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WOMEN’S AND GENDER
STUDIES IN INDIA
This book frames the major debates and contemporary issues in women’s and gender studies
in India. It locates them in the context of key theories, their interlinkages, and significant
crossings and overlaps within the field while juxtaposing feminist and queer perspectives.
The essays in the volume foreground emerging challenges as well as offer clues to future
trajectories for women’s and gender studies in the country through a comprehensive and
interdisciplinary survey of intersectionalities in feminist activism and theory; gender, caste
and class; feminist, masculinity, queer and transgender studies; disability and feminism;
feminist and queer pedagogies; and Indian,Western and transnational feminisms.The volume
traces how gender studies have shaped established social science as well as interpretative and
representational discourses (psychoanalysis, literature, aesthetics, cinema, new media studies
and folklore). It examines their strategic potential to draw upon and transform these areas in
national and international contexts.
This book will be useful to students, teachers and researchers in women’s studies, gender
studies, cultural studies, queer studies and South Asian studies.
Anu Aneja is Professor at the School of Gender and Development Studies, Indira Gandhi
National Open University (IGNOU), New Delhi, India, and is currently Associate Editor for
Gender and Education. She taught for several years at Ohio Wesleyan University, USA, where she
was the recipient of the Rebecca Brown Professor of Literature award. She was awarded the
Beatrice B. Maines fellowship for research in women’s studies, at the University of California,
Berkeley. Her research interests include feminist theory and aesthetics; contemporary French,
francophone and Indian women writers; feminist perspectives on mothering; and feminist
pedagogy. Her publications have appeared in various international journals. She is the author
of Embodying Motherhood: Perspectives from Contemporary India (co-authored with Shubhangi
Vaidya, 2016) and the editor of Gender and Distance Education: Indian and International Contexts
(2019). She has previously served as Chairperson, Department of Humanities and Classics,
Ohio Wesleyan University; and Director, School of Continuing Education, and Director,
School of Gender and Development Studies, IGNOU. She has also served on the editorial
team of the Indian Journal of Open Learning, IGNOU.
WOMEN’S AND
GENDER STUDIES
IN INDIA
Crossings
List of figures ix
List of tables x
Contributorsxi
Acknowledgementsxiv
PART I
Stirrings, across time and place 21
PART II
Interleaves: conceiving theories, theorizing identities 91
PART III
In-disciplinarities193
PART IV
Entwining feminism and pedagogy: inside the institution 259
PART V
Conversations across borders 305
Index375
FIGURES
Karen Gabriel is Associate Professor and Head, English Department, and Founder-
Director, Center for Gender, Culture and Social Processes, St Stephen’s College,
University of Delhi, India. She has published extensively on issues of gender, sexual-
ity, cinema, melodrama and the nation state.
Mary E. John is Professor, Center for Women’s Development Studies, New Delhi,
India, which she headed from 2006 to 2012. She has authored and edited several
books, including Discrepant Dislocations: Feminism, Theory, and Postcolonial Histories
(1996) and Women’s Studies in India: A Reader (2008).
Vibhuti Patel is Chairperson and Professor, Advanced Centre for Women’s Studies,
School of Development Studies, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, India.
She retired as Professor and Head of Economics Department of SNDT Women’s
University, Mumbai, in 2017. Her areas of specialization have been gender econom-
ics, women’s studies, human rights, social movements, declining sex ratio and gender
budgeting.
Namita Paul teaches in the Department of English, Kamala Nehru College, Uni-
versity of Delhi, India. Her research interests include queer theory, film studies and
cultural studies.
Contributors xiii
Sharon Pillai is Assistant Professor of English, Jesus and Mary College, University
of Delhi, India. Her research interests include Indian literature and cultural studies,
gender and feminist studies, literary theory and colonial and postcolonial practices
of knowledge production. Her publications have appeared in various national and
international journals.
To begin at the very beginning, this book was conceived in the course of various
animated conversations that took place at different times and very different time
zones with friends whose enthusiasm gave me the conviction that it was indeed
an idea worth pursuing – B. Venkat Mani, Aneil Rallin, Ian Barnard and Shub-
hangi Vaidya.Without the generosity of friends, no demanding project is possible or
pleasurable, and they have made this one both.
I am most deeply indebted to all of the contributors of this book – for their
openheartedness towards an idea and a vision I shared with them, for dedicating
precious time and effort in thinking through and expanding upon its originally
conceived ‘crossings’, and for charting their own unique pathways through the
mists to bring into much clearer focus the landscape of women’s and gender stud-
ies in India. Needless to say, the book would not have been possible without their
distinctive unfoldings of its various facets.
Being the editor of an anthology inherently implies being its first ‘reader’, and
I am grateful to all the individual authors for granting me this special privilege.
I thank them too for their immense patience and goodwill along the long and
winding road that editing and proofreading entail. In the order in which they first
appear in the book, they are Sharon Pillai, Mary E. John, Vibhuti Patel, Mangala
Subramaniam, Preethi Krishnan, Anindita Majumdar, Anita Ghai, Sanjay Srivas-
tava, Namita Paul, Shubhangi Vaidya,Vrinda Marwah, Karen Gabriel, Deepti Priya
Mehrotra, Meenakshi Malhotra, Akshaya K. Rath, Rachana Johri, Sujatha Subra-
manian, Leena Pujari, Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Taisha Abraham, Krishna Menon
and, last but not at all the least, Aneil Rallin. For lending their unique voices to
a roundtable forum conceptualized, designed and sparked into lively ‘queer and
now’ conversation by Aneil, I am indebted to all of his forum participants – Dipika
Jain, Akhil Kang, Sheena Malhotra, Hoshang Merchant, Shakthi Nataraj, Chayanika
Shah, Nishant Shahani, Oishik Sircar, and Ruth Vanita. A very special thank you
Acknowledgements xv
also to Chandra Talpade Mohanty for her permission to republish an earlier piece,
to Mary E. John for drawing together previous work in keeping with this book’s
focus, to Taisha Abraham for setting aside time to update an earlier article, and to
all three for their faith in my choices. The crossings that the book attempts remain
inextricable from the trajectories formerly traversed by all those who have contrib-
uted; and without a doubt of many, many others before them whose pioneering
work in women’s and gender studies forms the bedrock on which this collection
attempts to build. My apologies for not attempting the daunting and near impos-
sible task of naming each one of them individually and my deepest gratitude to all
of them collectively.
For permissions to reprint revised and updated versions of some previously
published content, I would like to thank the journal Signs from the University
of Chicago, Indian Journal of Gender Studies, Gender & Education (Taylor & Francis)
and In Plainspeak (Tarshi). For permissions to use several images from their col-
lections, many thanks to Frances W. Pritchett (Columbia University) and to Priya
Paul (Priya Paul Collections). Although every effort has been made to incorporate
due acknowledgements for re-published content and images in relevant chapters –
apologies, in advance (on my behalf, and on behalf of the individual authors) – for
any inadvertent omissions or errors; sincere apologies also to any copyright holders
we may not have managed to seek out despite our very earnest attempts to do so.
This book would undoubtedly not have come about without Shoma Choud-
hury’s confidence in the project, and her reassuring virtual presence throughout its
making. A special thank you to her, and to Rimina Mohapatra, for their ever timely
and gracious support – most especially to both for helping me negotiate the many
slippery curves on the road to copy editing, design and production.
I cannot thank enough the IGNOU Central Library for conjuring up difficult-
to-trace books and articles on demand, and for their prompt and congenial assis-
tance which helped save me valuable browsing hours in the stacks and online.
Thanks also to colleagues and staff in the School of Gender & Development Stud-
ies for many hours of good-humoured company.
To both my parents, and especially to my mother, who showed me how to think
equally.
To Neel, partner in projects, small and big, for helping make room for this one.
To Kabeer, for under the wire digital rescues. And for bringing into perspective
future connotations of ‘crossings’ – here’s to the onward journey!
INTRODUCTION
Women’s and gender studies
at the crossroads
Anu Aneja
The crossroads at which women’s studies and more recently gender studies find
themselves today in India is a unique juncture in their travelogue. On the one hand,
the discernible influence of the women’s movement and of feminist scholarship is
an indication of the consequential significance of the overlapping terms ‘women’
and ‘gender’ in contemporary times, terms of equal import for those involved in
activist and academic pursuits, in public discourse, and especially for those in places
of power from which vantage point taxonomies can be facetiously bandied about as
a rationalization for state largesse. On the other hand, and paradoxically so, feminists
involved in the movement and in institutionalized spheres of women’s and gender
studies (henceforth WGS) confront new challenges to their ideology and threats
to their survival each day. These challenges continue to sculpt the contours of the
field that must relentlessly adapt to changing circumstances while being attentive
to internal evolutions. A rich body of scholarship in the area buttresses these efforts
and provides the flag posts of the achievements and obstacles on the tortuous tra-
jectory. It would indeed be almost impossible to offer a comprehensive account of
this journey, and such an ambitious effort has not been attempted here. Difficult as
it is to achieve perspective on present circumstances, this book is rather intended as
an attempt to come to grips with some of the significant turning points that help
ascertain the contemporary location of WGS, and that may hint at future directions.
