to the problem of posture, to the and means to secure the most efficient and economical
alteration of postural habits, and to the effectiveness of performance of work by the employees. This includes
all motor performances. Similarly, with the mechanics working position, speed, load, and flow of movement
or the physics, we learn the law of gravity, the law of as related to both production and fatigue.
inertia and different types of levers etc., however they Kinesiology contributes in the design of furniture
are mostly applied only to the nonliving objects. As and automobiles in consideration of human anatomy
such, the kinesiology is not an isolated science, rather and human comfort. However, unfortunately, the
it attempts to integrate all the relevant information comfort does not always ensure the best effect on the
from all the contributing fields for its direct application body from the use of the article. For example, a big,
to the problems of the teachers of physical education, easy and thoroughly comfortable chair, desirable for
coaches and the therapists. a period of rest and relaxation may not be suitable for
zz It contributes to successful participation in various constant use of anyone particularly a growing child
physical activities: The knowledge of analysis of due to the considerable flexion of the spine in these
human motion helps how motor skills and techniques chairs.
can be improved to ensure successful participation in Thus, the kinesiology helps the manufacturers
various physical activities. design the chairs which give support at the proper
With the knowledge of kinesiology, a teacher learns point in the back, improve and adjust the height of
the nature and effects of each physical activity so as to tables, sinks and wash basins, kitchen platform (for
select intelligently the activity which will contribute to stove), telephones, and other appliances. The present
achieve the targeted aims for an individual. If the physical day office furniture, cars, and the work equipment are
activities and skills are to be taught and poor performances also designed to satisfy anatomical and mechanical
corrected, then the teacher must be able to break the requirements of the human structure, which are also
skill and activity down into the parts, analyze them, and adjusted for individual differences. The kinesiology
finally the co-ordination of these parts will help in proper contributes in all these areas to make proper
learning of the skills and ultimately the performance adjustment for efficiency, minimizing the fatigue and
and participation is ensured. In order to understand the maintenance of good working postures.
physiological, developmental, or therapeutic effects of zz To help recognize, and correct the irregular,
an activity, it needs to be analyzed and compared with awkward movement: The knowledge of kinesiology
other activities, and the kinesiology thus helps in all these assists in recognizing and analyzing the quality of
aspects. awkward and skillful movements and correct the
irregular movements in accordance with the principles study of the mechanical principles, movements and
of kinesiology. techniques of the body and of the implements, balls and
zz To analyze the posture and body mechanics: The other equipment, kinesiology helps to prepare physical
knowledge of kinesiology is helpful in analyzing the educators and coaches to teach effective performance
posture and body mechanics. The faults of posture in both fundamental and specialized motor skills of the
can be identified earlier and accordingly scientifically sports. On the other hand, in physical medicine which
designed exercises and activity can be imparted for mainly comprise the physiotherapists and occupational
their correction. therapists, the study of the kinesiology by these therapists
zz To help understand the nature of common helps them to evaluate and apply the effect of therapeutic
musculoskeletal athletic injuries, and thus help exercises and their other techniques upon the human
in their prevention and rehabilitation: With the body, with the sole purpose of restoration of impaired
knowledge of kinesiology, one can understand the function and application of methods of compensating
nature and mechanism of most of the common the lost function of the patients. The therapists work with
musculoskeletal injuries. The appropriate preventive individuals having injuries, diseases or congenital defects
conditioning, and flexibility and muscle-strengthening affecting the motor mechanism. They must know the extent
exercises help in preventing the athletic injuries to some of the dysfunction, the reaction to expect from the muscles
extent. The application of kinesiological principles involved, what forces to oppose, how to provide substitute
to the acts of landing, falling, catching, etc. also, to motions, and where and how to fit artificial supports.
some extent prevent the occurrence of injuries in the As such, in physiotherapy and occupational therapy,
sports fields. Similarly, know how of the muscles will kinesiology aims to apply mechanical principles and
help in designing suitable activities and exercises for movements for muscle-reeducation, postural corrections,
re-educating the weak muscles during the treatment gait abnormalities, for the use of tools and household
and rehabilitation of the injuries. implements, and to the modifications of vocational and
zz It provides the educational experience to the students home making activities caused due to the limitations in
of physical education, physiotherapy and other neuromuscular capacity and skeletal structure.
related professions: The study of kinesiology is also an The goal of “effective performance” for the therapists
essential part of the educational experience of students does not refer so much to the “skillful performance”
of physical education, physiotherapy, athletic training, in sports activities as it does to the physical educators
occupational therapy and other related professions. and coaches, rather it mainly focuses to the “adequate
The students of orthopedics, recreation therapy etc. performance” in the activities associated with daily living.
also study kinesiology as part of their professional Though the physical educators and coaches apply the
training. knowledge of kinesiology mainly to the movements of the
zz Kinesiology is useful in the daily life activities: The normal body; and the therapists are mainly concerned
knowledge and principles of kinesiology help apply with the movements of a body which has suffered an
mechanically and economically efficient methods of impairment in function; the difference lies in the emphasis
using the body in various activities of daily life such and methods used, rather than in the purpose. Both the
as sitting, rising, stair climbing, lifting, carrying loads, physical educators and the therapists, however have one
pushing, pulling, etc. Not only the body can conserve common application in studying kinesiology; they are
energy but also the acts can be performed safely both concerned with posture and body mechanics of daily
without strain, fatigue or injury. life skills, and analyzing the anatomical and mechanical
bases for training, and then to the intelligent selection
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF KINESIOLOGY: of exercises, activities and other mechanically efficient
IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PHYSICAL methods, for using the body in daily life skills and sports as
according to the individual need.
MEDICINE The knowledge of kinesiology has a three fold purpose
Kinesiology finds its greatest practical applications both for the professionals of physical education and
in the professions of physical education and sports; physical medicine for the analysis and modification of
and physical medicine. The experts of both of these human movement. The kinesiology should enable them
professions are confronted to teaching the individuals to help their students or clients perform with optimum
to make the most effective use of their bodily machines. “safety”, “effectiveness”, and “efficiency”. “Safety” should
Whereas in the physical education and sports, with the be a great concern for all the movement professionals to
design or select the movements or activities in such a way determine what kinesiological knowledge to select and
as to avoid doing any harm to the body. Both the educators how to apply it in a given teaching situation.
and the therapists should also set goals for “effective” The coach should be able to explain and
performance, which is judged by success or failure in demonstrate the desired performance to the learner,
meeting the set goals. While producing an effective and also analyze the learner’s performance so that
performance, the movement specialists should also focus he can focus on the factors responsible for errors and
to achieve their movement goals with the least amount of successes and thus provide a basis for subsequent and
effort, as “efficiently” as possible. more successful attempts by the learner.
The analysis of motion alone as an aim of kinesiology zz It is helpful in evaluating the effect and usefulness
should not be an end in itself, rather it should be a means of activities: The physical educators or coaches, while
of learning new movement patterns and improving the they deal with physical development or motor skills,
safety, effectiveness and efficiency of old ones. Kinesiology the knowledge and an understanding of kinesiological
serves only half its purpose when it provides information principles help them assess and evaluate the extent
of value for learning or teaching motor skills. It must also of effect produced by the exercise and movement to
serve to lay the foundation for perfecting, repairing, and achieve the purpose for which these were prescribed.
keeping in good condition the human body, which is an zz Kinesiology assists the coach and physical educator to
incomparable machine. assess the kinesiological requirements of the activity:
For successful performance, each separate motor
ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF KINESIOLOGY IN skill demands its own combination of kinesiological
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS abilities and characteristics. For example, considerable
body mass is a necessity for inside line play in the
Kinesiology is the basic science of the physical educator football, but it is hindrance in gymnastics. Though both
who deals with the motor performance as a means toward these activities require great strength, but it should be
the development of the total individual. The development predominantly in the legs for football and, in the arms
of total individual through physical activity, and skills is a for the gymnastics.
unique contribution of physical education which perhaps The knowledge that the motor skills can be learnt at
no other branch of education aims to attain so much. highly effective levels by the performers and not merely
Therefore, the physical education teacher must have through the academic knowledge, assists the coaches
thorough knowledge of, and ability to analyze the motor and physical educators in imparting the training and
performance which kinesiology provides to him. Then only getting the desired performance.
he will be able to guide toward the most effective learning, zz Kinesiology helps the physical educator and coach
and provide the greatest benefit to the human body. to assess the activity aptitude of the performer: Since
zz Kinesiology serves the dual purpose for physical each performer be it a student or sports person has
educator; it perfects the performance in motor skills his own abilities and potentialities, the kinesiology
as well as perfects the performer: Kinesiology helps helps the physical educator and coach to match
to prepare the physical educator to teach effective the performer to the activity, and the activity to the
performance in both fundamental and specialized performer. For example, a short, stocky boy would be
motor skills. Perfecting the performance refers to much more appropriate to be a successful gymnast
mastery and perfection in the technique, and to define than he would prove to be a successful high jumper.
the standards of a skill. On the other hand, perfecting Similarly, a basketball coach will like to select a team
the performer means that an individual sports person of predominantly tall, heavy, slow-moving men as his
is made perfect in the act. The intelligent selection of defensive system.
the methods, skill, and activity will help perfect both zz Kinesiology is also greatly helpful in the design
the performer and performance. and selection of sports clothings, equipment and
zz Kinesiology helps the physical educator and coach to other facilities: The designers of sports clothing
analyze the activity for better and easier teaching: The and equipment are now more alert and keen to
knowledge and application of kinesiological principles apply the knowledge of kinesiology so as to ensure
can contribute immensely in teaching various skills the free action and movement of the sports persons
and techniques during sports coaching. It is however during the execution of sports activity. The clothing
very important for the physical educator and coach to which binds tightly through the arms and shoulders
is more fatiguing and reduces speed of action. The By ensuring proper conditioning and flexibility
clothings should be designed to provide freedom exercises, sports implements, and the knowledge of
of movement, avoid strain, and avoid weight on nature of operating forces, avoidance of fatigue all can
shoulders and back. The quality of the material for the assist a physical education teacher or coach prevent
clothing, and sports equipment, for example for the the injuries.
bats and racquets, their size, shape, and design, etc. Similarly, with his kinesiological knowledge he
all employ the kinesiological considerations for the can also assist in the first aid and therapeutic exercise
efficient and successful execution of sports skills and during the later phase of rehabilitation as guided or
techniques by the sports persons. All these ultimately directed by the physician.
help in enhancing the sports performance safely and zz Kinesiology also plays an important role in following
effectively. aspects related to physical education and sports:
zz Kinesiology aids in the prevention, first aid and —— Enables physical educator and coach to provide
rehabilitation of musculoskeletal athletic injuries: effective scientific training to the players and get
Since the athletic injuries are almost and invariably the optimal performance of the sports skills and
associated with intense physical and sports activities, techniques.
and a physical educator or a coach generally would not —— Selection of exercises and preparation of activity
be expected, by his limited knowledge in this area, to programme on the basis of individual needs, age,
make a final diagnosis of an injury. He, however, needs sex, etc.
to have an understanding of the nature of trauma. —— Helps to avoid unwanted movement, errors and
Kinesiological knowledge helps him anticipate, faults of sports skills and techniques.
prepare and be alert for the type of an injury which may —— Identification of postural faults and correction
occur in a given situation. through suitably designed therapeutic exercises

and activity.
2
CHAPTER
Anatomical and Physiological

Fundamentals of Human Motion
In order to study kinesiology effectively, the knowledge and among individuals. It is the bones which primarily determine
understanding of those anatomical and physiological aspects the characteristics of body build; the tall or short stature; the
which are most relevant to kinesiology is very essential. large or small thorax; big or small ankles, knees and wrists,
Though the bones, joints, muscles, connective tissue, blood slender or broad feet, spreading large or slender hands and
vessels and nerves are all vital elements of human motion, so on. These factors are important in the movements of the
however to analyze the human movements, the knowledge person as well as in the way he appears to the observer.
of musculoskeletal system is probably of great importance.
It is very essential to understand how the bones, joints, and Functions of the Skeleton (Bones)
muscles serve as elements in anatomical levers, which act
The bones and the skeletal system serve a number of purposes:
according to the laws of mechanics.
zz They give support and shape to the body.
The skeletal and muscular framework is an arrangement
zz The bones enable the movements by providing a rigid
of bones and muscles. Adjacent bones are attached to
structure for muscle attachment and leverage.
one another by joints which provide for the motion of the
zz They protect the vital organs such as the brain, spinal
articulating bones. And the muscles that cover or extend
cord, heart and the lungs.
the joints provide the necessary force for moving the
zz The skeletal system is also involved in the process of
bones to which they are attached. In other words, speaking
blood formation. It mostly occurs in the red bone marrow
mechanically, the total bone-joint-muscle structure is a
of femur, humerus, ilium, vertebral bodies, sternum and
complex combination of human levers that makes possible
ribs.
a great number of coordinated movements, ranging from
zz Calcium and phosphorus minerals are also stored
the small hand and finger motions used in assembling a
throughout all the bones of the skeletal system.
television set to the total body movements of a swimmer. In
The bones therefore should be rigid and strong to
the human body, a bone that engages in a turning or angular
withstand the force of the muscles which pull upon them,
type of movement forms the lever, and the muscle, attached
and also to bear the stress of the load which the levers bear.
to the bone when it contracts supplies the force to move the
All these demands and challenges are infrequently met out as
bony lever. This force is always a “pulling” force as the muscles
the bones acquire strength through the daily stress of motor
being flexible can only pull, as they are unable to push.
action.
In this chapter, therefore the essential anatomical and
physiological fundamentals most relevant to kinesiology, i.e.
the study of the skeletal system, (the bones and joints), the Types of Skeletons
muscular system, certain neuromuscular concepts, and the According to the anatomy textbooks, there are 206 bones
nervous control of voluntary movements are presented. in the human skeleton. However, only 177 bones engage in
voluntary movements. The bones that do not participate in
the movements are hyoid, the coccyx, 6 ossicles, and 21 skull
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM bones).
The human skeleton, or the skeletal system, which is made The human skeleton consists of two major parts:
up of numerous bones, is the rigid framework of the human 1. Axial skeleton.
body. Bones vary in size according to sex and race as well as 2. Appendicular skeleton.
CHAPTER 2: Anatomical and Physiological Fundamentals of Human Motion 15
About 25–30% of bone is water. Approximately 60 to 70% is

