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“More than about literal translation, this collection of essays is about
the movement of ideas from one culture to another, from one gen-
eration to another. Thus temporality infuses this collection, whose
original in-depth research findings, by creative authors with deep
knowledge in their respective fields (psychoanalysis, art history, ar-
chaeology, musical composition), retrace and rediscover the creative
journey of psychoanalysis from Vienna to London with its tragic his-
torical background. And so too it considers how cultures take into
consideration essential issues in psychoanalysis from other cultures
and transform them: translation is transformation. The theme of the
Oedipus enigma and excellent ref lections on art intermingle in this
beautifully illustrated book, in which Dana Birksted-Breen blends
these themes in her usual expected talent to conceive and design
a collection as this remarkable one and in her revealing introduc-
tion. This centenary and anniversary collection of essays marks an
historical and seminal milestone in the developing history and the
continued evolution of psychoanalysis. A book not to be missed…”.
Haydée Faimberg, MD, Training and
­Supervising Analyst, SPP, APA, International
Distinguished Fellow of BPAS

“‘Language has been invented, translation can be achieved, musi-

cal and mathematical notations exist, men compose and paint. And
now psycho-analysis attempts to elucidate the barriers and links
that hinder or promote the relationships that require a capacity for
communication’ (Bion, Cogitations). The title of the book to cele-
brate the 100th anniversary of the IJP – and I would add the word
­transmutation – faithfully ref lects the task that Freud assigned to
psychoanalysis. The task of the IJP is well represented in the words
of the linguist Hagège, ‘it is not only languages that are translated,
but also habits and intellectual processes’”.
Prof. Dr. Jorge Canestri, Training and
­Supervising psychoanalyst AIPsi, APA, Associate
Editor of the IJP

“This multi-voice book highlights the foundations upon which

the reputation of the International Journal of Psychoanalysis is built.
Since the time of Freud, this Journal has become a reference for
­English-speaking psychoanalysts, its primary destination, and then
 
for each psychoanalyst all over the world. In addition to the richness
of its professional, historical and cultural roots highlighted here, its
value derives not only from the independence that an anonymous
peer review process provides, but also from a non-partisan approach
that respects everyone’s positions, in the tradition of the British
­Psychoanalytic Society responsible for its management”.
Jean-Michel Quinodoz, Swiss ­Psychoanalytical
Society, Editor for Europe 1994–2003
Translation / Transformation

Translation is at the heart of psychoanalysis: from unconscious to

conscious, experience to verbal expression, internal to enacted,
dream thought to dream image, language to interpretation, unrep-
resented to represented and transference of past to present.
The book’s first part discusses the question of translation, literal
and metaphoric. Both linguistic and cultural translations are closely
tied to specific and significant personalities who were involved in
the early history of psycho­analysis and thus in the development of
the IJP. There was a close relationship between the IJP and the visual
arts via the Bloomsbury Group. The link between the visual arts
and the IJP is indeed to be found in its logo, which is taken from a
painting by Ingres. The second part of the book approaches trans-
formations between psychoanalysis and the arts from conscious,
unconscious and non-­represented elements into non-verbal modes,
specifically visual, poetic and musical; it also looks at the devel-
opments and transformations in psychoanalytic ideas about artistic
expression as expressed within the pages of the IJP.
This book will be of great interest to psychoanalysts and psycho-
therapists, and to those interested in the history of psychoanalysis
and the IJP.

Dana Birksted-Breen, a training and supervising psychoanalyst of

the British Psychoanalytical Society in private practice, was General
Editor of the New Library of Psychoanalysis (2000–2010), initiating
the New Library Teaching S­ eries, and is the Editor-in-Chief of the
IJP since 2010.
 THE NEW LIBRARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
General Editor: Alessandra Lemma