It has also been my effort to create room for certain issues in the changing field of
WGS that continue to solicit greater attention, with a view to advancing scholar-
ship in these areas.
As is well known, in India, women’s studies has drawn its verve from the wom-
en’s movement, as well as allied with other progressive social movements energized
by the desire to undo systemic inequities. At the same time, it has from time to time
either resisted or welcomed the push to embrace issues seemingly beyond women’s
immediate concerns – issues such as masculinity and alternate sexual identities – and
2 Anu Aneja
to expand its rubric into the larger one signified by the term ‘gender studies’ – a
move that at once signals a contemporary trend towards greater inclusivity, a gesture
towards the constructedness of ‘gender’, along with the potential risks of diluting
extant exigencies flagged by the term ‘women’. More significantly, the overlap-
ping terms ‘gender’ and ‘women’ are imbued and complicated by their enduring
crossings with complex questions of caste, class, religion, ethnicity, disability and
sexuality, leading to ongoing intersectional re-hatchings. At the same time, feminists
working across disciplines have been attentive to revised connotations and episte-
mologies of ‘women’ and ‘gender’ while drawing upon indigenous as well as inter-
national theoretical perspectives to posit forward-looking frameworks for feminist
discourse in India.The pull and push between activist and academic pursuits (when
not in tandem), tensions generated by ways of being in a world that is predomi-
nantly patriarchal, and the institutional hierarchies within which feminist academ-
ics function give rise to both convergences and incompatibilities. These diverse
and pressing claims raise critical questions about the core identity of women’s and
gender studies in India today, its disciplinary epistemologies, the nature of the con-
texts which energize it, and the issues which (should) have primary importance for
scholars and activists alike. They have brought into focus a defining moment – a
crossing if you will – in the ongoing chronicle of WGS in India.
Such a crossroads offers a unique perch from which to survey the intriguing
array of possibilities for an exploration of the differentials that continue to occupy
the women’s movement and women’s (and now gender) studies. It brings us to
ponder if we have come to an impasse rather than the metaphorical light at the end
of the tunnel so painstakingly carved out by the pioneers of the women’s move-
ment. Or, is the impasse merely a snag, a temporary stumbling block which marks
the onset of a different trajectory? Where (and how) do we go from here? These
vexed but fascinating questions offer no easy resolutions; yet, they do invite specula-
tion, discussion, debate, analysis, critique, theorizing and of course, movement – a
shift in our ways of thinking about such questions.
Taking these questions as catalysts, this collection of essays seeks to locate the
fluctuating precincts of women’s and gender studies in terms of its various cross-
ings and overlaps – such as those of women and gender, activism and epistemol-
ogy, feminist and queer movements, national and international contexts, ability
and disability, and past and present times. As we will see, these crossings unfold
in multifarious forms – as intersectionalities, intertwinings, frictions, encounters,
dissonances, hybridizations, cross-hatchings, conversations, translocations, impasses,
solidarities and coalitions. Rather than binaries, these couplings are intended to
suggest a braided interweaving of estimated boundaries, with a view to unearth
their rich effects on the current shape of the field, and to examine related implica-
tions in the contexts of activism, research and pedagogy. As a way of highlighting
the complex nature of such a webbing, feminist, non-normative queer perspectives,
and discourses on masculinity are juxtaposed while many of the chapters flag the
inherently interdisciplinary and intersectional nature of WGS to show how gen-
der is inextricable from caste, class, religion, sexuality and disability in India. The
Introduction 3
At the same time, changing circumstances and growth within the field of wom-
en’s studies have produced its own internal contestations and engendered new
and enriching partnerships. As mentioned earlier, some of these include a cleft
between activist and academic priorities, the push to expand ‘women’ to ‘gender’
in a move intended as inclusive but viewed sometimes as a dilution of primary
issues concerning women, debates over the disciplinary and interdisciplinary status
of women’s and gender studies, complexities of determining the nature of the live
subject denoted by the term ‘woman’ in the context of its intersectionalities and
heterogeneities, and the challenge of reconciling diverse Indian and international
theoretical frameworks and perspectives. Given the consequential import of issues
prioritized by the women’s movement for the current configuration of WGS, any
consideration of these developments must also take into account the evolving and
dynamic relationship between the two. Since this relationship has been examined
in some detail within the book, I offer here only a brief account of certain critical
junctures that may be of relevance in terms of its thematic structure.
Even though it is customary to trace the inception of the women’s question to
the reform movements and women’s struggle during the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries, it is also acknowledged that unequal power relationships between gen-
ders are steeped in a long history of complex, hierarchical social structures going
back to ancient India (see, e.g., Roy 2010), much like other patriarchal societies
across the world. It is particularly in modern history, however, that we come across
organized ways of resisting systemic inequities. In Western nations, in the after-
math of the Enlightenment period, women’s movements and anti-slavery move-
ments radicalized the call for equality and democratic rights, igniting activist and
consciousness-raising groups while providing fuel for the critical and theoretical-
academic discourses regarding women’s concerns and subjectivities that were to
find institutionalized spaces across the globe in the latter half of the twentieth cen-
tury. These discourses came to be reflected across disciplinary boundaries – in the
social sciences, literary and cultural studies, philosophy, arts, media, ecology, sciences
and other areas.2
In India, the fillip provided by the anti-imperialist struggle to women’s active
participation in resistance movements came to shape a distinctive partnership
between the women’s movement and its academic counterpart, women’s stud-
ies, during and after independence. Closely aligned with the freedom movement
and dissidence against imperialism in its inception, the women’s movement has
remained deeply concerned with the interrogation of, and struggle against, the
entire nexus of hegemonic inequities, of which gender forms a critical part. The
leadership provided by many educated women activists during anti-colonial resist-
ance opened up avenues of public participation alongside an awareness of the
deep-rooted patriarchal oppression that had kept middle-class women hostage to
domestic constraints.3 Hence, in its early phase, the women’s movement addressed
gender-based oppression and marginalization through protest and activism, start-
ing primarily with matters concerning educated upper- and middle-class urban
women, taking up issues such as dowry, ‘bride burning’, female infanticide, child
Introduction 5
marriage and widow remarriage. Over time, its penumbra would expand to include
the concerns of poor, rural and Dalit women in an increasing self-awareness of the
need to become more inclusive. In the latter part of the twentieth century and
in the new millennium, mainstream women’s studies discourse has been interro-
gated by marginalized groups (based on caste, class, disability, sexuality and religious
equality) and movements (based on tribal, land and forest rights). Some of these
concerns have yet to be adequately addressed, as is highlighted by many of the
contributors of this collection.
The Dalit women’s movement has questioned the privileging of upper-caste
women’s priorities and the scant attention paid to Dalit women’s historiography in
women’s studies discourse in India. Issues of sexuality and alternate sexual identi-
ties, as taken up by the queer rights movement, and a concomitant interrogation
of the ‘normative’ have impelled a different interface with the women’s movement.
Disability scholars have increasingly drawn attention to the particular concerns of
disabled women and the need to interrogate normative notions of able-ism, of the
body and of beauty within a highly heteronormative culture. Activists and WGS
scholars have responded in a variety of ways to internal critiques, as is evident from
recent feminist scholarship. An embeddedness within socialist positions strength-
ened during and after the freedom movement and considered engagements with
the intersectionality of gender and caste have yielded a wealth of research on Dalit
women’s histories, autobiographies and fiction (see, e.g., Rege 2006). Scholarship
on the dialectics between women, class and labour in a rapidly industrializing, capi-
talist society has allowed us to see how these are deeply enmeshed (see Sen 2008;
John 2017). A growing body of work in the area of feminist disability studies has
brought to the fore issues of gender and disability and their hitherto institutional-
ized marginalization (see Addlakha 2013; Ghai 2003) and expanded the limits of
the field by drawing attention to specific concerns, such as the intersectionalities of
motherhood and disability (see Vaidya, in Aneja and Vaidya 2016).
Efforts at redrawing boundaries and building solidarities are yet far from satisfac-
tory. For instance, although lesbian and queer activists and theorists have continued
to make inroads into the mainstream movement, there exist ongoing reservations
about offering legitimate academic space to queer studies, associated as it often is
with ‘Western’ sensibilities and influences (much like the term ‘feminism’ itself).
Thus, in discussions of the intersectionality of the women’s question, the issue
of (non-normative) sexual identity is one which still vies for serious attention.