composed of minerals (calcium phosphate, and calcium
carbonate), the inorganic or nonliving material which
gives the bones hardness, and strength—an ability to resist
compression. Generally speaking, a bone can withstand
about six times the stresses to which it is subject in ordinary
activities.
The organic or living material of the bone comprises of the
cells, the fibrous matrix or collagen, and the ground substance.
The organic material constitutes a small fraction of the total
weight of the bone. All this organic matter is impregnated
with the inorganic bone salts. The collagen provides the bone
some flexibility and strength to resist tension. After maturity,
the proportions of fluid and of organic material gradually
decrease with age. For this reason, the bones of aged people
become brittle and healing becomes difficult.
There are two forms of bony tissues:
1. The compact, dense or cortical bone, and
2. The cancellous, or spongy bone.
The compact bone makes up a hard, dense outer shell. It
always completely covers bone and tends to be thick along
the shaft and thin at the ends of long bones. About 5–30% of
A B
the compact, cortical bone is porous having fewer spaces. The
Figs. 2.1A and B: (A) Axial skeleton; (B) Appendicular skeleton hard, compact bone withstands greater stress, but less strain.
The cancellous bone is about 30–90% porous and spongy
called “trabeculae” in the interior of a bone. The cancellous
The axial skeleton (Fig. 2.1A) forms the upright part of
bone has larger cavities and spaces. The trabeculae are
the body and consists of approximately 80 bones of the skull,
arranged in a pattern that resists local stresses and strains.
spinal column, sternum and ribs. The appendicular skeleton
These trabeculae tend to be filled with marrow and make the
(Fig. 2.1B) attaches to the axial skeleton and contains 126
bone lighter. Cancellous bone makes up most of the articular
bones of both the extremities. The bones of upper extremity
ends of bones.
include the scapula, clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, carpal
zz The relative quantity of compact and cancellous tissue
bones, metacarpals and phalanges. The bones in lower
varies in different bones and in different parts of the same
extremity include three fused bones of the pelvis (ilium,
bone, depending on the need for strength or lightness.
ischium, and pubis), the femur, tibia, fibula, seven tarsal
The shafts of the long bones are made up almost entirely
bones, metatarsals and phalanges.
of compact tissue, except that they are hollowed out to
zz Since the pelvis is actually a link between the axial skeleton
form a central canal, the medullary canal.
and the lower extremity (a part of the appendicular
Both compact and cancellous bone respond to the
skeleton), and is equally important functionally to both of
pressure and tension forces acting on the bone. As
these, the pelvis may be classified with either the axial or
described above, the compact bone may be considered
the appendicular skeleton.
as contributing to strength and protection, whereas the
zz Certain individuals may have additional sesamoid bones,
cancellous bone is designed to provide strength with
such as in the flexor tendons of the great toe and of the
economy in weight.
thumb.
zz The epiphysis is the end of a long bone at each end of the
diaphysis, which tends to be enlarged and wider than
Composition and Gross Structure of Bone the shaft and shaped to make a joint with adjacent bone.
Bones in a sense can be considered organs as they are made up The epiphysis is covered by hyaline cartilage to facilitate
of several different types of tissues (i.e., fibrous, cartilaginous, smooth movement, and also reduces friction. In adult
osseous, nervous, and vascular), and they function as integral bone, the epiphysis is osseous, but in growing bone the
parts of the skeletal system. epiphysis is cartilaginous material called as epiphyseal
Bone is made up of about one-third organic (living) plate. Longitudinal growth occurs here through the
material and, two-thirds inorganic (nonliving) material. manufacturing of new bone.
1. Long bones: These bones are named because their

length is greater than their width. These bones are the
largest bones in the body and form the framework of the
appendicular skeleton.
The long bones are characterized by a long, roughly
cylindrical shaft, with relatively broad or bulbous ends.
The shaft or the body of these bones has thick walls and
contains a central cavity called as medullary cavity or
canal. The examples of long bones in the upper extremity
are the clavicle, humerus, ulna, radius, metacarpals and
phalanges. In the lower extremity, the femur, tibia, fibula,
metatarsals and phalanges are all the examples of long
bones.
The long bones are adapted in size and weight for
specific biomechanical functions. The tibia and femur
are large and massive to support the weight of the body,
whereas the long bones of the upper extremity, i.e. the
humerus, radius and ulna are smaller and lighter to
promote ease of movement.
2. Short bones: These bones are relatively small and solid
bones. The short bones tend to have more or less equal
dimensions of height, length, and width, giving them
Fig. 2.2: Gross structure of a long bone (longitudinal cross section) shape like a cube. They have a great deal of articular
surface, and usually articulate with more than one bone.
zz The diaphysis is the main, long cylindrical shaft of bone.
They are mostly cancellous bone with a thin outer layer
It is made up mostly of compact bone, which gives it
of compact tissue. These bones provide limited gliding
great strength. Its center, the medullary canal is hollow
motions and serve as shock absorbers. Examples of short
which decreases the weight of the bone. This medullary
bones include the carpals (wrist bones) and the tarsals
canal contains marrow and provides passage for nutrient
(ankle bones).
arteries. The endosteum is a membrane that lines the
3. Flat bones: These bones have a broad surface but are not
medullary canal. It contains osteoclasts which are mainly
very thick. They are thin but seldom flat. They tend to have
responsible for bone resorption.
a curved surface rather than a flat one. They are made
zz In long bones, the wider part at each end of the diaphysis is
up of two layers of compact bone with cancellous bone
called the metaphysis. It is mostly made up of cancellous
and marrow in between. These bones protect underlying
bone and functions to support the epiphysis.
organs and soft tissues and also provide large areas for
zz Periosteum is the thin fibrous membrane covering all of
muscle and ligament attachments. The examples of flat
the bone except the articular surfaces that are covered
bones are sternum, scapula, ilium, and ribs.
with hyaline cartilage. The periosteum contains nerve and
4. Irregular bones: As the name implies, these bones are of
blood vessels that are important in providing nourishment,
highly different and mixed shapes that fulfill the special
promoting growth in diameter of immature bone, and
functions in the human body. For example, the vertebrae
repairing the bone. It also serves as an attachment point
provide a bony, protective tunnel for the spinal cord, offer
for tendons and ligaments.
several processes for muscle and ligament attachments,
The gross structure of a long bone (longitudinal cross
and support the weight of the superior body parts while
section) is shown in Figure 2.2.
enabling the movement of the trunk in all three planes.
Bone mass generally increases with increased stress to it.
The examples are bones such as of the spinal column (all
The size and shape of the bone is influenced by the direction
24 vertebrae), the sacrum, the coccyx and maxilla that do
and magnitude of the forces habitually applied to it.
not fit into the other types. These bones are composed of
cancellous bone and marrow encashed in a thin layer of
Types of Bones compact bone.
Despite the great variety of shapes and sizes of bones, there 5. Sesamoid bones: These small bones resemble the shape
are mainly four types of the bones, i.e. long bones, short of sesame seeds which are embedded within the tendons
bones, flat bones, and irregular bones (Figs. 2.3A to D). A of musculotendinous unit, and located near the ends
fifth type, the small sesamoid bones are also found in some of long bones in the extremities. These accessory bones
individuals. develop within the tendon and protect it from excessive
A B C D
Figs. 2.3A to D: Types of bones: (A) Long; (B) Short; (C) Flat; (D) Irregular
wear. The sesamoid bone like patella also changes or the soft tissue features. Joints also contain synovial fluid,
the angle of attachment of a tendon and increases the which lubricates the joint and nourishes the cartilage.
mechanical advantage. The structures of the bones forming a joint determine the
In the lower extremity, sesamoid bones are found in the kind and degree of movements possible at a particular joint.
flexor tendons that pass posteriorly into the foot on either side In other words, it can also be said that the type of movements
of the ankle, i.e. flexor hallucis longus. In the upper extremity, possible at a joint and degree of freedom depend upon the
these bones are found in the flexor tendons of the thumb near bony structure of a joint, and the positioning of the ligaments
the metacarpophalangeal (MP) and interphalangeal (IP) and muscles surrounding the joint.
joints. zz The freedom of movements, and their excursion (range)
The human skeleton provides several examples of the inter- vary slightly in different individuals due to limitations
relationships of structure and function. The lower extremity is imposed by ligaments, and muscles, and very slight
for better adapted to weight bearing than the upper extremity. variations in joint structures.
The pelvic girdle is a complete ring and relatively solid in the zz The joints of the body are the sites of motion just as the
pubic and the two sacroiliac articulations. The condyles of hinge on the door, or the axle of the wheel is the point of
tibia are broad and flat for the superimposed segment. The action for these two objects. If a hinge of a different type is
foot projects both forward and back from the ankle to provide put on a door, it will result in a different use of the door. The
a better base of support. Conversely, on the other hand, the revolving door, the swinging door, and the ordinary door
incomplete and mobile pectoral girdle gives great freedom with the one way hinge all behave differently because of
of motion, and the radius swinging freely around the ulna the differences in their attachments to the adjoining door
carries the hand through a wide range for placement and use frame.
of hand or fingers. zz The modern engineer is often called upon to build two
types of structures. One type of structure must withstand
the stress and strain of superimposed parts but there is
Joints little or no need for movement of component parts. Here,
All bones have articulating surfaces so that various body the emphasis is for strength and permanence of the
movements may be accomplished. These surfaces form connecting parts and a firm base for the superimposed
joints or articulations, some of which are freely movable, parts. The second type of structure is a moving one with
others slightly movable, or immovable. All kinds of joints are requirements for controlled freedom, variety in action,
important for smooth co-ordinated movements of the body. efficiency in operation, and interrelating action in various
A joint is a union or articulation of two or more bones. parts. Such a structure not only calls for a firm base but
Although joints have several functions, perhaps the most also for centers of prescribed motion that are protected
important is to allow motion. Joints also help to bear the against the forces of action.
weight of the body and to provide stability. This stability may The human frame must achieve this dual demand. The
be mostly due to the shape of the bones making up the joint, joints are fitted together or tied together as firmly as possible
but are also free for certain dynamic functions. However, in Cartilaginous Joints: These types of joints are joined together
certain most critical points of stability, or for protection of either by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage. These joints allow
internal functions, movement is sacrificed and we find the very slight degree of movements such as bending, twisting
rigidity and fixation characteristics of the static structure of and some compression. These joints provide a great deal of
the joints. stability. These joints are also called as “amphiarthrodial
joints”.
Classification of Joints The vertebral joints (Fig. 2.5) are examples of joints in
which fibrocartilage (disc) are directly connecting the bones;
The structure and function of joints are so interrelated that
and the first sternocostal joint an example of hyaline cartilage
it becomes difficult to describe them separately. A joint may
connecting the sternum and the first rib.
allow a great deal of motion, as in the shoulder, or very little
motion, as in the sternoclavicular joint. A joint that allows Synovial Joints: A synovial joint has no direct union between
a great deal of motion will provide very little stability. the bony ends, rather there is a cavity filled with synovial fluid
Conversely, a joint that is quite stable tends to have little contained within a sleevelike capsule of the joint. The outer
motion. The classification and terminology of joints are layer of the capsule is made up of a strong fibrous tissue that
presented differently by various authors. However, here holds the joint together. The inner layer of the capsule is lined
the joints are described and classified on the basis of their with a synovial membrane that secrets the synovial fluid. The
structure, and also on the function (amount of motion) articular surface is very smooth and covered with cartilage
allowed by these joints. called “hyaline” or “articulating cartilage”. A typical example
of synovial joint is shown in Fig. 2.6.
Structural Classification of Joints The synovial joints are freely movable joints and also called
On the basis of different patterns of joints structure, the joints as “diarthrodial joints”.
are classified as: These joints are however not as stable as the other types of
zz Fibrous joints but do allow a great deal of motion.
zz Cartilaginous On the basis of number of axes, and the shape of the
zz Synovial joints. joint, these joints can be further classified:
Fibrous Joints: These types of joints are joined together (A) On the basis of number of axes, the joints are classified as
by connective tissue fibers, or have a thin layer of fibrous below:
periosteum between the two bones (Figs. 2.4A and B). These zz Nonaxial
are generally immovable joints. Examples are sutures of zz Uniaxial
the skull, gomphosis (joint formed between a tooth and its zz Biaxial
socket). zz Triaxial joint.
A B
Figs. 2.4A and B: Fibrous joints: (A) Suture of skull; (B) gomphosis (joint between a tooth and its socket)
Fig. 2.5: Cartilaginous joint (vertebral Joints) Fig. 2.6: A typical example of synovial joint
zz Nonaxial joint: The joint surfaces are relatively flat and examples of this type of joints, which provide flexion/
glide over one another instead of one moving around the extension movements around the frontal axis, abduction/
other. The movement tends to be linear instead of angular. adduction movements around the sagittal axis, and the
The motion that occurs between the carpal bones is an movement of rotation around the vertical axis. As such, it
example of this type of joint. The nonaxial motion occurs is clear that triaxial or multiaxial joints allow more motion
secondary to other motion, for example, the motion of the than any other type of joints.
carpals during the flexion/extension of the wrist.
(B) On the basis of shape of joint, the joints are classified as
zz Uniaxial joint: This type of joint permits angular motion
under:
occurring in one plane around one axis, much like a
zz Plane, irregular (arthrodial): This type of joint is
hinge joint. The elbow or the humeroulnar joint is a good
characterized by two flat or irregular bony surfaces
example of uniaxial joint in which the convex shape of
the humerus fits into the concave shaped ulna. The only making the joint (Fig. 2.7). This type of joint only permits
movements possible are flexion and extension, which limited gliding movement. Therefore, it is also referred to
occur in the sagittal plane around the frontal axis. The as a nonaxial joint. The examples are the joints of carpal
other examples are the knee joint, and interphalangeal bones of the wrist, and tarsometatarsal joints of the foot.
joints of the hand and foot. The proximal radioulnar joint
zz Hinge (ginglymus): In this type of joint of which elbow
at the elbow is also a type of uniaxial joint permitting joint is a good example, one surface is spool like, and
pronation and supination movements of the forearm, the other is concave that fits over the spool-like process
occurring in the transverse plane around the longitudinal (Fig. 2.8). A hinge joint permits wide range of movement
axis. only in one plane (sagittal plane) about a single joint axis
The rotation of the first cervical vertebra (atlas) over (frontal axis), hence it is a uniaxial joint. The movements
the second cervical vertebra (axis) which occurs during that occur are flexion and extension. The other examples
the rotation of the head is an another example of motion of this type of joint are knee and ankle joints.
occurring at the uniaxial joint. zz Pivot (trochoidal, screw): This type of joint is
zz Biaxial joint: Such joints allow movements in two characterized by a peg like pivot, as in the joint between
different directions. The example is the wrist joint the first cervical (atlas) and second cervical vertebra
which permits flexion/extension movement around the (axis), or by two long bones fitting against each other near
frontal axis, and the radial and ulnar deviation occurring each end in such a way that one bone can roll around the
around the sagittal axis. The other examples of biaxial other one. The radioulnar joint (Fig. 2.9) of the forearm
joints are metacarpophalangeal (MP) joints, and the is an example of this type of joint in which the head of
carpometacarpal (CMC) joint of the thumb. radius rotates around the stationary ulna in pronation
zz Triaxial joint: This type of joint which is sometimes also and supination movements. As such, a pivot joint is also
referred to as a “multiaxial joint” permits motion actively a uniaxil joint, permitting only rotation movement in the
in all three axes. The hip and shoulder joints are the best transverse plane around a longitudinal axis.
zz Condyloid (ovoid, ellipsoidal): In this type of joint, an

oval or egg shaped convex surface fits into a reciprocally
shaped concave surface. Such joint permits movements
around two axes, therefore it is a biaxial joint. The
movements that occur in a condyloid joint such as the
wrist joint (formed between the radius and the proximal
row of carpal bones) (Fig. 2.10) are the flexion/extension
occurring around frontal axis in the sagittal plane, and
abduction/adduction or the lateral flexion occurring
around the sagittal axis in the frontal plane. When these
movements are performed sequentially, they constitute
circumduction. Some experts also refer condyloid joint a
biaxial type of “ball and socket” joint that does not permit
rotation movement.
Fig. 2.7: Plane joint (intercarpal joints of wrist) The other examples of this type of joint are the second
to fifth metacarpophalangeal joints (MP joints) of the
hand.
zz Saddle (sellar): This type of joint is thought of as a
modification of a condyloid joint in which the articulating
bones provide for reciprocal reception to each other. The
carpometacarpal joint of the thumb (Fig. 2.11) is only an
example of this type of joint in which the articular surface
of each bone is concave in one direction and convex in
the other. Both the articulating bones fit together like a
horse back rider fits in a saddle, which is why this joint is
called a “saddle joint”. As such, this is also a biaxial joint,
permitting flexion/extension, abduction/adduction,
and circumduction. The saddle joint differs from the
condyloidal joint in the sense that a greater freedom of
movement occurs in the saddle joint than a condyloid joint.
zz Ball-and-socket (spheroidal): In this type of joint, the
spherical or round shaped head of one bone fits into the
cuplike cavity of the other bone. It is a triaxial or multiaxial
Fig. 2.8: Hinge joint (elbow joint) type of joint of which the shoulder (glenohumeral) and
hip joints (Fig. 2.12) are the examples. This type of
joint permits movements about all three axes, and the
movements occurring are flexion/extension, abduction/
adduction, and rotation. The circumduction which is a
sequential combination of all four movements flexion,
extension, abduction and adduction, as well as the
horizontal flexion/extension also occurs in this type of
joint.
Functional Classification of Joints

On the basis of the amount of movement possible, the
joints are classified into following three types:
1. Synarthrodial, or immovable joints
2. Amphiarthrodial, or slightly movable joints
3. Diarthrodial, or freely movable joints.
The first two types of joints, i.e. synarthrodial and
amphiarthrodial do not have a true joint cavity. The third type,
i.e. diarthrodial joints which are also called as the “synovial
Fig. 2.9: Pivot joint (superior radioulnar joint) joints” have a joint cavity and permit free range of motion.
Fig. 2.10: Condyloid joint (wrist joint) Fig. 2.12: Ball-and-socket joint (hip joint)
Amphiarthrodial, or Slightly Movable Joints: As according to

the name, some movement is possible at these type of joints.
These joints are further divided into two types:
1. Syndesmosis (or ligamentous).
2. Synchondrosis (symphysis or cartilaginous).
zz In syndesmosis or ligamentous type of joints, slight
movement is permitted by the elasticity of a ligament
which holds or joins the two bones. The examples are,
coracoacromial joint, inferior tibiofibular joint.
zz In synchondrosis or cartilaginous type of joints, the
bones are coated with hyaline cartilage, separated by
a fibrocartilage and joined by ligaments. Movement
or motion is allowed only by deformation of the disc.
Examples are pubic symphysis, between bodies of
vertebrae, joints of ribs with sternum, etc.
Diarthrodial, or Freely Movable Joints: These types of joints
are also known as synovial joints. As described above under
the heading of “synovial joints”, a sleeve like covering of
ligamentous tissue (called joint capsule) surrounds the bony
ends that form the joint. This joint capsule is lined with a
Fig. 2.11: Saddle joint (carpometacarpal joint of thumb) thin vascular synovial membrane that secrets synovial fluid
to lubricate the area inside the joint capsule (called as the
joint-cavity).
In certain areas, the joint capsule is further thickened
Synarthrodial, or Immovable Joints: These joints are also to form tough, nonelastic ligament to provide additional
called as the “fibrous joints”. In these joints, the two bones support preventing abnormal movements or joint-opening.
grow together, with only a thin layer of fibrous periosteum The articular surfaces on the bony ends inside the joint
between them. As the name indicates, there is no movement cavity are covered with hyaline cartilage, which functions
or motion possible at these joints. Examples are the sutures of as a shock-absorber for the joint. Structurally, these type of
the skull, sockets of teeth. joints can be further subclassified, as described above under
Table 2.1: Summary of classification of diarthrodial/synovial joints

Number of axes Type of joint (shape) Joint movement Example
Nonaxial Irregular (plane) Gliding Intercarpals
Uniaxial Hinge Flexion/extension Elbow, knee
Pivot Rotation Atlas/axis, radius/ulna
Biaxial Condyloid Flexion/extension, abduction/adduction Wrist, MP joints
Saddle Flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, rotation (accessory) Thumb, CMC
Triaxial (multiaxial) Ball and socket Flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, rotation Shoulder, hip
“synovial joints”. The summary of classification of diarthrodial/ band of the fascia lata is an example of fascia that helps to
synovial joints is given in (Table 2.1). stabilize the knee joint).
zz The atmospheric pressure (resists dislocation of a joint as
Note: Since there is a strong relationship between the structure
the suction force in the joint cavity is a powerful inhibitor
and function of the joints, there is a significant overlapping
of traction or dislocation).
between both the systems of classification described above.
Various authors also classify the joints differently. As such, all
the joints of the body do not clearly fit into these systems of Mobility of Joints (Range of Motion)
classification. All the joints in the same individual do not have the same
amount of movement, and the same joint in different
Joint Stability individuals do not have the same amount of movement
or range of motion (ROM). The range of motion (ROM) is
Though the primary function of the joints is to provide the
dependent upon several factors; shape of joint surfaces,
bones of being moved. However, with the provisions of
limiting effect of the ligaments, controlling action of
movements, there is a threat of instability to the joints. As
the muscles, body build, gender, amount of fat present,
such, the joints do have a secondary function of providing
stability to the joint, without interfering with the desired occupation, age, personal exercise habits, current state of
motions or movements. physical fitness etc.
All the joints of the body do not have the same degree of
zz The strength of muscles is undoubtedly the single most
stability. Joints like hip or elbow, are fairly stable. On the other important factor that helps maintain the active mobility
hand, the joints such as the shoulder or knee are less stable or range of motion in the joints. Exercising the muscles
and therefore more easily injured. It is said “for everything on all sides of a joint can contribute to both strength and
that is given, something is taken”. As such, in the shoulder, mobility. Well developed or bulky muscles and excessive
movement is gained at the expense of stability, while in the hip, fatty tissue will also restrict motion, as is evident when
movement is sacrificed for stability. bulky arm muscles limit elbow flexion, or well developed
There are numerous factors that contribute to the calf muscles limit the knee flexion. The mobility or range
stability and integrity, particularly of synovial joints. They of motion is also relatively more in girls than boys, in
include: slender than the obese individuals, in youngers than the
zz The shape of bony structure (hip joint is more stable older people and so on. Similarly, those engaging actively
than the shoulder joint though both are ball-and-socket in certain sports like gymnastics have more flexibility
type of joints. than those involved in weight lifting, wrestling or judo. It
zz Ligamentous arrangement (these bind adjacent bones is however, important to remember that the mobility or
tightly together and help to maintain the right relationship flexibility should not exceed the ability of the muscles to
of the bones forming the joint. They also cheek the maintain the integrity of the joints.
movement when the joint reaches its normal limits for zz The specific amount of movement possible in a joint
which the joint is not constructed). may be measured by using an instrument known as
zz Muscular arrangement (the muscles and muscle tendons "goniometer” to compare the change in joint angles. It
extending the joint play a great role in stabilizing the is to be remembered that the normal range of motion
joints, particularly to the shoulder and knee joints whose (ROM) for a particular joint varies to some degree from
bony structure contributes very less to the stability). person to person. While measuring the range of motion
zz Fascia (holds the bones together and sometimes in extremities, the opposite extremity of the individual is
functions similar to ligaments within limits. The iliotibial perhaps the best norm.
Terminology of Fundamental
Joint Movements
The students of kinesiology should be familiar with the
terminology to describe the joint movements and muscle
actions. When using movement terminology, it is important
to understand that the terms are used to describe the actual
change in position of the bones relative to each other. That is,
the angles between the bones change, whereas the movement
occurs between the articular surfaces of the joint.
The movement terms are used to describe movement
occurring throughout the full range of motion or through a
very small range. Using the knee flexion for example, we may
flex the knee through the full range by beginning in full knee
extension and flexing it fully, so that the heel comes in contact
with the buttocks; or we may begin with the knee in 90° of A B
flexion and then flex it 30° more, this movement results in a
knee flexion angle of 120°, even though the knee only flexed Figs. 2.13A and B: (A) Flexion of elbow; (B) Extension of elbow
30°.
Some movement terms may be used to describe motion at
several joints throughout the body, whereas other terms are
relatively specific to a joint or group of joints.
Bones forming the joints are capable of different kinds of
movements. For defining the joint movements, it is assumed
that the body is in the anatomical position. The main
fundamental movements that occur in the human body
are as follows.
Flexion
Flexion takes place at any joint when a body segment is
moved in an anteroposterior or sagittal plane. Flexion usually
A B
involves bending movement that results in the decrease of
the angle in a joint by bringing bones together. An example Figs. 2.14A and B: (A) Shoulder abduction; (B) Shoulder adduction
of flexion at the elbow joint is when the hand is drawn toward
the shoulder (Fig. 2.13A).
Abduction
Extension This term refers to a lateral movement of a body segment,
away from the midline of the body in the frontal plane about a
This is the straightening movement from the flexed position,
sagittal axis. The example is the raising of the arm (Fig. 2.14A)
that results in an increase of the angle in a joint by moving
or leg to the side horizontally.
bones apart, usually in the sagittal plane. Using the elbow,
In case of abduction of the arm at the shoulder beyond
an example is when the hand moves away from the shoulder
the 90° angle, it is still called the abduction though the part
(Fig. 2.13B).
seems to be coming back toward the midline of the body.
Continuation of extension beyond the starting position
Similarly, the “hyperabduction” is the movement referred to
is referred to as “hyperextension” such as takes place at
the movement of the arm when it is abducted beyond the
the shoulder, knee, and at elbow to some extent. Similarly,
vertical.
hyperflexion is the movement which refers strictly to the
movement of the upper arm at the shoulder joint beyond
the vertical. Therefore, the prefix “hyper” does not indicate Adduction
a different motion, but only the excessive continuation of the This is the movement in which the body segment moves
movement involved. or returns medially toward the midline of the body from
A B
Figs. 2.16A and B: (A) Medial or internal rotation of shoulder;

Fig. 2.15: Circumduction of shoulder (B) Lateral or external rotation of shoulder
the abducted position, in the frontal plane. An example is the longitudinal axis of a bone away from the midline of the
lowering the arm to the side (Fig. 2.14B) or the thigh back to body, occurring in the transverse plane (Fig. 2.16B). Lateral,
the anatomical position. external or outward rotation of the upper or lower limb occurs
Abduction/adduction movements do not occur at the when the anterior surface of the limb or segment in turned
elbow or knee joints. At the wrist, abduction refers to the radial laterally or externally.
flexion, and the adduction to the ulnar flexion. Similarly, the
terms, abduction and adduction have different meaning in Terms Describing Movements of Forearm
case of the fingers and the toes. In the hand, the abduction
refers to the movement of the fingers away from the midline
(Radioulnar Joints)
of the hand, that is away from the middle finger. Similarly, Supination
the adduction movement would be called when other fingers
move toward the middle finger. In case of the foot, the midline This movement refers to external rotation of the radius along
is said to pass through the second toe. As such, the movement its long axis in the transverse plane so that it lies parallel to
of other toes toward, and away from the second toe is termed the ulna, and resulting in the palm-up position of the forearm,
as adduction and abduction respectively. and the thumb returning to a lateral position from the medial
one (Fig. 2.17A).
Circumduction
Pronation
This is a circular movement of a limb combining flexion,
extension, abduction, and adduction, performed either in This movement refers to internal rotation of radius along its
clockwise or anticlockwise direction. In this movement, the long axis in the transverse plane, so that it lies diagonally
body segment describes a cone with its base at the distal across the ulna, and resulting in the palm-down position of
end of the part, and the apex at the joint. An example occurs the forearm, and the thumb moving medially from the lateral
when the shoulder joint (Fig. 2.15) or the hip joint moves in a side (Fig. 2.17B).
circular fashion around a fixed point.
Terms Describing Movements of Ankle
Rotation Dorsiflexion
This is a type of movement which takes place around the
This refers to a flexion movement of the ankle in which the
long central axis of the bone. “Medial or Internal Rotation”
dorsum of the foot moves towards the anterior aspect of the
refers to a rotary movement around the longitudinal axis of
leg in the sagittal plane (Fig. 2.18A).
a bone toward the midline of the body (Fig. 2.16A). It occurs
in the transverse plane. Medial, internal, or inward rotation
of the upper or lower limb occurs when the anterior surface Plantarflexion
of the limb or segment is turned medially or inward. “Lateral This is the extension movement of the ankle in which the
or External Rotation” refers to a rotary movement around dorsal aspect of the foot and toes is lowered, and moved away
A B
A B
Figs. 2.17A and B: (A) Forearm supination; (B) Forearm pronation Figs. 2.18A and B: (A) Dorsiflexion; (B) Plantarflexion
from the body or the anterior aspect of the leg, in the sagittal
plane (Fig. 2.18B).
Terms Describing Movements of Foot