Masculinity studies continues to operate alongside WGS, and the role of ‘men in
feminism’ can invite both enthusiasm and guarded speculation. This has resulted
in the somewhat ‘separate’ growth of scholarship in the area of masculinity, queer
theory, transgender rights and related areas, even while research in these areas has
continued to unravel the imbricated nature of femininity and masculinity as well
as the prevalence of same-sex love practices during different periods of Indian
history and led to fruitful exchanges with feminist theory (see Vanita and Kidwai
2008). LGBTQ activists in India continue to fight uphill legal battles, and many still
struggle for acceptance and survival in a predominantly closeted, heteronormative
6 Anu Aneja
culture, just as feminists working in the area of disability continue to confront insti-
tutionalized tokenism within mainstream feminist discourse. The strategic inter-
rogation of the ‘normative’, then, has as much to offer to queer rights activists, as it
does to straight men, to Dalit women, to the disabled and to feminists invested in
questioning women’s stereotypical, socially approved identities. An effort has been
made in this book to further prise open such facets of the question of gender iden-
tity in India by drawing attention to issues of masculinity, of non-normative and
alternate sexual identities alongside those of caste, class and disability.
The women’s movement in India has seen its share of vicissitudes; its battle
scars have lent both depth and scope to the academic work that has been carried
out under the rubric of women’s studies within institutions of higher education.
The establishment of women’s studies centres came at a time when the need for
a sustained critique of established structures became even more apparent after the
publication of the Towards Equality report in 1974, a report that exposed persistent,
glaring gender inequities across the board. The evolution of women’s studies and
its relationship to the women’s movement, as well as the ongoing tensions between
activism and theory, have been discussed in the work of many women’s studies
scholars (Chakravarti 2014; Mazumdar 1994; Desai et al. 1984; Krishna Raj 1988;
Ram 1984; Poonacha 2003; Menon 1991; John 2008). The academic discourse that
composes women’s studies thus emerged alongside its allied movement, with many
early feminists participating in both. It is true, however, that the academic playing
field of women’s studies and gender studies remains largely spread across institu-
tional spaces – classrooms, libraries and conference halls – rather than the streets
and by-lanes that are witness to marginalized women’s and men’s daily struggles.
Owing to its intellectual cleft from the world beyond the university campus
(due in turn to various factors), women’s studies has occasionally come under fire
for having lost its crucial intimate contact with the urgent concerns of ‘real’ women
and with grass-roots work. Although Indian feminist discourses have repeatedly rec-
ognized the need for organic linkages between activist and academic worlds, it has
often been hard to sustain these. Moreover, the academic wing has been variously
accused of moving away too swiftly from its focal term ‘women’ to the expanded
terminology of ‘gender’, as well as for inadequate attention to the caste- and class-
based problems of subaltern women in favour of intellectualized discourses on bod-
ies, sexualities and sexual identities (often read as the concerns of the privileged).
Such crevices between theoretical scholarship and activist persuasions are moreover
reflected in the disciplinary domains within which women’s studies has taken root
and evolved – its earliest germinations being in the social sciences and their more
‘natural’ link with grass-roots social movements, and its subsequent flowering across
the humanities and sciences.
On the academic front, institutional demands placed on faculty to be engaged
in research and scholarship (at times at the expense of advocacy and activism)
have resulted in anxieties about the increasing trend of textualization of wom-
en’s issues (see, e.g., Pandhe 1988; Mazumdar 1994; Poonacha 2003; Bagchi 2013).
While some feminists committed to a movement-infused ‘political’ work ethic
Introduction 7
The exclusive space dedicated to feminist and queer pedagogies is reflective of the
deeper examination these deserve in current circumstances.
At the same time as we wrestle with such disparate matters within the field,
forces of globalization and the more recent wave of de-globalization and right-
wing populism continue to play a crucial role in shaping contemporary feminist
responses around these issues internationally, as in India. Despite the strides made
by feminism, violence and crimes against women and girls have not abated, the
Nirbhaya case of 2012 and the Unnao and Kathua cases of 2017 and 2018 being
just a few of the most recent horrors in public memory, while scores go unreported
and unnoticed. Even as we recognize the critical role of organized campaigning
(e.g., the ‘#MeToo’ movement of 2017–18), advocacy and grass-roots activism in
dealing with unprecedented violence and human rights violations, the complexity
of challenges faced by women in their private and public lives calls for an ongoing
engagement with theory and research, if we are to move beyond energy-depleting
firefighting strategies. Informed feminist analysis and critique are a necessary part
of the process of undoing stubborn, deep-rooted inequities.
Advances in technology and a more rapid cross-cultural academic exchange since
the late twentieth century have seen an internationalization of feminist research
across the globe, albeit with an enduring neocolonial West-East bias to the flow of
knowledge. The wariness towards theoretical perspectives emerging from the West
has led to a considered contextualization of these, and feminist discourse in India
has evolved in the context of indigenous dimensions and needs.The latter have been
responded to through culturally situated, local perspectives, such as those seen in
feminist ecology and Dalit feminism, even while the term ‘feminism’ itself continues
to be tied to unwelcome influences of Westernization. The hesitant use of the term
may be at least partially explained by its association with Westernization at a time
when the Indian woman was being posited as the repository of Indian culture within
a larger nationalist and anti-imperialist discourse, an identification that has only
solidified over time in the service of an entrenched patriarchy. As noted by Tejaswini
Niranjana, the convenient conflation of feminism, modernization and Westerniza-
tion leads to the assumption that modernization implies the abandonment of Indian
culture and values in favour of Western ones (2007: 211). In the current climate of
increasing global insularities and inter- and intra-cultural, racial, ethnic and religious
intolerances that obstruct cross-cultural solidarity work among marginalized groups,
conversations between feminists and queer activists and theorists across the globe
become even more significant, as has been attempted in this book.
Evidently,WGS in India has grown into a multifaceted area of critical study, vital-
ized by ongoing debates about what lies within and outside its boundaries. This
increasing complexity has forced it to come to terms with its own configurations
and locations within institutions, leading at times to agonizing moments of identity
crisis. In universities across the globe, comparable challenges posed by black women,
women of colour and gay rights groups to the mainstream women’s movement
towards the latter part of the last century led to the establishing of gender and sexual-
ity studies, queer studies, cultural studies and race studies alongside women’s studies
Introduction 9
departments and programmes. In the West, gender became a useful tool to contest
biological determinism (see, e.g., Clarsen 2013). In India, a sustained interrogation
of normative hegemonies and a re-examination of masculinity meant that gender
studies (rather than women’s studies) increasingly came to be seen as an expedient
and more encompassing term, although the debate, within women’s studies, is far
from resolved (see, e.g., Pappu 2008: 13; Poonacha 2003: 2657). Even while there is
a growing acceptance of ‘gender’ as a distinctive category that includes interrogative
discourses on femininity and masculinity, for some, the debate about the nuances of
nomenclatures may be a moot one as long as the differences between ‘women’ and
‘gender’ leave disciplinary theoretical frameworks unchanged (Kamat 2012).
This turn is also reflected in contemporary higher education institutions in
India, where gender studies programmes have gained in popularity alongside those
in women’s studies, despite concerns raised by some feminists apprehensive of the
damage this may do to the sorely won gains of the early wave of the women’s
movement. The move from ‘women’ to ‘gender’ must also take cognizance of the
inherent dangers posed by the tactical co-option of the inclusive terrain of ‘gender’
by reactionary forces within and beyond the institution. Overall, then, the shift
from WS to WGS under given circumstances cannot hope to be an ingenuous one,
and must remain vigilant to the responsibilities and risks it carries on its shoulders.
The title of the book is a nod towards some of these compelling deliberations
and contestations, which bring into view various border crossings. While the selec-
tion of chapters anthologized here can in no way pretend to provide a panoramic
vista of where we stand today, it is aimed at garnering at least a partial sense of
urgent debates on the horizon.
Organization
The organization of the book reflects some of the vital questions that confront
WGS today and I have attempted to bring together diverse viewpoints to address
these. Although there are five distinct sections, they overlap and intrepidly ‘cross’
over into each other’s terrains with intersecting, recurring questions, so that in
some cases the decision regarding the location of an individual chapter became
quite challenging. As I read through and reread these chapters, the ‘seepage’ between
them arose as a timely indicator of the impossibility of disentangling the quandaries
that have emerged within the field, made particularly evident by voices that speak
to each other across sectional divides, oftentimes with contradictory impulses. This
was an early reminder that conversations between multiple interlocutors may at
times appear to be at cross-purposes but make for a rich process of knowledge con-
struction from feminist and queer perspectives. The ‘crossings’ among the sections
of the book thus lead to some fascinating discrepancies rather than any unified nar-
rative, perhaps a clue to the processes that constitute the field.The categorization of
sections is intended only as one organizational framework, one story among many
other potential permutations, and in no way suggests a watertight compartmentali-
zation of issues. The set of prisms I have employed here is undoubtedly subjective
10 Anu Aneja
as well as overlapping; that other lenses have not been put to work points to the
limitation of having to categorize in a particular way the complex configurations
of WGS today. While it is likely that an alternate organization would have been
equally justifiable to encompass current debates, the present one envisages bringing
to the fore interlinked perspectives on the liminalities at the heart of this project.