Inversion
This movement occurs when the sole of the foot turns medially
or inward in the frontal plane. An example is standing with
the weight on the outer border of the foot (Fig. 2.19A).
Eversion
This refers to a movement in which the sole of the foot is A B
turned laterally or outward in the frontal plane. An example is
Figs. 2.19A and B: (A) Inversion; (B) Eversion
standing with the weight on the inner border of the foot (Fig.
2.19B).
This is actually an adduction movement of the scapula,
Terms Describing Movements of Shoulder toward the spine (Fig. 2.20B).
Girdle (Scapula)
Elevation Upward Rotation
This refers to a superior or upward movement of the shoulder This refers to a rotary movement of the scapula in the frontal
girdle. An example is shrugging the shoulder. plane with the inferior angle of the scapula moving laterally
and upward.
Depression
Downward Rotation
This refers to an inferior or downward movement of the
shoulder girdle. An example is returning to the normal This is a downward, rotary movement of the scapula from
position from a shoulder shrug. the upward rotatory position, in the frontal plane, and the
inferior angle of the scapula returns or moves medially and
downward.
Protraction (Abduction)
This refers to a forward movement of the shoulder girdle in Terms Describing Movements of
the horizontal plane away from the spine. This is actually the
abduction of the scapula, away from the spine (Fig. 2.20A). Wrist and Hand
Palmar Flexion
Retraction (Adduction) This is actually the flexion movement of the wrist in the sagittal
This is backward movement of the shoulder girdle (from the plane with the anterior aspect of the hand moving toward the
forward position), in the horizontal plane toward the spine. anterior side of the forearm (Fig. 2.21A).
Figs. 2.21A and B: (A) Palmar flexion of wrist; (B) Dorsal flexion of
wrist
A B
Figs. 2.20A and B: (A) Protraction of scapula;

(B) Retraction of scapula
Dorsal Flexion
This is the extension movement of the wrist in the sagittal
plane with the dorsal or posterior aspect of the hand moving
toward the posterior side of the forearm (Fig. 2.21B).
Radial Flexion (Radial Deviation)

A B
This is the abduction movement at the wrist in the frontal
plane with the thumb side of the hand moving laterally toward Figs. 2.22A and B: (A) Radial flexion of wrist; (B) Ulnar flexion of wrist
the forearm. This is also referred to as the lateral flexion of the
wrist (Fig. 2.22A).
also, the opposite limb of the individual (if it is present and
unimpaired) is perhaps the best norm to which the affected
Ulnar Flexion (Ulnar Deviation)
joint or body segment should be restored in rehabilitation.
This is the adduction movement at the wrist in the frontal
plane with the little finger side of the hand moving toward the
forearm. This is also referred to as the medial flexion of the Summary of Normal Range of
wrist (Fig. 2.22B). Motion (ROM) of Major Joints
Shoulder: Flexion 0°–180°
Opposition of the Thumb Extension 0°, hyperextension 0°–45°
Abduction 0°–180°
This refers to a diagonal movement of the thumb across the
Medial rotation 0°–90°, lateral rotation 0°–90°
palmar surface of the hand to make contact with the fingers.
Elbow: Flexion 0°–145°
Extension 0°
Reposition of the Thumb Forearm: Pronation from midposition 0°–80°
This is a movement in which the thumb returns diagonally to Supination from midposition 0°–80°
the anatomical position from opposition, with the hand and/ Wrist: Flexion 0°–80°
or fingers. Extension 0°–70°
Though various authors differ for the values of normal Radial flexion 0°–120°
range of motion for different movements and joints of the Ulnar flexion 0°–30°
body, and the standardized normal values according to age, Hip: Flexion 0°–120°
sex, body build, etc. have not been established, however Extension 0°, hyperextension 0°–20°
the average normal values of range of motion which can Abduction 0°–45°
be used as a guide are presented here. As described earlier Medial rotation 35°, lateral rotation 45°
Knee: Flexion 0°–135° muscles (as the movements produced by them are under our
Extension 0° conscious control). The principal functions of these muscles
Ankle: Dorsiflexion 0°–20° are the body movements and maintenance of posture. Since
Plantarflexion 0°–45° this type of muscles are directly responsible for motor activity
Foot: Inversion 0°–30° and movement, this is the type with which we in kinesiology
Eversion 0°–15° are mostly concerned.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Functions of the Muscular Tissues

The muscles of the body are the machines by which chemically The specialized function of the muscular tissue is to contract
stored energy is converted into mechanical work. According and thereby produce motion. The functions of the muscular
to the location and distribution, the muscles of the body tissues are summarized below:
are classified into three types; (i) Smooth muscles, (ii) zz The muscles cause movement of the bones at the joints
—— Locomotion of the body from one place to another
Cardiac muscles, and (iii) Skeletal muscles. All three types
of muscles are similar in certain characteristics, however each (ambulation)
—— Changes in position of the body (i.e. standing, lying
of these three types has some distinguishing characteristics of
structure, innervation, and function. On the basis of presence down, moving of eyeballs, tongue and extremities
of cross-striation, the muscles are classified as striated, and etc.)
—— Development of muscular skills involved in our
nonstriated (plain or smooth) muscles. Similarly, upon
the basis of nature of control, the muscles are classified as activities and in our speech.
voluntary and involuntary muscles. The skeletal muscles are zz The muscles help in maintaining the posture of the body,
both striated and voluntary. Cardiac muscles are striated but the formation of walls of body cavities and the support of
involuntary, and the smooth or visceral muscles are non- the organs within cavities.
striated and involuntary. zz The muscles contribute to production of body heat and
fluid balance to the whole body.
The muscles protect the blood vessels and assist in
Smooth Muscles
zz
maintaining the circulation of the body by forceful

The smooth muscles form the walls of the hollow viscera, such contraction of the heart.
as the stomach and bladder, and of various systems of tubes, zz The muscles through respiration contribute to providing
such as are found in the circulatory system, the alimentary oxygen and eliminating carbon dioxide maintaining the
tract, the respiratory system, and the reproductive organs. vital acid-base balance of the body.
These muscle-cells possess myofibrils, but they do not have zz The muscles are agents of the brain by which we maintain
cross-striations. Therefore, these muscles are nonstriated, our independence and give expression to our inner
and have only one nucleus. These muscles are also known as thoughts and feelings.
involuntary muscles since the motions caused by them are zz The muscles also assist in reacting to the threats of danger
not under the control of our will. to our well-being.
Cardiac Muscles Skeletal Muscles

Cardiac muscles form the heart which is the most vital As described above, the skeletal muscles are responsible for
organ of the body. The cardiac muscles display structural movement of the body and all of its joints. Muscle contraction
and functional resemblances to both skeletal and smooth produces the force that causes joint movement in the human
muscles. The cardiac muscle cells are transversely striated body. There are approximately 434 voluntary muscles in the
and are involuntary. The most characteristic features of the human body, making up 40–45% of the body weight of most
cardiac muscle fibers are that they give off branches which adults. These muscles are distributed in about 217 pairs on
furnish a means of communication between adjacent fibers the right and left sides of the body. However, only about 75
for the conduction of the impulse for contraction. Therefore, pairs are involved in the general posture and movement of
the cardiac muscle is often considered a functional syncytium
the body, which concern the kinesiology most. Other than
as its whole muscle tissue acts electrically as though it were
75 pairs, the other muscles are smaller and are concerned
a single cell (though actually the muscle cells are separated
with such minute mechanisms as those controlling the voice,
structurally).
facial expression, and the act of swallowing.
These pairs of muscles usually work in co-operation with
Skeletal Muscles each other to perform opposite actions at the joints they
The skeletal muscles are named because of being attached to cross. In most cases, muscles work in groups rather than
the skeleton. These are also called as striated; and voluntary independently to achieve a given joint motion.
Skeletal muscles most usually have two parts; of a muscle for its elongation varies proportionately with the
1. Muscle belly, the soft fleshy, thick and the central part length of the muscle fiber, and inversely with its cross section.
of the muscle containing predominantly the contractile The properties of a muscle are summarized as follows;
cells, and stretch a muscle, and it will lengthen (extensibility). Remove
2. Tendon, composed of densely packed nonelastic the stretch, and it will return to its normal resting position
white fibrous tissue. The tendons are strong yet flexible (elasticity). Stimulate a muscle, and it will respond (irritability)
structures. At the end of a muscle belly, the contractile by shortening (contractility), then remove the stimulus and it
cells disappear but the connective tissue (i.e., epimysium will return to its normal resting position (elasticity).
and perimysium) of the muscle belly continue as tendon
in order to attach the muscles to the bones, cartilage or Gross and Microscopic Structure
fascia.
of a Skeletal Muscle
Muscle tissue is composed of cells, and intercellular substance,
Properties or Functional which consists of small amount of cement that holds the cells
Characteristics of Skeletal Muscles together. A single skeletal muscle cell is termed a muscle fiber
The human skeletal muscle tissue possesses the remarkable because of its thread-like shape which is specially adopted
four properties related to its ability to produce force and for the contractile function. A muscle fiber is also termed
movement about joints. These properties or characteristics the anatomical or structural unit of the skeletal muscle.
of skeletal muscles are, (i) irritability (or excitability), (ii) Each skeletal muscle consists of many thousands or lacs of
contractility, (iii) extensibility, and (iv) elasticity. No other muscle fibers. The skeletal muscle fibers are multinucleated,
tissue in the body has all of these properties or characteristics. cylindrical, elongated structures, each about one to several
To better understand these properties, it will be helpful inches in length, and about 0.01 mm (10 m) to 0.1 mm
to know that muscles have a normal resting length which is (100 m) in width, and having a clear display of longitudinal
defined as the length of a muscle when it is unstimulated, that and cross-striations.
is, when there are no forces or stresses placed upon it. Each muscle fiber is enclosed within a thin and delicate
zz Irritability refers to the ability of a muscle to respond or connective tissue sheath called endomysium. The muscle
react to a stimulus. In other words it refers to the muscle fibers are bound into bundles within bundles. Each
property of being sensitive or responsive to chemical, individual bundle called a “fasciculus”, contains about 100–
electrical or mechanical stimuli. This property enables a 150 muscle fibers and is enclosed in a fibrous tissue sheath
muscle to receive stimuli and then respond to them. called perimysium; and there are about 20–100 bundles
zz Contractility refers to the ability of muscle to contract or the fasciculi that constitute a complete muscle, which is
and develop tension or internal force against resistance encased within a tougher sheath of connective tissue called
when stimulated. When a muscle receives an adequate epimysium. In other words, this epimysium is the outer most
stimulation, it contracts and changes its shape, and may covering for each whole skeletal muscle. As described earlier,
become shorter, stays the same length or lengthen. This at the end of the soft, fleshy central belly of a muscle (which
property is very unique and highly developed in the contains the contractile cells predominantly), the connective
muscle-tissue only. tissue (the perimysium and epimysium) continue as tendon
zz Extensibility refers to the ability of a muscle of being in order to attach the muscle to the bone. The muscles vary
stretched or extended in length when a force is applied in length from about few cms. to many inches. The gross
to it. structure of skeletal muscle showing series of connective
zz Elasticity refers to the ability of muscle to readily return to tissue membranes is shown in Figure 2.23.
its original or normal resting length after the stretching or About 20% of the weight of a muscle fiber is represented
shortening force is removed. by proteins; the rest is water, plus a small amount of salts and
The two properties of muscle, i.e. extensibility and other substances utilized in metabolism.
elasticity enable a muscle to be stretched like an elastic band The connective tissue content of different muscles varies
and, when the stretching force is removed or discontinued, widely. The proportion of connective tissue is highest in the
to return again to its normal resting length. Tendons which muscles responsible for the fine and precise movements. A
are simply continuations of the muscle’s connective tissue, blood capillary is also seen near each muscle fiber alongwith
also possess these two properties. The unique properly of the endomysium. Around each muscle fiber is an electrically
contractility is possessed by muscle tissue alone. Researchers polarized membrane the inside of which is about a 10th of a
have found out that the average muscle fiber can shorten to volt negative with respect to the outside.
approximately one-half its resting length, and can be stretched The individual muscle fibers show variation in length,
to about one and one-half times its resting length. The ability width, number of nuclei, and relative amount of myofibrils
arrangement of two sets of filaments. Each myofibril is

composed of some 400 to 2,000 tiny filaments arranged
parallel to the length of myofibril, and each consists of light
and dark bands. In the center of each ‘A’ band’ is found a
slightly less refractile region called ‘H’ band’. Similarly, in the
center of each I band is found a narrow line of highly refractile
material which looks dark and named as ‘Z line’. Another line,
the M band lies transversely across the middle of the H band
which interconnects adjacent myosin filaments. The portion
enclosed by two adjacent Z lines of a myofibril is named as
sarcomere and considered to be the functional contractile
unit of skeletal muscle. The sarcomere extends 2–3 m in
length. Thus, each myofibril is divided into a series of several
sarcomeres.
The fine structure of a muscle fiber also reveals that
Fig. 2.23: Gross structure of skeletal muscle showing series of
connective tissue membranes
myofibrils contain two main filaments of contractile proteins,
the actin and myosin, which when stimulated, slide past each
and sarcoplasm present in them. According to one estimate other. The myosin filaments are thicker ones (about 100 å in
there are about 270 million striated muscle fibers in the body. diameter) and are only confined to the A-band. The length of
The biceps brachii muscle of the arm is reported to have some myosin filament is about 1.5 m (15000 å). The actin filaments
6 lacs muscle fibers. The muscle fibers are of various sizes in are thinner ones with about 50 å diameter and stretch from
the same muscle. The extent of muscle fibers in the muscle- Z line through the I band into the A band, and terminating
belly may be from one end to the other, or from one end to at H line. The length of actin filament, according to some
somewhere at midway, or both the ends within the muscle researchers is about 1 µ.
may not have any attachment on either side. zz When a muscle actively contracts or shortens, the ‘Z lines’
The thickness of muscle fibers also varies with the degree are drawn in toward the A bands. No change occurs in
of nourishment of the individual muscle fibers. The growth of the width of the A bands, but the I bands narrow. As a
muscle on systematic exercise (hypertrophy) is due to increase result, the A bands come closer together. The H band is
in total fiber volume due to increased blood supply, and not due obliterated in full muscle contraction, but reappears as
to increase of muscle fiber number. It is generally believed that an area of lesser density when the length of the muscle
the total number of muscle fibers in a muscle is not increased increases. If the muscle goes into a state of rigor, forcible
due to the exercise or training, however some of the researches attempts to stretch it will result in a tearing of the filaments,
now show that greatly enlarged muscle fibers can split down usually in the I bands. As such, according to the theory of
the middle along their entire length to form entirely new fibers, sliding filament mechanism, during muscle contraction,
thus increasing the numbers of muscle fibers as well. the I band and H band diminish in length but the A band
The muscle fibers are innervated by the cranial or spinal remains constant. As also the relative position of the
nerves and are under voluntary control. The skeletal muscle myofilaments alters during muscular contraction, but
contains both pain endings and proprioceptors. neither the actin nor the myosin filaments are shortened
Microscopic examination has revealed that each muscle
themselves.
fiber contains several hundreds myofibrils (1–2 m or micron zz During contraction, the actin filaments slide past the
diameter), which lie parallel to one another (lengthwise)
myosin filaments and thereby the actin filaments are
through the entire fiber (Fig. 2.24). The fluid material
further extended into the A band causing shortening of
called ‘sarcoplasm’ surrounds the myofibrils. Both the
the length of the H band and narrowing the sarcomere.
myofibrils and sarcoplasm are enclosed by the sarcolemma.
In this process, the myosin filament gradually approaches
The endomysium is the covering on the outside of the
the Z line and the actin filament. At certain stages of
sarcolemma. The myofibrils, which are the contractile elements,
contraction, the ends of two adjacent actin filaments may
are arranged in parallel formation within the muscle fiber and
touch each other and the I band is of minimum length.
are made up of alternating dark and light bands which give
the muscle fibers their striated appearance. These ‘dark’ and
‘light’ bands are called ‘A’ or ‘Anisotropic’, and ‘I’ or ‘Isotropic’ Protein Constituents of Muscle
band respectively. A skeletal muscle contains about 80% water, and a great
The electron microscope has revealed the striations to be a majority of its dry weight consists of proteins. The muscle
repeating pattern of bands and lines due to an interdigitating proteins actin and myosin, associated with the contractile
Fig. 2.24: Microscopic structure of a single muscle fiber
mechanism comprise about 60% of this and the remaining or cyclists. These fibers are more efficient in maintaining
40% of muscle proteins is shared equally by protein-enzymes isometric activity, are slower in their contractile action and
(as in other cells) and by stroma proteins which help in undergo fatigue less rapidly than do the fast twitch, white
holding the remaining structure in place. fibers. These are well adapted for static, longer and postural
contractions and are found more in antigravity muscles. Since
they are slow fatiguing fibers, they are important in any activity
Slow Twitch (ST) and Fast Twitch (FT) requiring endurance.
Muscle Fibers The fast twitch (FT), white fibers on the other hand,
During the first few weeks of life, mammalian skeletal muscle have larger diameter (about two times larger than slow
including that of humans develops into two different fiber twitch, red fibers) and therefore occupy a larger proportion
types: of a muscle than their number alone would indicate. These
1. Slow twitch (ST), red or tonic fibers, muscle fibers are relatively deficient in myoglobin and
2. Fast twitch (FT), white or phasic fibers. depend primarily on the anaerobic glycolytic mechanism. The
Most skeletal muscles contain some of each fibers type, fast twitch fibers fatigue more easily, but are better adapted for
but the proportions vary among both different muscles and fast, powerful, rapid, contractions than do the slow twitch, red
individuals. The slow twitch (ST) fibers are small and red. fibers. It takes fast twitch fibers only about one-seventh the
Their red appearance is due to the fact that they contain larger time required by ST fibers to reach peak tension (Fig. 2.25).
amounts of myoglobin, (the muscle hemoglobin), granular These fibers tend to predominate in flexor muscles, used for
material, sarcoplasm and mitochondria per unit area than do heavy-strength activities. They are more evident in the muscles
white muscle fibers. The myoglobin acts in the transport of of athletes who engage in high power, short-endurance events.
oxygen from the blood vessels (capillaries) in the extracellular The fast twitch, white fibers help phasic contractions by which
spaces to the sites of oxidation (mitochondria). changes in the position of the body or a limb are done.
The slow twitch, red fibers depend primarily on oxidative The proportion of slow twitch (red), and fast twitch
metabolism and probably on fat for fuel. These fibers tend to (white) fibers must be an important factor in the capacity of
be more plentiful in the muscles that are responsible for low a muscle to maintain sustained contractions. In man, most
tension activities, such as the leg muscles of endurance runners skeletal muscles contain both FT and ST fibers, in varying
zz Though, athletic training has not been shown to change

the relative proportions of fast twitch and slow twitch
fibers, however, the fast twitch white fibers have been
shown by some to convert into slow twitch, red fibers by
training. However, the change of slow twitch, red fibers to
fast twitch, white fibers have been less consistent.
Muscular Attachments
Muscles are attached to bone by means of their connective
tissue, which continues beyond the muscle belly in the
form either of a tendon (a round cord or flat band), or of an
aponeurosis (a fibrous sheet). Since muscles are attached to
bones and cross at least one joint, so when a muscle contracts,
one end of the joint moves toward the other. It is customary
to designate the attachments of the two ends of a muscle as
‘origin’ and ‘insertion’. The origin is usually characterized by
Fig. 2.25: Fast twitch (FT) fibers both reach peak tension and relax stability and closeness of the muscle fibers to the bone. The
more quickly than slow twitch (ST) fibers origin is usually the more proximal of the two attachments,
over the more stable bone. It also tends to be closer to the
trunk. The insertion, on the other hand, is usually the distal
amounts in different muscles and individuals. Some persons attachment over the more movable bone. It frequently
have considerably more fast twitch, white fibers than slow involves a relatively long tendon, which most usually moves
twitch, red fibers, and others have more slow twitch, red fibers the distal bone to which the muscle’s tendon is attached or
than the fast twitch white fibers. inserted, and toward the proximal and more stable bone.
zz Soleus muscle contains predominately the slow twitch, For example, when the biceps brachii muscle contracts,
red fibers and is said to be the muscle used to a greater the forearm moves toward the humerus, as when bringing
extent for prolonged lower leg muscle activity. a glass toward the mouth. The proximal bone humerus is
zz The gastrocnemius muscle contains predominately the more stable because it is attached to the axial skeleton at the
fast twitch, white fibers, which gives it the capability of very shoulder joint. The forearm is more movable because it is
forceful and rapid contraction of the type used in jumping. attached to the hand, which is quite movable. Therefore, the
Extensor digitorum longus and semitendinosus muscles insertion is moving toward the origin, or the more movable
also contain fast twitch, white fibers predominantly. end is moving toward the more stable end.
zz Whether training or heredity is responsible for the If the site of bony attachment is distant from the belly of
differences in proportion of slow and fast twitch muscle the muscle, the extensions of the connective tissue sheaths
fibers, has not yet been well-established. A world class merge to form either a round cord like tendon, or a flat
marathon runner may be such because of being blessed aponeurosis. The fibers of the tendon or aponeurosis are
genetically with a large proportion of slow twitch fibers. folded or interlaced with one another, so that the tension of
On the other hand, the runner’s success may be due to a the muscle is distributed more or less equally to all parts of the
training regime that either converted the runner’s innate attachment to the bone. Since a tendon collects and transmits
characteristics, or actually caused a modification in the forces from many different muscle cells onto a small area of
proportion of slow twitch (red), and fast twitch (white) bone, the site of the tendinous attachment is normally marked
fibers. by a rough tubercle on the bone. Likewise, an aponeurosis
zz The leg muscles of world class endurance runners contain gives rise to a skeletal line or ridge at its attachment.
75% to 90% slow twitch, red fibers, whereas champion The fleshy fibers of some muscles do not give way to
sprinters may have 80% to 90% fast twitch, white fibers. tendons at their attachment, but continue almost to the
The muscles of the weight lifters appear to be about bone, where the individual sheaths of the contractile muscle
equally divided between the two types. The weight lifters fibers make the attachment over an area as large as the cross-
have significantly larger white fibers than do endurance section of the muscle belly. In these cases, the skeleton will
athletes or untrained men. be smooth, as on the surface of the scapula because tensile
zz Individuals genetically endowed with a high percentage forces are widely distributed.
of FT, white fibers may choose sports requiring strength, zz It needs to be understood that the muscle does not pull
and those with a high percentage of ST fibers may choose in one direction or the other. When a muscle contracts, it
endurance sports. exerts equal force on both of its attachments and attempts
to pull them toward each other. Which bone is to remain and mastoid bones. The brachioradialias is another muscle
stationary and which one is to move depends upon indicating the bones to which it is attached. The names of
the purpose of the movement. For example, a muscle external and internal oblique muscles describe the direction
extending the anterior of a hinge joint tends to draw the of the muscle fibers and their location to one another. In the
two bones toward one another. However, most precision same way, the names pectoralis major and pectoralis minor
movements require that the proximal bone be stabilized indicate that although these muscles are in the same area, one
while the distal bone performs the movement. is larger than the other. Similarly, the other muscles deriving
zz It is also emphasized here that a muscle most usually their names as according to their size are, teres major and
can not pull in a predetermined direction. Actually there teres minor; gluteus maximus and gluteus minimus.
are many movements in which the insertion or distal
attachment of the muscle remains stationary and the origin Structural Classification of Muscles
or the proximal attachment moves. For example, in the act
of chinning oneself with hands holding onto a chinning
on the basis of Muscle Fibers Arrangement
bar, the movement is of the elbow flexion produced by the Various muscles have different shapes, and the arrangement
biceps brachii, but it is the upper arm that moves toward and orientation of muscle fibers within a muscle, and the
the forearm, just the reverse of what happens when one manner by which these muscle fibers attach to the tendons
lifts a book from the table. The grasp of the hands on the vary considerably among the skeletal muscles of the
bar during chinning up serves to immobilize the forearm human body. These structural variations form the basis for
and thus it provides a stable base for the contracting elbow a classification of the skeletal muscles. The arrangement of
flexors. Since the origin is moving toward the insertion and muscle fibers determine a role in the muscle’s ability to exert
the proximal bone humerus which is usually more stable force (the strength of muscular contraction) and the range of
has become more movable in this case, many experts refer motion that the muscle can move a body segment.
to this as ‘reversal of muscle action’. Essentially, all skeletal muscles may be grouped into
two major types of muscle fibers arrangement, (i) parallel,
and (ii) pennate; and each type may be further subdivided
Nomenclature of the Muscles (Muscle Names) into several categories according to the shape. In a parallel
The name of a muscle often tells us a great deal about that fiber arrangement, the muscle fibers are arranged in parallel
muscle. Muscle names tend to fall into one or more of the to the length of the muscle (longitudinal axis of the muscle).
following categories: Generally, parallel muscles will produce a greater range
zz Location of movement than similar sized muscles with a pennate
zz Shape arrangement of muscle fibers.
zz Action
zz Number of heads or divisions Parallel muscles are categorized into the following
zz Attachments = Origin/Insertion shapes;
zz Direction of the fibers, and zz Longitudinal: This is a long strap like muscle whose fibers
zz Size of the muscle. lie parallel to its long axis, running the whole length of the
The tibialis anterior, as its name indicates is located on the muscle. Such muscles are more uniform in diameter (Fig.
anterior surface of the tibia. The rectus (straight) abdominis 2.26A). This arrangement enables a focusing of power
muscle is a vertical muscle located on the abdomen. Likewise onto small, bony targets. The sartorius muscle which
supraspinatus, and intercostal muscles derive the name from slants across the front of the thigh is an excellent example
their location. The trapezius muscle has a trapezoid shape of this type.
(quadrilateral of which no two sides are parallel), and the zz Quadrate or Quadrilateral: Muscles of this type are
serratus anterior muscle has a serrated (saw) or jagged like usually thin, flat, and are four sided. They consist of
attachment anteriorly. Some other muscles indicating the parallel fibers which originate from broad, fibrous, sheet-
name to their shape are rhomboids, deltoid, etc. The name of like aponeuroses that allow them to spread their forces
the extensor carpi ulnaris muscle tells us that its action is to over a broader area (Fig. 2.26B). The examples include
extend the wrist (carpi) on the ulnar side. rhomboid (muscle between the spine and the scapula),
Similarly, the levator scapulae, erector spinae, supinator, pronator quadratus (on the front of the wrist). The other
and extensor digiti minimii muscles are named indicating examples are rectus abdominis and external abdominal
their action. The triceps brachii muscle is a three-headed oblique muscle.
muscle on the arm, and the biceps femoris muscle is a two- zz Fusiform or Spindle Shaped: These are usually a rounded
headed muscle on the thigh, and similarly, the quadriceps type of muscles with a central belly which tapers to tendons
femoris, triceps surae, biceps brachii etc. are named. The on either end (Fig. 2.26C). The muscles of this type may be
sternocleidomastoid muscle attaches on the sternum, clavicle long or short, large or small. This fiber arrangement allows
A B
A B C
Figs. 2.27A to C: Pennate muscle fibers arrangements.
(A) Unipennate; (B) Bipennate; (c) Multipennate
C D on both sides of a long central tendon (Fig. 2.27B). It