Thus, despite the discreteness indicated by individual sections, the reader is urged to
ferret out and tie together the many embedded intersecting threads that run across
the book for other, equally intriguing narratives of WGS.
Having said this, the five sections are organized under broad thematic frame-
works: Part I, ‘Stirrings, across Time and Place’, attempts a reassessment of where
WGS in India stands today by shedding light on the recastings of the women’s
movement, women’s studies and feminism across time and place – that is, from
the perspective of their historical evolutions, and present and future contours as
defined by Indian and international influences. Part II, ‘Interleaves: Conceiving
Theories, Theorizing Identities’, links these evolutions with theoretical perspec-
tives on concepts, identities and emerging issues in WGS to demonstrate how
movements and ideas, agitation and analysis, doing and knowing have been inex-
tricable from each other for Indian feminists. Part III, ‘In-disciplinarities’, as the
title suggests, interrogates and destabilizes, from feminist and queer perspectives,
the established notions of ‘discipline’ by introducing ‘in-disciplinarity’ in the pro-
cess of knowledge construction; it also brings to the fore interdisciplinary crossings
realized by feminist and queer discourses in the social sciences, literature, folklore,
psychoanalysis and new media studies. Part IV, ‘Entwining Feminism and Peda-
gogy: Inside the Institution’, highlights emerging concerns for feminist pedagogy
in increasingly consumerist conventional as well as distance learning environments.
Further, it focuses on pedagogical engagements with the notion of queerness to
posit a forward-looking feminist pedagogy. Part V, ‘Conversations across Borders’,
proffers an appraisal of dialogues, impasses and potential coalitions between Indian
and international feminist and queer discourses, and dwells on what it means to be
a feminist today or to be ‘queer now’ within India’s globalizing economy as well
as in diasporic locations.
The brief descriptions that follow may be helpful in seeing at a glance the varied
contents and commonalities across sections, and perhaps even be of use in reading
against the grain of the given structure.
thinking about feminism. Central to the women’s movement in India have been
issues of caste and class that have put into question the identity of ‘woman’ as
subject of inquiry. Further, the precincts of the women’s movement have contin-
ued to expand in response to the advocacy of other marginalized groups, such as
tribal and disabled women. While such internal critiques have consistently altered
the engagements of the women’s movement and women’s studies, Indian feminists
have sustained an ongoing dialogue with feminist discourse emanating from the
West. The dynamic but complex relationship between the women’s movement and
women’s studies in India and their varying rapports with feminism remains a defin-
ing factor in shaping foundational and current concerns within WGS.The first part
of the book takes stock of some of these ongoing developments, with the first three
chapters calling for different forms of ‘reassessment’.
Sharon Pillai sets the tone for just such a ‘stocktaking’ of where WGS stands
today in the light of the ‘troika’ of influences – the state, the women’s movement
and the market economy – that have dominated and regulated its growth.WGS, she
argues persuasively, while acknowledging the rich contributions of each of these
three, must become alert to the urgent challenges they have produced. As she point-
edly cautions, under present changed circumstances, WGS must acknowledge the
risks posed to its ethical centre by its various relationships, and be willing to reassess
these in the interest of securing its own future.
Next, Mary E. John draws on two of her earlier essays (1998, 2014) to examine
how the concept of feminism has been put to work alongside notions of culture,
the social and the political as set in place during the colonial period, into the
present. The debates on essentialism and the nature/culture dichotomy that have
functioned as fulcrums for feminist theorizing in the West are examined by her
from the location of Indian feminism, where a different set of terms – culture/
politics – is operative. The author persuasively argues that a critique of Western
theories that impinge upon us will take us only so far, and should not, in any case,
become a cause for paralysis. By unravelling the conceptual mobility of the notion
of feminism across discontinuous histories, she suggests a ‘more sober assessment of
our historical and conceptual legacies’, even as we acknowledge the disparate ways
in which patriarchies operate in India and the West. The issue of transnational con-
versations around feminism runs through several other chapters and is revisited in
detail in the final section. As demonstrated by Mary E. John, critical to any reassess-
ment of present circumstances is a plotting of past histories. Such an effort is taken
up by Vibhuti Patel, who helps us to place in ‘evolutionary perspective’ the consid-
erable distance mapped by the women’s movement since its inception, its evolving
relationship with women’s studies, and the role of the latter in the construction of
knowledge. Pivotal concerns, such as the inherent intersectionality of the notions
of ‘women’ and ‘gender’, hybridized and interrogated as they are by various sites
of identity, caste, class, religion, ethnicity, sexuality and disability, are assessed by the
author in the context of feminist politics. The first three chapters also serve to alert
us against a solidifying of agendas and values set during past and present times, and
against related risks of complacency for the future of WGS.
12 Anu Aneja
The chapters that follow examine specific issues of considerable import for
Indian feminism, such as that of gender-caste-class intersectionality that remains
central to women’s lives. In their co-authored chapter, Mangala Subramaniam and
Preethi Krishnan focus on the notion of ‘agenda building’, considered here as key
to challenging social injustice. They use ‘agenda building’ to examine questions of
Dalit identity and the role of grass-roots organizing in the Dalit women’s move-
ment. Their discussion reflects on the marginalization of the experiences of rural,
poor Dalit women within the Dalit movement and the women’s movement. The
authors argue in favour of a careful analysis of the success of the agenda-building
process and emphasize the need to deepen the debate on caste-class intersectional-
ity for building solidarities.
Stirrings within the women’s movement and in WGS have equally been brought
about by other consequential influences in recent times, such as those exerted by
concerns of tribal women, and of women with disabilities. Anindita Majumdar
shows how ecofeminism, as a driver of ecological activism, subjects essentialist
positions to scrutiny from the perspective of feminist ecological debates. Using
Anna Tsing’s conceptualization of the notion of ‘frictions’, she highlights the ten-
sions between ecology and feminism, ideological activism and experiential realities,
to look at how gender is ‘remade’ in these interstices. In bridging aspects of the
ecofeminist movement with its conceptualization as a theoretical idea, this chap-
ter links the notion of movements with that of theories, concepts and identities,
addressed in the subsequent section.
We end this section with the vital question of the (marginalized) location of
disabled women and of feminist disability studies within the larger discourse of WGS.
With the help of a personal narrative, Anita Ghai addresses the question of disability
within the women’s movement and reflects on the uneasy relationship between
the epistemology of disability and the politics of identity. Delving into some of the
interfaces of the women’s question, the various chapters of this section map the
field both as history and as topography, across time and place.
an identity marker has implications for gender and embodied difference, and how
these can suggest new directions for feminism and disability theory.
In the former section, the question of caste was addressed from the broader
perspective of its place with the women’s movement. Here, we revisit gender-
caste intersectionality in terms of specific ramifications. Employing the case of the
Women’s Reservation Bill (WRB) to exemplify the complex effects of gender-
caste relationships in India,Vrinda Marwah teases out the implications of the WRB
for conceptualizing a feminist theoretical framework. The author’s deployment of
Sharmila Rege’s Dalit feminist standpoint helps to locate gender-caste intersec-
tionality against the background of feminist standpoint epistemology, and provides
a way of advancing feminist scholarship in this critical area.
In ‘Bharat Mata, Melodrama and the Mediation of the National Subject’, Karen
Gabriel offers two intertwining arguments to examine the semiotic and discur-
sive politics of iconic representations of Bharat Mata. She argues that the figuring of
the nation in such icons is exclusive and elitist rather than inclusive and ‘national’,
and that ‘most narratives of the nation are fundamentally melodramatic’.The author
buttresses these arguments by uncovering their telling signs in various popular
images, short stories by Mahasweta Devi, and cinema. Working deftly through these
examples, she shows how notions of desirability and legitimacy form the basis for
figuring the nation, nationalism and patriotism in hegemonic ways. The dominant
metaphors and discourses set in motion by such universalizing tendencies ensure the
privileging of certain normative notions of family, motherhood and mother nation,
to the exclusion of the actual and diverse multiplicities that threaten, and rid with
anxiety, the carefully constructed and ordered bodyscape of the nation-as-mother.
Such interrogations across disciplinary boundaries lead us to consider the question
of inter- and in-disciplinarity, taken up in more detail in the subsequent section.
pedagogy and distance education through blended and virtual modes of teaching
and learning.The third chapter of this section takes us into the more specific terrain
of ‘queering’ feminist pedagogy. Leena Pujari employs her personal experiences as
a teacher within mainstream sociology to explore this issue against the backdrop
of institutionalized homophobia. She argues decisively for an interrogation of het-
erosexist curricula and of established pedagogical frameworks as a first step towards
disrupting the gender binary towards a more forward-looking pedagogy. In their
different approaches, these three chapters suggest strategies of overcoming peda-
gogical challenges from the perspective of an ethical feminism.
The neo-liberal economic context also figures as a primary focus for feminist the-
orizing in Taisha Abraham’s ‘Globalization and Third Way Theories’ (2016). Abraham
argues that Euro-American Third Way theories are inadequate for providing col-
lectivist models for the state as they are rooted in neo-liberal capitalism and project
globalization as ‘an epoch-defining phenomenon’. From an Indian standpoint, she
asks for a feminist interrogation of the ways in which the theoretical framework of
the Third Way dispenses with structural relations, such as capitalism, within which the
family and community are produced, thus re-enacting oppressive effects on margin-
alized groups. These discussions impel us to raise questions about the impediments
presented by globalization and Third Way theories in redefining feminist discourse,
and about the potential of a transnational feminist crossing through a critique of neo-
liberal discourses. From a different, reaffirmative standpoint, Krishna Menon shows
how transnational feminist journeys present a challenge to the notion of power-
seeking nation states. She offers transnational feminism as an ‘alternative model of
political engagement’, one that encourages the kind of feminist politics that interro-
gates power and privilege with a view to building democratic alliances across borders.
We bring the book to a tentative close with a ‘forum’ that initiates, rather than shuts
down, ongoing conversations around these issues. Aneil Rallin’s chapter, in its sugges-
tion of open, lively, cross-boundary talk, reminds us that we are nowhere near a desti-
nation in the ongoing journey of WGS. The author effectively expands the notion of
‘dialogue’ through the metaphor of a ‘roundtable forum’, an apt symbol for interlocu-
tors seated equidistantly from an imaginary centre, and in that sense an appropriate
image to invoke at the provisional end of this collection. Here, inherent contingencies
are traced within enduring cultural differences by bringing to the table diverse voices
from across the globe – Dipika Jain,Akhil Kang, Sheena Malhotra, Hoshang Merchant,
Shakthi Nataraj, Chayanika Shah, Nishant Shahani, Oishik Sircar and Ruth Vanita.The
‘forum’ becomes a meeting point for their voices, for thinking aloud about the shifting
meaning of queerness in the US, in India, in the time-gaps between then and now, in
the ‘borderlands’ space of Gloria Anzaldúa, under the watchful eye of the neo-liberal
nation state, in the spaces where one is queer alone, or queer together.
It bears repeating that there are several obvious overlaps and crossings between the
various sections of this book. It has been my attempt to bring together perspectives
that perform a close scrutiny of the complex nexus of movements, ideas, identities,
constructs and theories that comprises the collage of women’s and gender studies in
India today. The effort to represent this gamut of issues is not undertaken with the
aim of achieving a reconciliation of different identity claims; rather, it is to juxtapose
divergent, even competing perspectives, to bring into view the complex, uneasy ter-
rain of gender discourse in India. It is hoped that the diversity of viewpoints brought
together in this effort will help to bring us just a bit closer to a clearing in the woods.
Notes
1 A change of nomenclature to ‘Women’s and Family Studies’ was proposed by the UGC
for the Xth Plan in 2003: www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2020/stories/2003101000
Introduction 19
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PART I
Stirrings, across time
and place
1
(HOW) ‘TO BE OR NOT TO BE’
Women’s and gender studies in India today
Sharon Pillai
Women’s and gender studies (WGS) is at a turning point in India today. At stake
is its survival as an ethically charged practice of knowledge. The old ways of doing
things will no longer serve – not if the aim is for WGS to remain what it was always
meant to be: a driver and catalyst for discursive and social transformation.The chal-
lenge for WGS, therefore, is to take honest stock of its situation and reset its course,
if not its cause. This chapter is one such attempt at review. In looking back, it seeks
to assess the evolving role of the dominant f/actors to have influenced and/or con-
trolled the WGS narrative in India so far. Current conditions, if used well, are rich
with possibilities. The ensuing account in closing thus will not only flag significant
issues plaguing WGS but also point to desirable workarounds for them with an eye
to the future.
joint seminar of the UGC with the Indian Association of Women’s Studies (IAWS)
in 1985 that a demand for separate centres for WS was first mooted. The Seventh
Plan (1985–90) picked up and ran with this idea.The National Policy on Education
(1986) categorically set out the remit of existing and yet to be established WS cen-
tres under four heads: teaching, research, training and extension (p. 103). Taking its
cues (and sanction) from this policy template, the UGC programmatically set about
instituting and developing WS centres under the Seventh Five-Year Plan. Since
then, up to the XII Plan (2012–17), every Five-Year Plan has extended support to
the establishment and even mainstreaming of WGS in the university ecosystem in
India in one form or another. On current count there are about 160 of these cen-
tres overseen by the UGC, of which 116 are categorized as Phase I, 30 as Phase II,
10 as Phase III and 3 as ADVANCED Centres (UGC XII Plan Guidelines 2017).
the while protesting its dedication to pluralism, over time contributed to a reduc-
tive streamlining of thought, action, agency, expression and empowerment. Deriv-
ing from the troubling trend of deeming only some types of participation in the
women’s movement kosher, only certain templates for doing WGS in the academy
are now accorded ‘critical’ legitimacy and the privilege of representative and lead-
ership roles in inter/national fora. This has resulted in an unnamed but substan-
tive pyramid of power in WGS which is (wo)manned by combative cabals and
networking cliques that specialize in mind-numbing indoctrination and demand
allegiance to a pre-approved spectrum of ideologies and dogmas as the price of
professional advancement and scholarly success. For a robust, socially pluralistic and
intellectually vibrant WGS programme, it’s imperative to contest and loosen the
hitherto unquestioned moral authority of the women’s movement to be sole arbi-
ters of politico-philosophical value. Only then might a variety of academic goals,
subjects, histories, perspectives, orientations and styles legitimately find articulation
under the rubric of WGS.
Finally, it’s important that WGS in India acknowledge and understand the
changed landscape within which it is now called upon to operate. The shift from a
mixed welfare economy to an increasingly laissez-faire system means old dictums
need revisiting. At present a two-toned response to capital/ism is observable. One,
more ‘highbrow’, response among the WGS sorority is the inevitable knee-jerk
recoil from capital and capitalist practices that is often no more than long-held,
self-aggrandizing socialist fustian. The other, more ‘demotic’ attitude consists in
an uncritical embrace of capitalism and wholesale peddling of free-market nos-
trums as the panacea of all ills. WGS urgently needs to rethink its relationship
with capital. With the ongoing privatization of higher education, the guarantee of
state funding is becoming bleaker. At this juncture, it’s unsustainable for the WGS
community to rehearse anachronistic expressions of ideological distaste. Besides,
intellectually, it is time certain socialist axioms inspiring such stances came up for
critical examination. This, however, is no carte blanche for any thoughtless turn
to capitalism and corporate culture. At a time when knowledge and awareness are
aggressively commoditized and digitized, sold and accessed through a diversity of
sources and formats, to survive and thrive as a meaningful academic praxis, WGS
needs to reassess its relationship with the free market in ways that are nuanced,
insightful, critical and honest – that is, manoeuvre an exacting but essential tight-
rope act.
Notes
1 Recently, IAWS petitioned the UGC, for instance, to continue funding the 163 centres
threatened with closure by the discontinuance of Five-Year Plans (see Khullar 2017).
2 Right from its inception, WGS has invited concerned oversight from women activists-
cum-scholars. See, for instance, Rajan (1998), Poonacha (2003), Desai (2008), Pappu
(2008), Roy (2009) and Sreerekha (2016).
3 It must also be highlighted that WGS is short-staffed and faculty appointments are often
concurrent or contractual from plan to funding plan.
Other documents randomly have
different content
fino dal 12 settembre l'imperatore Leopoldo e il di lui figlio Giuseppe,
re de' Romani, aveano ceduto all'arciduca Carlo ogni loro diritto
sopra la monarchia spagnuola, ond'egli assunse il titolo di re col
nome di Carlo III; nel mentre che un forte esercito inglese e
imperiale radunavasi verso le frontiere francesi nel Belgio, sotto gli
ordini di due sommi capitani, il duca di Marlborough e il principe
Eugenio, dai quali fu poi nell'anno seguente vinta la celebre battaglia
d'Hochstedt, in cui settantamila francesi, comandati dal maresciallo
di Tallard, ebbero una piena sconfitta.
(1704) Mosso il re di Francia dal doppio intento di deviare il turbine
che assembravasi verso le sue frontiere del Reno, e di vendicarsi del
duca di Savoia, spedì contro di questi il duca di Vendome, di cui
prima istruzione e mossa fu di intercettargli le comunicazioni collo
Stato di Milano. Il maresciallo conte di Staremberg, coi soccorsi che
fu pronto a condurre in Piemonte per l'interdetta e malagevole
strada del lago Maggiore, fece più commendevole la sollecitudine
che notabile il vantaggio; tanto era il contrasto delle forze nemiche.