Figs. 2.26A to D: Parallel muscle—fibers arrangements. (A) Longi resembles a symmetrical tail feather. Examples are rectus
tudinal; (B) Quadrate or quadrilateral; (C) Fusiform (spindle); femoris and flexor hallucis longus muscles of thigh and
(D) Triangular (fan-shaped) leg respectively.
zz Multipennate: These muscles have several tendons with
the muscles to focus their power onto small, bony targets. the muscle fibers running diagonally between them (Fig.
Examples are the brachialis, biceps brachii, and brachio- 2.27C). The middle portion of the deltoid muscle is a
radialis muscles of the upper extremity. prime example of this type of muscle.
zz Triangular or Fan-shaped: These are also a relatively
flat type of muscles whose fibers originate from broad Effect of Muscle Structure on
aponeuroses and converge onto a narrow tendon (Fig. Force and Range of Motion
2.26D). In other words, the muscle fibers at one end
have a broad attachment and on the other end a narrow The force a muscle can exert is proportional to its total
attachment. A good example of this type is pectoralis physiological cross-section which is a measure that
major muscle on the front of the chest. The trapezius is accounts for the diameter of every muscle fiber and whose
another example. size depends upon the number and thickness of the fibers.
In the pennate muscles, the muscle fibers are shorter Keeping all other factors constant, a muscle with a greater
and arranged obliquely or diagonally to attach to a central cross-section diameter will be able to exert a greater force.
tendon at an angle to the muscle’s longitudinal axis, in a A broad thick, longitudinal muscle will exert more force than a
structure similar to that of a feather. Each fiber in a pennate thin muscle. However, in a pennate muscle with oblique fiber
muscle attaches to one or more tendons some of which arrangement, the total cross-sectional area of the muscle is
extend the entire length of the muscle. This arrangement much larger than that of a parallel muscle and as such, the
increases the cross-sectional area of the muscle, thereby force or power produced by the muscle is significantly greater.
increasing the power, however these muscles tire quickly. Pennate muscles are the most common type of skeletal muscle
and predominate when forceful movements are needed.
Pennate muscles are categorized as following based The range through which a muscle shortens to move a
upon the exact arrangement between the fibers and joint depends upon the length of its fibers. Experimentally
the tendon. it has been shown that an average muscle fiber can shorten to
zz Unipennate: In this type of muscle, a series of short about one-half of its resting length, and can be stretched until it
parallel, feather like muscle fibers runs obliquely or is about one and half times of its original length. Generally, the
diagonally from a long tendon on one side only, giving the longer muscles with parallel, longitudinally arranged muscle
muscle as a whole the appearance of a wing feather (Fig. fibers such as sartorius can shorten and exert force through a
2.27A). Examples are seen in the biceps femoris, extensor greater range and are more effective in moving joints through
digitorum longus, and tibialis posterior muscles of the leg. large ranges of motion than the pennate muscles having the
zz Bipennate: This is double penniform muscle in which shorter muscle fibers producing a smaller ranges of motion.
the muscle fibers run obliquely or diagonally in pairs The pennate muscles, with their oblique fiber arrangement
and short fiber length, can exert greater force through only a accomplished by it. The energy which would normally
short range of motion. be displaced as mechanical work is dissipated as heat.
zz According to some kinesiologists, actually no muscle
Types of Muscle Contraction contraction is perfectly isometric or static, as even
under the most rigid laboratory conditions, the
The word ‘contract’ literally means to ‘draw together’ or to
contractile elements within a muscle shorten by about
shorten. As such, the term muscular contraction appears to
3% of their length by stretching the elastic components.
create some confusion initially. A muscle contraction occurs zz Posture is largely maintained by isometric contractions
‘whenever there is development of tension within the muscle’,
of certain muscles of the back and the legs, where
or ‘the muscle fibers generate tension in themselves’. As
muscular tension is required to counter-balance the
such, a muscle contraction may not necessarily change the
effects of gravity upon the body.
length, rather it may shorten, or lengthen a muscle depending zz According to an estimation, on the average, the
upon the nature of the work demanded during the muscle
isometric strength of the muscles of the upper
contraction.
extremities of women is about 55% that of men; that
Muscle contractions are mostly classified as:
of the muscles of the lower extremities, about 70%, and
zz Isometric, or Static contraction, and
that of the trunk muscles, about 66% of men.
zz Isotonic contraction.
A third type of muscle contraction, i.e. isokinetic
contraction is a less common type of muscle contraction. This Isotonic Contraction
is referred by some experts as a type of exercise rather than a The term ‘isotonic’ originating from the Greek means ‘same
muscle contraction. tone or tension’. Isotonic contraction is a type of contraction in
which the tension developed in the muscle remains the same,
Isometric or Static Contraction but with definite change in the length of the muscle or the joint
angle. Due to causing change in the length of the muscle or the
The Greek term ‘isometric’ composed of two parts, ‘iso’ (means
joint angle, isotonic contractions are sometimes also referred
same) and ‘metric’ (means length) altogether means ‘same
by some as dynamic contractions. The force developed by the
length’. As such, an isometric contraction occurs when tension
muscles is either greater or lesser than a given resistance and
is developed within the muscle, without any appreciable
these types of muscle contractions either produce or control
change in the length of the muscle. The muscle may contract
the active joint movements.
partially or completely producing force within it, but the joint
During an isotonic contraction, the muscle either shortens
angle remains the same. Therefore, an isometric contraction
or lengthens. The ‘shortening’ and ‘lengthening’ type of
is often referred to as a static contraction as a significant
isotonic contractions are usually referred to as ‘concentric’
amount of tension developed in the muscle maintains the
and ‘eccentric’ contractions respectively, though technically
joint angle, more or less in a static or stable position.
An isometric type of muscle contraction is likely to occur these terms do not have the same meanings.
under two different conditions; The terms ‘concentric’ and ‘eccentric’ do not indicate the
1. The muscles that are antagonistic to each other contract degree of tension, rather they merely indicate a decrease or
with equal strength, thus balancing or counteracting increase in length of the muscle. Similarly, the use of term
each other. The body part is held tensely in place without ‘isotonic’ is also not without criticism because it is felt that the
moving. Tensing the biceps brachii to show of its bulge tension developed within a muscle does not remain the same
is an example of this. The contraction of triceps brachii throughout its range.
prevents the elbow from further flexing. A described above, the isotonic type of muscle contraction
2. A muscle is held in either partial or maximal contraction is further classified into;
against another force such as the pull of gravity, or an zz Concentric, and
external mechanical or muscular force. Examples of this zz Eccentric contraction.
are holding a book with outstretched arm, a tug of war
between two equally stronger opponents, and attempting Concentric
to move a too heavy object. A concentric contraction involves development of tension
zz The force or tension developed in the muscle is either as a muscle shortens. The attachments of the muscle (origin
insufficient or not desired to move the body part and insertion) move closer toward each other. The muscle
against a given resistance. The force developed by develops enough force to overcome the applied resistance
the muscle either can not move the given resistance and there is a joint movement in the direction of applied
or is equal to the given resistance. And, since the muscle force. As such, in the concentric contraction, force
muscle does not move at all, technically no work is applied by the muscle is greater than the resistance and the
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with proper deliberation, one’s feeling would be that things were
working out according to plan, and the next thing was to get clear—
above all things, to see plenty of people, and to behave quite
naturally in company.”
“Why that?” asked Gordon.
“To establish your alibi. People are often careless about that.”
“By the way,” asked Carmichael, “did you bring a paper with you
down from London? I’m interested to see the verdict in that Stanesby
case. The young fellow is connected, I hear, with the Stanesbys of
Martington.”
“Afraid I left London at three, and that’s too early for anything but
betting tips. I say, you fellows, it’s stopped raining.”
Chapter II.
In the Rough
The view from the third tee was one which even a golfer might
pause to admire. Let the Wordsworthian say what he will, railways
ennoble our landscape; they give to our unassuming valleys a hint of
motive and destination. More especially, a main line with four tracks
pillowed on a sweep of tall embankment, that cannot cross a
meandering country stream without a stilt-walk upon vast columns of
enduring granite, captivates, if not the eye, at least the imagination.
Such was the railway that stretched far into the distance, paralleling
the course of your drive on the right: such was the great viaduct,
some hundred feet ahead of you, that spanned laboriously, over four
giant arches, the little river Gudgeon, most insignificant of streams.
Shallow and narrow it ran, fringed by willow-herb and meadow-
sweet, a paddling-place for cows and for unoccupied caddies. Here
and there it threw out a patch of osiers—one in particular, that
nestled at the foot of the railway-arches, was especially dreaded by
golfers. In front, just visible above the railway where it receded
northwards, were the thatched and tiled roofs of Paston Whitchurch,
the next station down the line. To the right lay the old house, in its
melancholy grandeur, behind it the village and church of Paston
Oatvile. A superb avenue of elms connected the old house with the
road between the two villages. The sun had newly come out,
showing grass the greener and earth the browner for the late rain;
elemental scents of turf and furrow greeted its restoration.
It may be doubted whether Mordaunt Reeves was particularly
sensitive to such influences; if he was, it may have been this
distraction which made him slice his drive. The ball dwindled down
the gradual slope towards the river; cleared in a couple of bounds
the tussocks of thick grass that dotted the little valley, and buried
itself at last in the osier bed at the foot of the arches. Gordon and he
—they were partners—set out at once to retrieve it, distrusting the
efforts of an inefficient caddie, who was nearer the spot. It was only
a closer view that showed how well-chosen a lair was this for a golf-
ball hard pressed in the chase. The ground was all tussocks of rank
grass, with hidden runlets that made islands of them; stubborn little
shoots of willow arrested the searching club. They might have spent
a full half-hour in vain scrutiny, had not Reeves’s eye lighted
suddenly on something he never looked to find there, a darker patch
among the surrounding green, close to the foot of the first arch. It
showed the outlines of a man.
A dog sleeps on the alert, with the visible threat of waking at any
moment. A man’s sleep is like the sleep of the horse; it imitates
death. Reeves’s first idea was that this man who lay so still must be
a tramp who had strayed off the London high-road, and was taking
his siesta in the lee of the viaduct. Then a gleam of more than
military intelligence assured him that on such an afternoon of
downpour a man composing himself to sleep would have been under
the arch, not by the side of it. “Hello!” he shouted uneasily to Gordon,
“looks as if there was something wrong here.” Together they
approached the prostrate body; it lay face downwards, and there
was no movement of life. The thrill of distaste with which healthy
nature shrinks from the sight of dissolution seized both of them.
Gordon had served three years in the army, and had seen death; yet
it was always death tricked out in the sacrificial garb of khaki; there
was something different about death in a town-coat and striped grey
trousers—it was a discord in the clear weather. The sun seemed to
lose a shade of its brightness. Together they bent, and turned the
body over, only to relinquish it again by a common instinct. Not only
did the lolling head tell them that here the architecture of the human
frame had been unknit; the face had disappeared, battered
unrecognizably by some terrible and prolonged friction. They looked
upwards, and knew at once that the sloping buttress of the arch, all
of rough granite, must have intercepted a fatal fall, and added to its
horror. Little about the head could be distinguished except closely-
cut grey hair.
“Poor devil,” said Gordon huskily. “Down from the line, I suppose.”
“I say,” said Reeves, “we mustn’t let the caddie see this. Send him
across to fetch the other two.” Marryatt and Carmichael were now
close behind them, and came up almost immediately.
“Is there somebody dead?” asked Marryatt. “I say, how awful.” He
kept on walking up and down as if thoroughly unnerved, repeating to
himself, “How awful.” Carmichael, for once, was dumb. It was a new
voice that summed up the situation, in the words, “ ’E’s got ’is
properly, ain’t ’e?” and they turned round to find the caddie obviously
enjoying a new sensation.
“Look here, we must move this somehow,” suggested Gordon.
“What about the tool-house under that arch?”
“I’m not quite sure I could lift it,” said Reeves.
“That’s all right, sir,” said the caddie, “I’ll whistle across to Ginger;
in the scouts ’e was; they teach ’em what to do with bodies and that.
’Ere, Ginger!” and as his fellow-caddie approached, “Bloke fell off of
the railway-line and smashed hisself up something cruel.” Ginger
whistled: “Dead, is ’e?” “Not half ’e ain’t; shamming, that’s what ’e is;
go and ’ave a look at ’im.”
Ginger satisfied his curiosity on the point; and these two cold-
blooded young persons proceeded to hoist the body on to an
ingenious arrangement of sticks, and so carried it off, under
Gordon’s directions, to the tool-house.
As the spell of the uncanny presence was removed, Reeves’s
horrified embarrassment ebbed from him a little, and left him with the
sense that he ought to take command of the proceedings.
“Where’s Beazly likely to be?” he asked—Beazly was the doctor.
“He went out in the rain,” said Marryatt; “I should say he’d be
about the tenth or eleventh by now. Look here, I’ll nip across and get
him,” and in a moment he was running across the fairway.
“Seemed glad to get away,” said Reeves; “well, it’s too late for
visiting the sick, and too soon for burying the dead. Carmichael,
you’re looking a bit on edge, too; would you mind going across to