Queste si estesero e stabilironsi successivamente in una gran parte
del Piemonte. Trino, Vercelli, Susa, la Brunetta, le città d'Ivrea e
d'Aosta, e il forte di Bard caddero in loro potere. (1708) Verrua e
Guerbignano, piazze assai forti, strette di lungo assedio e difese con
vigore, dovettero pur cedere. Il duca di Savoia fu obbligato di ritirarsi
a Civasso, e lasciar Crescentino in mano ai nemici. Non mancava che
di assediar Civasso perchè fosse libero ai Gallispani di penetrare fin
sotto Torino. La politica che reggeva allora il gabinetto austriaco, era
evidente di lasciare che il nuovo amico e il naturale nemico
egualmente si consumassero, sicchè il primo restasse in fede, o,
quando mai se ne dipartisse, non fosse temibile, e l'altro, assalito poi
con forze intiere, potesse facilmente esser vinto. Ma quando il duca
di Savoia trovavasi ormai ridotto a non poter dir proprio che lo spazio
occupato dallo stanco e infiacchito suo esercito, vide la corte di
Vienna che un più lungo temporeggiamento poteva mettere in
pericolo la somma delle cose, per cui si decise a rispedire in Italia il
principe Eugenio con nuove forze, senza che l'imperatore Leopoldo
potesse vederne l'esito, avendo cessato di vivere il 5 maggio nell'età
di quasi sessantacinque anni, succedendogli nell'impero il figlio
Giuseppe I.
Il principe Eugenio, coll'usata sua celerità, per la via di Roveredo si
condusse sul territorio di Brescia prima che il nemico si fosse trovato
in tempo d'impedirglielo. I due eserciti si scontrarono il 16 agosto a
Cassano, dove seguì un'aspra ed ostinata battaglia, della quale sì
l'uno che l'altro si attribuirono la vittoria. Ne fu bensì effetto che
nessuna impresa importante venne più tentata da essi per il resto
dell'anno. (1706) Anzi il principe Eugenio, dopo un fatto sfavorevole
sostenuto a Lonato al principio della nuova campagna, stimò
prudente di ritirarsi sul Tirolo, finchè, raggiunto dagli aspettati
rinforzi, ripassò l'Adige il 6 di luglio con un esercito di trentamila
uomini. Quasi contemporaneamente il duca Luigi d'Orleans, nipote
del re, e il maresciallo di Marsin, successori del duca di Vendome,
ch'era passato al comando dell'armi francesi in Fiandra, giunsero al
campo che assediava Torino, e di là scesero nel mantovano, dove il
principal nerbo del loro esercito erasi concentrato. Il principe
Eugenio trasse abilmente partito dalla esitazione che suole
preoccupare i corpi guerreggiati al mutarsi del supremo capitano, e
posto il Po di mezzo tra esso e la maggior oste nemica, giunse al
Finale di Modena, entrò vittorioso in Reggio, e a grandi marce
giungendo in Piemonte verso la fine d'agosto, congiunse il florido
suo esercito alle poche spossate milizie che rimanevano al duca di
Savoia, di lui cugino. Parve all'audacia e alla fidanza francese
indecoroso di levar l'assedio di Torino senza tentar la sorte di una
battaglia, e questa avvenne il 7 novembre. Dopo di essersi
fieramente e a lungo combattuto dalle due parti sotto i trinceramenti
stessi degli assedianti, i Gallispani furono vinti e rotti colla perdita di
quattromila e cinquecento morti e settemila prigionieri, contando tra
i feriti il duca d'Orleans e il maresciallo di Marsin, che morì il giorno
dopo. Centocinquanta cannoni, un'immensa quantità di attrezzi
militari, tutto l'attendamento, molt'argenteria e la cassa vennero in
potere de' vincitori. E la costernazione e il terrore erano a tal segno,
che i Francesi non d'altro si curarono che di ripassare l'Alpi
precipitosamente per le vie più brevi, lasciando esposta l'altra parte
del loro esercito che trovavasi nella Lombardia e nel Modonese.
Questa sconsigliata condotta rese ad essi estremo ed irreparabile il
danno della sofferta sconfitta, e ai nemici loro rapidissimo il
progresso della vittoria. Circa due settimane dopo, quasi tutto il
Piemonte era stato ricuperato, la Lombardia conquistata, avendo il
duca di Savoia e il principe Eugenio fatto il loro ingresso in Milano il
24 dello stesso mese di settembre. Anche Pavia, Pizzighettone,
Alessandria, Tortona e Casale di Monferrato, dopo breve resistenza,
si arresero. (1707) Il principe Eugenio fu dall'imperatore Giuseppe I
nominato governatore dello Stato di Milano e suo capitano generale
in Italia, e tra i primi suoi atti fu la proclamazione di Sua Maestà il re
Carlo III in duca di Milano. Nè solo in Italia avea la vittoria disertato
dalle armate francesi, mentre fin dal 23 maggio avean essi
egualmente perduta la battaglia di Ramillies; e fu allora osservato
che se la battaglia d'Hochstedt avea fatto perdere ai Francesi il
paese dal Danubio al Reno, la battaglia di Ramillies li avea scacciati
dalle Fiandre, e per quella di Torino perdettero l'Italia. E le piazze
forti che in essa erano tuttavia custodite dai loro presidii, cioè il
castello di Milano, Mantova, Cremona, Sabbionetta, Mirandola e il
Finale di Genova, dovettero essere sgombrate e rimesse agl'Imperiali
per la convenzione conchiusa in Milano il 13 marzo del 1707 tra il
principe Eugenio e i plenipotenziari gallispani, ratificata il dì seguente
in Mantova dal principe di Vaudemont, e il 16 in Torino dal duca di
Savoia. Questo fine ebbe la prima guerra d'Italia del corrente secolo,
dove l'imperizia e l'avversa fortuna concorsero a fare che
l'ambiziosissimo Luigi XIV e il di lui nipote Filippo V tutto vi
perdessero, costretti a lasciarlo a chi poco prima non vi possedeva
un palmo di terreno. Secondo la varia sorte dell'armi diversa fu pur
quella de' minori principi italiani, che s'eran fatti ausiliari delle
potenze belligeranti; e mentre la famiglia Gonzaga, dopo quattro
secoli di sovranità, posta al bando dell'Impero, fu per sempre
spogliata di tutti i suoi Stati, il duca di Modena non solo ricuperò per
intiero i suoi dominii, ma acquistò in séguito la Mirandola; e gli Stati
del duca di Savoia vennero ampliati coll'aggregazione di Valenza e di
Alessandria e loro territorii, della Lomellina e della Valsesia, staccate
secondo i patti dal ducato di Milano; contro il quale smembramento
varie rimostranze furono fatte dal magistrato de' decurioni milanesi
all'imperial corte, e inutilmente, come era da attendersi, mentre alle
supreme ragioni di Stato e all'interesse generale della monarchia non
potevano opporre che titoli di convenienza municipale. L'imperatore
volle anzi abbondare in generosità verso un alleato che tanto gli fu
utile; ed avendo l'armata navale inglese presa l'isola di Sardegna e
posta a di lui disposizione, la cedette al duca di Savoia; e del pari gli
compiacque, benchè con minore spontaneità, coll'acconsentire
all'occupazione da esso pretesa de' feudi del Monferrato e di alcune
parti di territorio del contado di Vigevano; per cui lo Stato di Milano
ebbe a soffrire una nuova limitazione. (1711) Null'altro avvenne di
memorabile per i Milanesi ne' successivi tre anni, se non che
l'inaspettato passaggio per la capitale del re Carlo III, che recavasi
ad occupare il trono imperiale col nome di Carlo VI, attesa
l'immatura morte dell'imperatore Giuseppe I, avvenuta di vaiuolo, il
17 aprite del 1711, nell'età di soli trentatre anni. Egli entrò in Milano
accompagnato dalle dimostrazioni convenzionali di apparato, di
festeggiamento e di tripudio, solite a praticarsi in tali occasioni. I
principi d'Italia, tra i quali si distinse il sommo pontefice Clemente XI,
il complimentarono per mezzo di ambasciatori straordinari,
felicitandolo, non solo come imperatore, ma altresì come re delle
Spagne, benchè fosse in quelle parti sul declinare della sua fortuna.
Lasciò Milano il 10 novembre, per recarsi a Francoforte sul Reno,
dove, circa un mese dopo, fu colle consuete solenni cerimonie
incoronato.
(1712) Le mutate circostante persuasero le potenze guerreggianti a'
pensieri di pace. (1713) Al qual fine, i loro plenipotenziari, nel mezzo
dell'inverno, si unirono in congresso ad Utrecht, e, dopo nove mesi di
trattative, fu dapprima conciliata una sospensione d'armi, seguita
poscia dalla pace, conchiusa l'11 aprile del 1713. Il 2 di questo mese
entrò in Milano l'imperatrice, che dalla città di Barcellona andava a
raggiungere il consorte in Vienna, lasciando abbandonata la
Catalogna ai suoi nuovi destini. Le tennero dietro varie migliaia di
esuli spagnuoli; per provvedere alla cui sussistenza, fu staccato dal
milanese il Finale, venduto alla repubblica di Genova per un milione
e duecentomila pezze da lire cinque di Milano, riservato il vano titolo
di feudo all'Impero. (1717) Distratto il principe Eugenio nella nuova
guerra in cui erasi impegnato l'imperatore in sussidio de' Veneziani
contro il Gran Turco, nel corso della quale l'accostumata sua
prodezza ed intelligenza si distinse colla vittoria di Petervaradino, indi
colle conquiste di Temeswar e di Belgrado, risolvette di rinunziare al
governo dello Stato di Milano; laonde fu supplito dal conte Luigi di
Vendome, poscia da una real giunta dei primari magistrati, e in fine
dal principe Massimiliano Carlo di Lewestein, che incominciò il suo
governo nel gennaio del 1717. L'avvenimento più rimarchevole ne'
fasti di quest'anno per la felicità della casa austriaca, e per il futuro
bene de' popoli, fu la nascita dell'imperiale arciduchessa Maria
Teresa, accaduta il 13 maggio. «Se la filosofia, scrisse l'abate Paolo
Frisi [306], non avesse già dissipato le vanità de' civili pronostici, si
sarebbe preso per un augurio felice che la nascita di Maria Teresa
fosse stata preceduta di pochi mesi dalla vittoria di Petervaradino. Il
vero augurio del regno di essa fu la bontà naturale del suo cuore, la
prontezza e la vivacità dell'ingegno, la fermezza del carattere e
l'applicazione agli affari, che mostrò sino dalla sua prima gioventù».
La prima intrapresa del governatore principe di Lewenstein in Milano,
fu la costruzione del teatro di corte, che era stato consunto dalle
fiamme il 5 gennaio 1708, e che, dopo avere sussistito per quasi
sessant'anni, soggiacque ad un'uguale sciagura il 24 febbraio del
1776. Nè d'altro potè occuparsi, essendo sorpreso dalla morte il 26
dicembre dello stesso anno. Questo fu il nono governatore morto
durante il suo governo, dopo estinta la linea de' duchi sforzeschi. Gli
otto antecessori furono il cardinale Caracciolo, il duca di
Albuquerque, il marchese d'Ayamonte, il conte di Fuentes, don
Ambrogio Spinola, il cardinale Trivulzi, don Luigi Ponze de Leon, e il
marchese d'Olias e Mortara. Lewenstein fu tumulato in San
Gottardo; gli antecessori lo furono in Duomo, a Santo Stefano, alla
Scala, alla Pace, a San Celso, ai Cappuccini di porta Vercellina.
(1719) Gli fu dato in successore il conte Gerolamo di Colloredo, che
giunse al suo posto sul finire della primavera del 1719. Egli cinse di
sbarre la fossa interna della città, a difesa de' passeggieri, e, dopo
sei anni di buon governo, partì in cattivo stato di salute per recarsi a
morire a Vienna, succedendogli il maresciallo conte Daun.
La nascita d'una terza figlia, avendo quasi tratto di speranza
l'imperatore Carlo VI di aver prole maschile, s'indusse egli a stabilire
con solenne atto, conosciuto sotto il nome di Prammatica Sanzione,
una legge di successione, per la quale, in mancanza di maschi, sono
chiamate le figlie con ordine di primogenitura; legge garantita non
solo dalla Dieta dell'Impero, ma pur dall'Olanda, dalla Francia, dalla
Spagna e dall'Inghilterra; e più efficacemente lo è stata in séguito
dalla forza dell'armi. (1725) Una segreta convenzione stipulata il 30
aprile 1725 tra Carlo VI e Filippo V confermò al primo tra gli altri
vantaggi in Italia il possedimento dello stato di Milano; il che diede
causa ai Lombardi di sinceri tripudii, fondandosi, più che nelle
sempre incerte speranze dell'avvenire, nella lusinga della stabilità
della condizione presente. (1729) Questi fausti presagi furono
sconvolti da un turbine improvviso, avendo la prossima estinzione
delle famiglie regnanti de' Farnesi negli Stati di Parma e Piacenza, e
de' Medici in Toscana, ravvivate le pretese dell'imperatore Carlo VI,
contro le quali la Francia, la Spagna e l'Inghilterra convennero in
secreto trattato, conchiuso in Siviglia il 9 novembre del 1729. Perciò
da ogni parte si pose cura agli apprestamenti guerreschi, e
l'imperatore si mostrò nell'attitudine più imponente. Per di lui ordine
il governatore conte Daun fece ristaurare le piazze forti del
mantovano e del milanese, radunò magazzini copiosissimi e si
accinse con ogni diligenza ad ammassar denaro. L'esercito imperiale
in Italia, accresciuto con rinforzi venuti di Germania, fu presto
numerosissimo, e si disse ascendere a sessantamila fanti e ventimila
cavalli. (1730) Il conte di Mercy, generalissimo, lo distribuì in un
accampamento continuo lungo il Po, da Ostiglia sino a Pavia, avendo
fatto centro in Cremona per il deposito delle vittovaglie e d'ogni
corredo militare. Così, quantunqne le ostilità non abbiano
incominciato che assai tempo dopo e per effetto di altri ravvolgimenti
politici, la Lombardia soggiacque a tutti i danni della più aspra guerra
guerreggiata. La diaria, convenuta pagarsi dallo Stato per la difesa
del paese, fu aumentata dalle tredici alle sedicimila lire al giorno, per
cui ascese ad annui cinque milioni e ottocentoquarantamila lire
milanesi. Nella ripartizione di un sussidio straordinario di quattordici
milioni di fiorini imposto alla monarchia, due milioni dovette
contribuire l'Italia austriaca. I frequenti passaggi delle truppe, le
requisizioni de' generi e in ispecie dell'avena, accrebbero i dispendii e
le vessazioni. Tutte le casse pubbliche erano esauste, e la regia
camera sospese i pagamenti ai creditori che per l'indisputata liquidità
de' loro titoli erano detti di giustizia. A questi mali s'aggiunse che
fino dal 1726 i creditori, o come chiamavasi i reddituari de' monti di
San Carlo, per conseguire almeno una parte de' loro redditi, aveano
dovuto accondiscendere alla riduzione de' capitali al sessanta per
cento, e degl'interessi dal cinque al tre, e che da più anni l'intiera
provincia soggiaceva al sopraccarico delle spese per il nuovo
censimento, le quali dal 1718 al 1733 salirono alla somma di sei
milioni. Altri minori aggravii s'introdussero in allora; essendo stata
privata la camera de' mercanti di Milano dell'antichissimo possesso di
avere un proprio corriere per la corrispondenza nella Germania, e
stabilita la nuova gabella di affrancare le lettere, laddove prima si
pagava soltanto al riceverle, non a spedirle.
(1733) In questo stato di guerra senza guerra aperta si durò per tre
anni, fino al 1733, quando l'influenza esercitata dalla corte imperiale
per l'elezione del re di Polonia Federico Augusto III, in onta de'
maneggi del gabinetto di Francia, fu il grano di polvere che mancava
a far accendere la mina, da tanto tempo accumulata, e mentre
altresì l'esercito austriaco in Italia, poc'anzi sì formidabile, erasi, per
varie cause, di molto diminuito. Questa volta la politica della corte
austriaca fu vinta dall'astuzia e dalla simulazione degli avversari. Il re
di Francia Luigi XV, il re Filippo V di Spagna e il nuovo re di
Sardegna, Carlo Emmanuele, si collegarono, il 16 settembre, con
segreto trattato di alleanza contro la maestà cesarea; e fu questo
talmente segreto, che gli armamenti intrapresi dal re sardo si
riputarono in Vienna fatti in difesa propria e dello stato di Milano
contro i Francesi, al segno che, avendo le stesso re chiesto di
estrarre dal milanese circa trecentomila moggia di grano, dai ministri
imperiali fu tosto ordinato che vi si acconsentisse. E in quest'erronea
opinione stettero così ostinati, che quando il conte Daun, chiarito
dall'inviato cesareo in Torino della contratta lega, della quale il re di
Sardegna era stato eletto generalissimo, ne diede avviso alla corte,
non fu creduto. Spedì corrieri, spedì suo figlio, tutto fu riguardato e
deriso come un sogno e un terror panico del governatore; e la
procella sopraggiunse tanto precipitosa, che appena egli ebbe tempo
di porsi in salvo, rifugiandosi a Mantova il 22 ottobre. A tale
inaspettato sconvolgimento tutti i ministri e il paese furono in
costernazione. I sessanta decurioni di Milano si radunavano ogni
giorno: si destinò la milizia urbana alla custodia delle porle della
città, si fece una processione a Sant'Ambrogio e si concertò come
avevasi a far buon viso ai nuovi padroni. Il 2 novembre i delegati di
Milano rendettero omaggio al re di Sardegna presso Abbiategrasso,
accolti con distinzione, avendo voluto che si coprissero; e furono
tenuti due ore con lui, mentre sfilavano otto battaglioni francesi e
quattro savoiardi destinati ad occupare la città. Dopo la presa di
Pizzighettone, l'11 di dicembre, il re fece la solenne entrata in
Milano, e due giorni dopo vi giunse il maresciallo di Villars, che avea
ottantatre anni. V'erano nella città oltre duemila ufficiali con alloggio
presso i privati, dal qual peso i patrizi tennero sè stessi esenti.