Paston Whitchurch station and ’phoning up the police? Binver, I
suppose, is the nearest place to get a bobby from. You will? Good.”
And as Carmichael too made off, “Look here, Gordon, what are we
going to do about it? I’ve got the feeling that there’s something
wrong here. What do you say to doing a bit of detective work on our
own—or are you feeling rotten?”
“Oh, I’m feeling all right,” said Gordon, “only what about the
police? Won’t they want to look through the man’s things first? It
would be awkward if we put ourselves on the wrong side of the law.
Funny thing, I’ve no idea whether there’s any law against searching
a dead body; yet, if there isn’t, how do the police ever get their
clues?”
“Oh, rot, the police can’t be here for a good half-hour, and Beazly
won’t mind if he comes along. Let’s take a bit of a look round,
anyhow. He fell off the arch, and smashed up his face against the
buttress, that looks pretty clear. Now, did he fall off the line, or off a
train?”
“If you ask me, I should say he fell off the parapet. I’ve noticed,
sometimes, what a long way it really is from the door of one’s
carriage to the parapet—a man falling from a carriage would never
reach the edge.”
“Ah,” said Reeves, looking up, “but you’re imagining the train
stationary. He would be hurled forward some way by the impetus, if
he jumped off a moving train. And I should say he could have started
falling down that bank to the right, just before the parapet begins.
He’d roll forwards and sideways, if you see what I mean, till he got to
where the stonework begins, up there, and then, plop.”
“I dare say you’re right. Anyhow, we’d better be quick and look at
the body.”
As they went towards the tool-house, Reeves gave a sudden
exclamation. “By Jove, his hat! And it’s—let’s see—I should say
fifteen yards to the north of the body. Now why?”
“How do you mean?”
“There was no wind this afternoon. If his hat fell with him, it would
lie with him. If it lies a dozen yards away, that looks as if—as if it was
thrown after him. The considerate fellow-passenger hardly does that,
does he?”
“You mean there’s been dirty work?”
“I mean it looks as if there’d been dirty work. Now for the tool-
shed.”
To search a dead body is not an easy performance, unless you are
in a hurry and have got to do it. Gordon did most of the work, and
Reeves checked his results for him. The pockets contained a
handkerchief, marked with the name “Masterman,” a cigarette-case,
of a common pattern, containing a cigarette of a brand smoked by
every second man in the neighbourhood, a half-empty box of
matches, a pipe and an empty pouch, two florins, a letter and a
business communication both addressed to S. Brotherhood, Esq.,
and a watch and chain. They also found, written on the back of the
letter, a pencilled list of goods, as if to remind a man of his shopping
needs.
“It’s a queer thing,” said Reeves, “that watch; because he’s got
one on his wrist too. How many people, I wonder, carry a stomach-
watch as well as a wrist-watch? It’s stopped, I suppose?”
“Blessed if it isn’t going! An hour fast, apparently, but going. Good
advertisement for the makers, what?”
“But the wrist-watch?”
“That’s stopped.”
“When?”
“Six minutes to five.”
“What did I say about trains? The 4.50 from Paston Oatvile would
be just passing here at six minutes to five. How’s that for deduction?”
“Looks all right, anyhow. And, by Gad, here’s a third single from
town to Paston Whitchurch. Is to-day the sixteenth? Yes, then that’s
quite on the square. Now, stand by while I see if his clothes are
marked.”
But neither coat nor shirt, neither collar nor trousers bore any mark
of ownership. The suit was from Messrs. Watkins in New Oxford
Street, the shirt and collar were of a brand which it would be mere
advertisement to mention. During all this time, Reeves was making a
transcript of the three documents, not without a certain sense of
intrusion upon a dead man’s confidence. As Gordon began to look
into one of the boots, Reeves gave a whisper of warning, and a
policeman (for they have motorcycles even in the police force) came
into distant view. Panic seized the forces of Baker Street, and
(forgetting that they had a perfect right to be in charge of the dead
man’s body) they resumed, very shamefacedly, their search for the
lost ball. It seemed incongruous somehow, to be worrying about a
golf-ball—ought there to be a local rule about what happened if you
found a corpse on the links? Certainly the game had been
abandoned, and the caddies, to their great regret, sent back with the
clubs.
“Good evening, gentlemen,” said the policeman, eyeing them
narrowly. It was not that he suspected them or anybody of anything;
he merely sized them up by force of habit to see whether they were
the kind of people you touched your hat to or the kind of people you
told to move on. The scrutiny being favourable, he allowed them to
slash about in the undergrowth and watch, with ill-concealed
curiosity, the official proceedings of Scotland Yard.
Scotland Yard did very much what they had done, only with a
splendidly irrelevant thoroughness. Not only the destination, class,
and date of the ticket had to be registered in the notebook, but its
price—there even seemed to be a moment’s hesitation about the
Company’s regulations on the back. Nor did the names of the
cigarette-importer and the collar-maker go unrecorded; both
watchmakers, the post-marks on the correspondence, the date on
the florins—nothing escaped this man. Tired of waiting for the doctor
and the inevitable ambulance, Gordon and Reeves abandoned the
truant ball, and made their way thoughtfully to the dormy-house.
Wilson, the club gossip, met them at the entrance. “Heard about
old Brotherhood?” he asked, and went on, before they had time to
gasp: “He’s gone bankrupt; heard it to-day in the City.”
“Really?” said Reeves. “Come and have a drink.” But if he thought
that he too had the telling of a story, he was mistaken; the door
opened on a well-known voice:
“Yes, sliced his drive badly, did Reeves. A curious thing, that,—you
‘slice’ a ball in golf and you ‘cut’ a ball at cricket, and it’s the same
action in either case, and yet it’s nothing whatever to do with the
motion of cutting a cake. What was I saying? Oh yes. Right against
the viaduct—did you ever see the big viaduct they’ve got at Welwyn?
A finer one than ours, even—he found . . .”
Which made it evident that Mr. Carmichael was telling, in his own
way, the story of the day’s adventure.
Chapter III.
Piecing it Together
If the general accommodation at the Paston Oatvile dormy-house
cannot be described as cloistral, it must be admitted that the rooms
in it where you can claim privacy are not much better than cells.
Mordaunt Reeves, however, had done something to turn his
apartments into a civilized dwelling-place; there were pictures which
did not illustrate wings, and books devoted to other subjects than the
multitudinous possibilities of error in playing golf. Gordon and he had
each a comfortable arm-chair, each a corner of the fire-place to flick
his cigarette-ash into, when they met that evening to talk over the
possibilities of the situation as it had hitherto developed.
“Everybody,” said Reeves, “if you notice, has already started
treating an assumption as if it were a fact. They all say it was
Brotherhood we found lying there; they all say he committed suicide
because he had just gone bankrupt. Now, as a matter of fact, we
don’t know that it was Brotherhood at all. He has not been heard of,
but there hasn’t been much time to hear of him; and nothing is more
probable than that a man who has gone bankrupt should skip without
leaving any traces.”
“Yes, but somebody’s dead; you’ve got to find a gap somewhere in
the ranks of Society to match our corpus.”
“Still, that’s mere negative arguing. And there are several points
that tell against its being Brotherhood. In the first place, that ticket.
Brotherhood goes up and down every day; do you mean to tell me
he hasn’t got a season? Second point, if it was Brotherhood there’s
an odd coincidence—he died within ten minutes’ walk of his own
bungalow; why there, any more than anywhere else on the line?”
“It’s a coincidence that Brotherhood should be killed so near his
own bungalow. But the murder, whether we like it or not, has been
committed just there, so I don’t see why it shouldn’t be him as much
as anybody else. However, go on.”
“Third point, the handkerchief. Why should Brotherhood be
carrying somebody else’s handkerchief?”
“If it comes to that, why should somebody else be carrying
Brotherhood’s correspondence?”
“Oh, Brotherhood is mixed up in it somehow right enough. We
shall see. Next point to be considered, was it accident, suicide, or
murder?”
“You can cut out accident, surely. That would be a coincidence—
somebody carrying Brotherhood’s letter to fall out of the train by
mere accident just where Brotherhood lives.”
“Very well, for the present we’ll ask Murder or Suicide? Now, I’ve
several arguments against suicide. First, as I told you, the hat. He
wasn’t alone when he fell out of the carriage, or who threw the hat
after him?”
“There was no mark in the hat, was there?”
“Only the maker’s; that’s the irritating thing about this business.
Hats, collars, shirts, people buy them at a moment’s notice and pay
cash for them, so there’s no record in the books. And watches—of
course you don’t have a watch sent, you take it with you, to save the
danger of carriage by post. I’ll try all those tradesmen if the worst
comes to the worst; probably the police have already; but I bet
nothing comes of it.”
“What’s your next argument against suicide?”
“The ticket. That extra four bob would have got him a first instead
of a third. Now, a man who means to commit suicide doesn’t want
four bob, but he does want to be alone.”
“But the suicide might have been an impulse at the last moment.”
“I don’t believe it. The place where he fell was just the one place
about here where he was bound to kill himself, not merely maim
himself. That looks like preparation.”
“All right. Any more?”
“No, but I think that’s enough to go on with. The probability I’m
going to bet on is murder.”
“You’re up against coincidence again, though, there. Why should
somebody happen to murder Brotherhood on the very day he went
bankrupt?”
“You will go on assuming that it is Brotherhood. Supposing, just for
the sake of argument, that Brotherhood has saved a nest-egg for
himself, and is skipping to avoid his creditors—what better way of
throwing people off the scent than by a pretended suicide?”
“That is, by pitching a total stranger down the viaduct.”
“I didn’t say a total stranger. Suppose it were somebody in pursuit
of him, or somebody he suspected of pursuing him?”
“But he couldn’t be sure that the face would get mangled like that.
It was only one chance in a thousand that the body should scrape
down all along that buttress on its face.”
“He may simply have wanted to kill the man, without hoping that
the corpse would be mistaken for him. After all, we’ve got to explain
the ticket; a man who takes a single ticket down here is almost
certainly not a resident here—the half-fare is so cheap. A spy,
tracking him, or somebody he takes to be a spy tracking him. He
stuns the man while he’s not looking, and then pitches him out. He’s
desperate, remember.”
“Well, it seems to hang together that way.”
“But I’m not at all sure that’s the right way. I’m not at all sure that
Brotherhood isn’t the murderee, and the murderer somebody
unknown—such a murder might be connected with a bankruptcy, a
ruined creditor, for example.”
“And how are you going to look for the murderer if that’s so?”
“You’re going to help me. We’re going to have a little detective
holiday, and leave the game alone for a bit. Of course we must find
out all about Brotherhood first—it’s extraordinary how little people
seem to know about him. I asked four men in the Club whether he
wore a wrist-watch or not: two couldn’t remember, one said he did,
and one swore he didn’t. But there must be some servant who looks
after his bungalow for him; so I’m going there to-morrow to pump
them.”
“Introducing yourself as Mr. S. Holmes of Baker Street, or how?”
“No, I shall be the Daily Mail reporter—unless I run into the real
article on the mat. Now, would you mind following up the Masterman
clue?”
“What Masterman clue?”
“There are only two Mastermans in the Telephone Directory. A
man dressed like that would be sure to have a telephone.”
“But I thought you’d made up your mind it wasn’t a local person at
all, because of the ticket?”
“I know, it’s probably a wild-goose chase, but it’s the best we can
do on that tack. Both are at Binver; one’s a solicitor and one a
doctor. I’ll give you the addresses.”
“And I’m to go to them and ask them what kind of handkerchiefs
they use? Or should I meet them accidentally and say, Excuse me,
sir, could you lend me a handkerchief, I’ve left mine at home?”
“Well, you can find out whether they’re dead, anyhow.”
“And if they’re still alive?”
“Well, scout around somehow. Do anything that occurs to you.
This business ought to be rather fun, if we exercise a little ingenuity.”
“Meanwhile, let’s have another look at those documents. We don’t
seem to have made much out of them, and that’s a fact.”
They sat for several minutes in silence, re-reading the copy
Reeves had made of the anonymous letter. It was undated; the
address was in printed capitals; it had been post-marked in London
at starting, and at Paston Whitchurch on arrival. The content of the
message was a mere series of numbers, as follows:
8 7 5
18 4 7
21 2 3
25 6 4
31 4 8
74 13 9
92 29 7
97 5 3
113 17 13
10 12 13
“Unless they’re sums of money,” said Gordon, “I can’t make head
or tail of it all. And if they were sums of money, it would be a queer
way to arrange the spacing.”
“Wait one moment,” said Reeves, “I believe I’ve got the idea of it.”
He put his hand to his forehead. “Yes, that does it. It’s a cipher, of
course, otherwise there’d be something to explain what it’s all about.
It will be a book cipher; the first figure gives you the page, the
second the line, and the third the word in the line. How’s that?”
“That’s devilish ingenious,” admitted Gordon, “but you can hardly
prove it.”
“I can practically prove it,” said Reeves. “Look here, the man
wanted to spell out a message in ten words. There was a book,
arranged upon somehow beforehand. The first few words were
ordinary words, that you could find anywhere on any page: and
naturally, to save himself and the other man trouble in counting, he
took them from the top of the page, so you get lines 7, 4, 2, 6, and 4
of pages 8, 18, 21, 25 and 31. The sixth word he wanted was an
obscure sort of word, perhaps even a proper name. He had to go
right on to page 74, and even then he could only find his word on the
13th line of it. Then the next two words came easy, comparatively,
but the ninth word was a brute, he couldn’t find it till page 113, and
on the 17th line at that. And by that time he’d got nearly to the end of
the book—a book, then, of only 120 pages or so probably; a paper
edition, I suspect—so he had to go back to the beginning again,
which he hadn’t meant to do.”
“Bravo!” said Gordon. “Have another injection of cocaine.”
“The curse of the thing is,” said Mordaunt Reeves, “that with a
book cipher you can’t possibly guess the message unless you’ve got
the book. I think we shall have to establish the identity before we get
any further on that tack. Let’s have a look at the letter now.”
The letter was a curt official communication from the Railway
Company, only the details being filled in in ink, the rest a mere
printed form:
London Midland and Scottish Railway.