(1734) Il castello, bloccato dapprima, dopo quattordici giorni di
aperto assedio si arrese il 2 gennaio, trovandosi il presidio, per le
perdite fatte e la molta disserzione, ridotto a novecento uomini. La
città ebbe a soffrire qualche danno, e ben maggior paura dalle
artiglierie degli assediati; ed oggetto di grave doglianze fu per essa
successivamente la tassa imposta a' facoltosi in determinate somme,
da pagarsi fra otto giorni, in via di prestito al sei per cento, onde
soddisfare al debito arretrato per la diaria. Fra quelli, i più tassati
furono il presidente Clerici per lire centocinquantamila, il conte di
Brono per altrettante, il conte Brentano e Pietro Andreoli in lire
centomila per ciascuno. Ma pochi pagarono, e la successione degli
avvenimenti fece lasciare quest'espediente in dimenticanza.
I Gallo-Sardi, quanto furono celeri nell'invasione, altrettanto si
mostrarono lenti nell'approfittare degl'improvvisi riportati vantaggi, e
della sorpresa e debolezza degli Imperiali, che in tutto non avevano
in Italia quattordicimila uomini. Si lasciò loro il tempo di riprender
lena, di raccogliere le sparse, benchè tenui forze de' diversi presidii,
e di far di Mantova il centro d'unione de' soccorsi spediti in fretta
dalla Germania. Anche il re di Sardegna fu sollecito ad accrescer
forze all'esercito collegato colle copiose leve eseguite, non meno ne'
suoi Stati della Savoia e del Piemonte, che nel ducato di Milano,
dove, non ostante l'avversione del volgo ai Piemontesi e ai Francesi
per antiche gare ed animosità, il reclutamento fu numeroso. Avvenne
sul finire dell'anno la battaglia campale di Guastalla, egualmente
gloriosa per le due parti, ma senz'esito decisivo. Però il partito
imperiale in Italia soggiacque ad un colpo funesto per la spedizione
marittima partita di Spagna alla conquista de' regni di Napoli e di
Sicilia a favore dell'infante don Carlo. Entrò questi infatti vittorioso in
Napoli, il giorno 15 maggio, donde era fuggito il vicerè conte don
Giulio Visconti, e cinque giorni dopo venne proclamato re delle due
Sicilie fra gli urli d'applauso e di tripudio di quella plebe sfrenata e
selvaggia, abituata da tanti secoli a festeggiare i presenti e a
maledire chi si ritira, quando l'occasione non le sia propizia per fargli
un male maggiore. (1735) All'uscire da' quartieri d'inverno l'armata
cesarea si trovò accresciuta di alquante migliaia di soldati, che
retrocedevano da Napoli col capitano generale duca di Montemar, e
all'opposto giunse di Francia in Milano, verso la fine di marzo, il
maresciallo di Noailles, e ai primi di maggio in Cremona il re di
Sardegna. Incalzati gl'Imperiali dai Gallo-Sardi, furono dal loro
maresciallo Koningsegg, con lodatissima provvidenza [307],
concentrati verso il Tirolo, avendo prima posto in salvo i bagagli, i
malati, i cannoni, e ogni altro attiraglio e impedimento militare. Gli
succedette nel comando il generale conte di Kevenhüller, al tempo
del quale null'altro accadde fuorchè la conquista della Mirandola,
riuscita al duca di Montemar, intanto che gli alleati consumavano il
tempo e le forze nel blocco di Mantova. Questa lentezza, non
accostumata al carattere delle due nazioni, non era senza mistero; e
questo fu in parte svelato, allorchè, il 16 dicembre, il duca di Noailles
spedì al conte di Kevenhüller il gradevole avviso di una sospensione
d'armi, la quale fu tosto seguita dalla pace. Quest'esito era stato
preparato dai segreti maneggi del cardinale di Fleury, primo ministro
del re cristianissimo, cui si trovò pronto ad aderire il gabinetto
austriaco, che dalla sbilanciata sua fortuna era ridotto a più moderati
consigli. La somma delle cose convenute sul terminare del 1735 nel
celebri preliminari di Vienna, e tosto dopo ratificata nel congresso di
Parigi, fu la seguente. I ducati di Lorena e Bar vennero ceduti e
aggregati alla Francia, e il regno delle due Sicilie confermato al re
Carlo di Borbone. Al duca di Lorena Francesco Stefano fu assegnato
in cambio il gran ducato di Toscana, e stante lo svantaggio del
cambio, gli fu dato da cesare la lusinga di un partito di più alta
importanza, che ebbe poi effetto. Il re di Sardegna, oltre il
Monferrato, l'Alessandrino, la Lumellina e la Valsesia, acquistati nel
1707, ottenne le città e i territori di Novara e Tortona, con nuova
diminuzione dello stato di Milano. A queste condizioni ebbe
l'imperatore la conferma o la restituzione del mantovano e della
restante parte del milanese, la cessione di Parma e Piacenza, e la
garanzia della prammatica sanzione. (1736) Le corti di Madrid, di
Napoli e di Torino trovarono nella reale convenienza di questi patti
un congruo risarcimento all'offeso amor proprio per non essere state
consultate, e vi aderirono. Successivamente le città di Parma e
Piacenza furono lasciate libere dalle armi dell'infante don Carlo,
cedute agl'Imperiali dai Gallo-Sardi Cremona e Pizzighettone, e il 7 di
settembre la città di Milano, avendo alcuni giorni prima il re di
Sardegna licenziata e ringraziata la giunta di governo istituita
durante la conquista, col proclama che si riporta nella nota [308]. Fu
certamente onorevole per questa Giunta l'essere stata confermata
dal conte di Kevenbütter, supremo comandante cesareo in Italia fino
all'arrivo, che seguì il 17 dicembre, del nuovo governatore capitano
generale conte Otto Ferdinando Traun, al di cui governo vennero
uniti il ducato di Mantova e quello di Parma e Piacenza, sotto la
dominazione di Lombardia-austriaca. Altri due avvenimenti
memorabili di quest'anno furono la morte del maggior capitano di
quel tempo, il principe Eugenio di Savoia, avvenuta in Vienna il 21
aprile, essendo egli in età di anni settantadue, e le nozze faustissime
seguite il 12 del precedente febbraio tra l'arciduchessa Maria Teresa,
primogenita dell'imperatore Carlo VI, già entrata nell'anno
diciottesimo, e il principe di Lorena Francesco Stefano, che ne avea
ventisette; con che le illustri case di Lorena e d'Austria si unirono in
un solo tronco.
Ne' decorsi trentasei anni vide la città di Milano un solo nuovo
arcivescovo, monsignor Benedetto Erba Odescalchi, già nunzio
apostolico in Polonia, e poco dopo promosso al cardinalato. Egli fu
eletto il 18 aprile 1712 in luogo del defunto cardinale Giuseppe
Archinto, e resse la Chiesa milanese per anni ventiquattro, finchè,
nel 1736, reso inabile per un insulto apopletico, rinunziò al
pontificato. Nell'anno seguente alla sua installazione diede questo
prelato il conservatorio di Santa Sofia all'istituto della Visitazione, ed
aperse il collegio degli Obblati missionarii annesso alla insigne chiesa
di Rho. Sotto di lui fu aperto da' Barnabiti in Milano, nel 1723, il
collegio de' Nobili, col nome di collegio imperiale; nel 1724 si
stabilirono le Orsoline presso Santa Maria alla Porta; nell'anno
seguente si è fabbricata la chiesa di Campo-Santo, e infine nel 1735
si viddero erette le chiese di San Bartolomeo e di San Pietro
Celestino, e ridotta a compimento quella di San Francesco di Paola,
tutte col disegno dell'architetto Marco Bianchi, romano [309], il quale
colle linee curve e coi cartocci, benchè non disgiunti da una certa
maestà, rese un abbondante tributo al cattivo gusto che andava
allora dilatandosi nella pratica dell'architettura.
CAPITOLO XXXIII.
Morte dell'imperatore Carlo VI, al quale succede
negli Stati ereditari la primogenita Maria Teresa.
Altra guerra in Italia, ch'ebbe fine colla pace in
Acquisgrana. Condizione e governo della
Lombardia. Giuseppe II imperatore; sue
riforme. Breve regno e morte di Leopoldo II.