10. 10. 19XY.
Dear Sir,
I beg to acknowledge receipt of your letter of 9th instant and have
given orders for a berth to be reserved in the sleeping car attached
to the 7.30 train on Thursday (corrected to Wednesday) the 18th
(corrected to 17th) of October to Glasgow. I note that you will join the
train at Crewe.
S. Brotherhood Esq.
“These corrections are rummy,” said Reeves. “I wonder if perhaps

Brotherhood’s letter corrected itself in a postscript? You see,
assuming that Brotherhood was skipping, it’s all right for him to go to
Glasgow—rather ingenious, in fact—but why shouldn’t he travel to-
night, the sixteenth, instead of to-morrow night?”
“He couldn’t get away early enough. Or could he? Got a
Bradshaw?” Gordon proceeded to look up the trains with an irritating
thoroughness, while Reeves danced with impatience—there is no
impatience like that engendered by watching another man look up
Bradshaw. “That’s all right,” said Gordon at last. “In order to catch
the Scottish train at Crewe he’d have had to take that earlier train,
the one Marryatt came up by, and get out at Binver. He took the
3.47, I suppose, because he couldn’t get away sooner. Perhaps, if
we’re right in thinking he wanted to skip, he was going to go across
country by car to-morrow and confuse his tracks a bit.”
“The thing doesn’t look like skipping quite as much as it did. For
Heaven’s sake let’s beware of prejudicing the case. Anyhow, he
meant to make for Glasgow on the Wednesday night—that’s to-
morrow night, isn’t it? Now let’s have one more look at that silly list
that was on the back of the anonymous letter.”
The list had been copied almost in facsimile, for it was very short.
It ran
Socks
vest
hem
tins—
at least, that was the general impression it gave, but the writing was
so spidery as to make it very doubtful which precise letter each of
the strokes represented.
“I suppose it must be a shopping-list of some sort. If one could
make that last word ‘ties’ it would read better,” said Gordon.
“But even so you wouldn’t have hems in a shopping-list.”
“It might be ham.”
“But one doesn’t buy ham at the hosier’s.”
“And why did he write at the edge of the paper like that?”
“If it comes to that, who was the he? It’s not Brotherhood’s writing
—I’ve verified that from the club book. I fancy this goes pretty deep.
Look here, here’s a bit of detection for you. That sheet has been torn
off at the left-hand side, hasn’t it? Now, was it torn off before or after
the writing was put on it?”
“Before, surely. Otherwise the initial letters wouldn’t be so
complete; he’d have been certain to tear across them.”
“I’m not so sure. Who writes so close to the edge of a piece of
paper as that? Remember, I copied the thing down exactly, and each
word was close up against the tear.”
“I don’t quite see what difference it makes, anyhow,” objected
Gordon.
“More than you think, perhaps. I shouldn’t wonder if this bit of
paper turned up trumps, when we’ve thought it over a bit more. But
there’s one thing that fairly beats me.”
“What’s that?”
“Those two watches. It doesn’t seem to me to make any sense.
Well, we’d better get to bed and sleep over it.”
Chapter IV.
Endless Clues
There is no surer soporific than sleeping over a problem, no more
fallacious method of attempting a solution. After murmuring to
himself three times, “Let’s see; there was something about watches,”
Mordaunt Reeves fell into a sleep which anybody but a
psychoanalyst would have called dreamless. He woke in the morning
with a strong resolution to do the ninth in four, which melted through
lazy stages of half-awareness into the feeling that there was
something else to do first. The adventures of yesterday, the duties of
to-day, returned to him. He was already nearly dressed when he
remembered that he had decided on the rôle of a Daily Mail reporter
for his morning’s investigation, and grimly set himself to remove
again the bulging knickerbockers and the hypocritical garters of his
kind. Dressy they might be, but they were not Fleet Street. His
memories of the reporter’s wardrobe were, it must be confessed,
somewhat disordered, and he was greeted in the breakfast-room
with flippant inquiries whether he had gone into mourning for the
Unknown Passenger.
He found Gordon already at table with Marryatt—Marryatt in the
high clerical collar which was irreverently known to his intimates as
“New every morning.”
“Well, how are you feeling?” he asked. “You looked rather chippy
yesterday. However, I suppose it brings a job of work your way.”
“Confound it,” said Marryatt, “that’s the trouble. The jury at the
inquest are bound to bring in suicide; and then I can’t bury the man
in the churchyard, and all the villagers will say I refused out of spite,
because the poor old chap used to give these atheist lectures on the
village green.”
“Rot!” said Gordon; “if they do find suicide, they’ll certainly say he
was of unsound mind.”
“Yes,” echoed Reeves, “if they do bring in suicide.”
“But surely you can’t doubt it,” urged Marryatt energetically. “The
man’s just gone bankrupt, and it was an ugly case, from what I hear;
several innocent people who’d been fools enough to believe in him
left in the cart. At the same time, the smash came very suddenly,
and that makes it unlikely that anybody could want to murder the
man so soon. Oh, you’ll find it’s suicide right enough.”
“Well,” said Reeves a little stiffly, “we’re going to do our best to find
out between us. I’ve the greatest respect for the police as a body, but
I don’t think they’re very good at following up clues. When I was in
the Military Intelligence one was constantly putting material at the
disposal of the police which they were too supine or too stupid to
use.”
“Well, good luck to your sleuthing; but mark my words, you’ll find it
was suicide. I’m going to play a round now to try and take my mind
off the thing, but I don’t believe I shall be able to drive at the third
after—after what we saw yesterday.”
Left to themselves, Mordaunt Reeves and Gordon arranged that
they would meet again at luncheon and report on the morning’s
investigations.
“And look here,” said Reeves, “it’s a belief of mine that one wants
to cover the ground oneself if one’s to visualize the setting of a crime
properly. So I vote that after lunch we stroll down to the railway and
take a look at the top of that viaduct, and then take the 4.50 from
Paston Oatvile to Paston Whitchurch so as to picture the whole thing
exactly as it happened.” And so they parted, Reeves walking to
Brotherhood’s bungalow, close to Paston Whitchurch station, while
Gordon mounted a motor-bicycle and set out for Binver, a sleepy
market town of some importance as a railway junction, about twelve
miles off.
Mr. Brotherhood’s housekeeper, Mrs. Bramston, had something of
the airs of a landlady. She spoke painfully correct English, far more
terrible than the native cockney which it half revealed and half
concealed. She commenced where others began, closed doors
where others shut them, and recollected instead of remembering.
Her final consonants were all sibilant, and seemed to form part of the
succeeding word. She was a merciless and largely irrelevant talker,
and the opportunity of a stranger’s visit delighted her, self-
importance easily triumphing over any regret she may have felt for
the apparently deceased. She had no doubt that Reeves was a
reporter, but it is probable that she would have opened out quite as
readily if he had announced himself as the piano-tuner.
“From the Daily Mail? To be sure, sir. I’m always fond of looking at
a paper myself, and as for the Daily Telegraph, I simply revel in it.
Called about poor Mr. Brotherood, I suppose; well, there isn’t much
doubt what’s come to him, poor soul. . . . Not Mr. Brotherood at all?
Don’t you delude yourself, young man; that’s him, sure enough. The
police, they wanted me to go and look at the corpse; but I didn’t
hardly like to; battered they say it was, something shocking. His
clothes? Of course they were his clothes; you don’t think he’d want
to be putting somebody else’s clothes on to commit suicide in, do
you? That’s the same as he always wore; plain black coat and grey
striped trousers, just the same as it was in the papers. . . . What
tailor he went to? No, I couldn’t rightly say that; though I’ve had the
folding of them many a time; very neat man he was, Mr. Brotherood,
in his personal habits. Oh, I dare say there’s others as have clothes
like his, only you see the way I look at it is, if the clothes were on Mr.
Brotherood, then it’s Mr. Brotherood’s clothes they’ll be, that’s the
way I look at it.
“A single gentleman? Yes, a single gentleman he was, single and
singular, if you’ll pardon the jeu de mots. Very singular in his habits.
Every Saturday off he’d go, just the same as it was in the papers,
and where he went to is more than I can say, though I’ve been
looking after him the best part of a year now. Every afternoon from
Monday to Saturday he’d come home by the five o’clock train, and
then he’d go for his round of golf, and I’d have a bit of cold supper
ready for him when he came home. . . .
“No, I can’t say that I’ve noticed anything strange about him of
late. You see, he was always a very reserved gentleman, Mr.
Brotherood was; very silent, if you understand what I mean, in
conversation.” (Reeves felt that this was probably a characteristic
common to most of Mrs. Bramston’s interlocutors.) “Time and again
he’s said to me would I mind leaving him now because he’d got a
great deal to do. I recollect about a fortnight ago he did seem rather
put out about not being able to find his overcoat when he went out to
deliver his address to the villagers; but I found it for him. . . . No, it
isn’t much more than two months ago since he commenced
exhorting. I never could see what he did it for; not that I go to church
myself, but you see the way I look at it is if people want to go to
church why not let them go to church? Live and let live, that’s what I
say. I shouldn’t call myself a religious woman, mind you, but I like to
see everyone go their own way, and not leave tracts. Miss Frobisher
she used to come here with tracts, but I said to her, ‘Miss Frobisher,’
I said, ‘you’re wasting your time leaving tracts here,’ and so she
was. . . .
“Mad, sir? Oh dear no, not what you could call mad. Of course we
all have our own little ways, haven’t we, sir? and as I was telling you,
Mr. Brotherood was singular, but not demented; I should never have
stopped with Mr. Brotherood had he been demented. . . . Suicide? Of
course it was suicide; and there’s some say Mr. Marryatt won’t bury
him in holy ground, don’t they? Well, you take my word for it, Mr.
Brotherood wouldn’t mind about a little thing like that. Some people
seem not to mind what happens to them once they’re gone: Mr.
Bramston was like that, while he was spared to me; never seemed to
mind if we were to take a spade and bury him in the back garden,
that’s the way he looked at it. But of course, I wouldn’t have that, and
he was buried properly in holy ground, Mr. Bramston was, and the
minister recited the service over him beautiful. . . . What, must you
be going already, sir? Well, I’m sure it’s been a great privilege to me
to afford you information. Good morning, sir.”
This is an abridged account of the interview, but it contains all the
material disclosures made by Mrs. Bramston. Reeves found himself
pitying the coroner who would have to face and to stem that seething
torrent of conversation. He came back to the dormy-house to find
that it was already nearly time for luncheon, and Gordon was waiting
for him, returned from his errand at Binver.
“Well, have you found out anything?” asked Gordon.
“Yes,” said Reeves, “I’ve found a wife for Carmichael. I’ve found a
woman who could give him a stroke a hole at back-chat.” And he
launched into a description of Mrs. Bramston’s voluminous utterance
and her insignificant contribution to the solving of the mystery.
“Had you any better luck?” he went on.
“Acting upon instructions received, I proceeded first of all to the
offices of Messrs. Masterman, Formby and Jarrold, Solicitors. It’s
one of those jolly old Queen Anne houses facing on the High Street;
with a flagged walk up to the front door and blue gates that need
painting—or rather, it would spoil them if you did. It’s been turned
into an office, and the inside is all musty and smells of decaying
paper. The mustiest thing there was the old clerk I went up to and
asked if I could see Mr. Masterman. And he said, ‘I’m afraid not, sir;
Mr. Masterman is dead.’ ”
“Dead? How? When?”
“My very words. And the old gentleman said, ‘About twenty-three
years ago. Would you like to see Mr. Jarrold?’ Well, that did me in
rather, because even if old Masterman did bequeath his
handkerchiefs to Jarrold, it isn’t likely that old Jarrold would be still
using them, though they would about match his furniture if he did.”
“How did you get out of it? You were rather badly placed.”
“I was, and I cursed you pretty freely. However, I extricated myself
without any heart-to-heart talks with Mr. Jarrold. I just said, ‘I’m so
sorry, I must have made some mistake; this is Doctor Masterman’s
house, isn’t it?’ That killed two birds with one stone, I eluded
suspicion and also got directed to the other Masterman house, a big
house, the man said, at the other end of the water-meadow behind
the church.”
“So you went on there?”
“No; it occurred to me that a man who lived in a house that size
probably kept a man-servant or two, and it was up to me to
personate one of them. So I went round to the Binver Steam
Laundry, where I’m not known personally; and said I was from Dr.
Masterman’s, and could they be kind enough to inform Dr.
Masterman as to what action they intended taking about the twelve
last handkerchiefs that hadn’t come back from the wash. That
sounds risky, but it wasn’t really, because all men think they’ve more
clothes at the wash than they really have. The lady in charge was
quite patient and kind, obviously well accustomed to that sort of
complaint; she said all Dr. Masterman’s handkerchiefs had been sent
back. Fortunately I bluffed, and insisted upon a search; after a bit
she came and put into my hands a pile of handkerchiefs, which I
took away with me. There were five of them, four Mastermans and a
Brotherhood.”
“Oh! That rather looks as if——”
“Exactly; it looks as if we ought to have recognized the touch of
the Binver Steam Laundry. In fact, it would be very suspicious in
these parts if you found a dead man wearing one of his own
handkerchiefs. Well, there seemed no point in keeping any of them,
so I dropped the lot into Masterman’s letter-box. Unusual, perhaps,
but I felt it would save explanations.”
“Well, I’m sure we’re all very grateful to Mr. Gordon for his splendid
work among the Mastermen. But it begins to look as if we were left
very much where we were. We still don’t even know who the corpse
was.”
There was a knock at the door, and the unwelcome figure of
Carmichael obtruded itself. “Sorry if I interrupt,” he said, “but I
thought you might be interested in this poor fellow we found
yesterday. My caddie this morning was giving me the latest news. It’s
extraordinary how these caddies pick up everything except one’s
ball.”
“What news?” gasped Reeves.
“Well, it seems that Brotherhood was insured at one of these
American offices. And they’re a great deal more particular than our
own Insurance people. And after all they’re right to be: one’s so apt
to think of the Insurance Company as a set of sharks, when in reality
they are only protecting the interests of their policy-holders.”
“Granted,” said Gordon. “Proceed.”
“Well, as soon as they heard of the bankruptcy and then saw the
news in the morning paper about the Links Tragedy, the Insurance
Company pricked up its ears. Apparently, in the actuarial world,
bankruptcy followed by alleged suicide is a matter of daily
occurrence, and they have their suspicions. That is why I say they
are quite within their rights when they insist upon registering a man
by his birth-marks before they insure him. It’s an extraordinary thing
about birth-marks; we really know nothing about them——”

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Chapter 6: Elbow and Radioulnar Joints 94

Chapter 2: Anatomical and Physiological Chapter 9: Hip 116

Section III Motor Skills: Principles

Chapter 4: Shoulder Girdle 79 Chapter 13: Posture 157

Chapter 14: Locomotion 173 Chapter 16: Prevention of Sports Injuries:

Anatomical and Physiological Fundamentals

occur in a given situation. through suitably designed therapeutic exercises

Anatomical and Physiological

About 25–30% of bone is water. Approximately 60 to 70% is

1. Long bones: These bones are named because their

zz Condyloid (ovoid, ellipsoidal): In this type of joint, an

Functional Classification of Joints

Amphiarthrodial, or Slightly Movable Joints: As according to

Table 2.1: Summary of classification of diarthrodial/synovial joints

Figs. 2.16A and B: (A) Medial or internal rotation of shoulder;

Terms Describing Movements of Foot

Figs. 2.20A and B: (A) Protraction of scapula;

Radial Flexion (Radial Deviation)

MUSCULAR SYSTEM Functions of the Muscular Tissues

maintaining the circulation of the body by forceful

Cardiac Muscles Skeletal Muscles

arrangement of two sets of filaments. Each myofibril is

Fig. 2.24: Microscopic structure of a single muscle fiber

zz Though, athletic training has not been shown to change

C D on both sides of a long central tendon (Fig. 2.27B). It

London Midland and Scottish Railway.

“These corrections are rummy,” said Reeves. “I wonder if perhaps

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