The New Library of Psychoanalysis was launched in 1987 in associa-

tion with the Institute of Psychoanalysis, London. It took over from
the International Psychoanalytical Library which published many of
the early translations of the works of Freud and the writings of most
of the leading British and Continental psychoanalysts.
The purpose of the New Library of Psychoanalysis is to facilitate
a greater and more widespread appreciation of psychoanalysis and to
provide a forum for increasing mutual understanding between psy-
choanalysts and those working in other disciplines such as the social
sciences, medicine, philosophy, history, linguistics, literature and
the arts. It aims to represent different trends both in British psycho-
analysis and in psychoanalysis generally. The New Library of Psy-
choanalysis is well placed to make available to the English-­speaking
world psychoanalytic writings from other European countries and
to increase the interchange of ideas between British and ­A merican
psychoanalysts. Through the Teaching Series, the New Library of
Psychoanalysis now also publishes books that provide comprehen-
sive, yet accessible, overviews of selected subject areas aimed at those
studying psychoanalysis and related fields such as the social sciences,
philosophy, literature and the arts.
The Institute, together with the British Psychoanalytical Society, runs
a low-fee psychoanalytic clinic, organizes lectures and scientific events
concerned with psychoanalysis and publishes the International Journal of
Psychoanalysis. It runs a training course in psychoanalysis which leads
to membership of the International Psychoanalytical ­Association – the
body which preserves internationally agreed standards of training, of
professional entry, and of professional ethics and practice for psycho-
analysis as initiated and developed by S­ igmund Freud. Distinguished
members of the Institute have included M ­ ichael Balint, Wilfred Bion,
Ronald ­Fairbairn, Anna Freud, Ernest Jones, Melanie Klein, John
­Rickman and Donald Winnicott.
Previous general editors have included David Tuckett, who played
a very active role in the establishment of the New Library. He was
followed as general editor by Elizabeth Bott Spillius, who was in turn
followed by Susan Budd and then by Dana Birksted-Breen. Current
members of the Advisory Board include Giovanna Di ­Ceglie, Liz
Allison, Anne Patterson, Josh Cohen and Daniel Pick.
Previous members of the Advisory Board include Christopher
Bollas, Ronald Britton, Catalina Bronstein, Donald Campbell,
Rosemary Davies, Sara Flanders, Stephen Grosz, John Keene, Eglé
Laufer, Alessandra Lemma, Juliet Mitchell, Michael Parsons, R ­ osine
Jozef Perelberg, Richard Rusbridger, Mary Target and David Taylor.
For a full list of all the titles in the New Library of ­Psychoanalysis
main series as well as both the New Library of Psychoanalysis ‘Teach-
ing’ and ‘Beyond the Couch’ subseries, please visit the ­Routledge
website.
Translation / Transformation
100 Years of the International
Journal of Psychoanalysis

Edited by Dana Birksted-Breen

First published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2021 selection and editorial matter, Dana Birksted-Breen;
individual chapters, the contributors
The right of Dana Birksted-Breen to be identified as the author
of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual
chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Breen, Dana, editor.
Title: Translation/transformation: 100 years of the International
journal of psychoanalysis / edited by Dana Birksted-Breen.
Other titles: International journal of psycho-analysis.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2021. |
Series: New library of psychoanalysis | Includes bibliographical
references and index. | Identifiers: LCCN 2020034919 (print) |
LCCN 2020034920 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367563325 (paperback) |
ISBN 9780367560935 (hardback) | ISBN 9781003096399 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: International journal of psycho-analysis. |
Psychoanalysis. | Psychoanalysis and art. | Psychoanlysis and literature.
Classification: LCC BF173.T623 2021 (print) | LCC BF173 (ebook) |
DDC 150.19/505—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020034919
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020034920

ISBN: 978-0-367-56093-5 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-56332-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-09639-9 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo
by codeMantra
 Contents

List of figures xi
Acknowledgements xv

Introduction 1
DA N A B I R K S T E D - B R E E N

PART ONE
A promenade through history and the central
place of translation 21
1 Translation as a metaphor, the role of archaeology in
Freud’s deciphering of the human mind 23
H EINZ W EISS AN D CA RINA W EISS

2 Founding the International Journal of Psychoanalysis: a

chapter of psychoanalytical science and association policy 47
G E O RG B RU N S

3 “The Deep Open Sea” “l’alto mare aperto”: some

notes on psychoanalysis and translation, focusing on
the early vicissitudes of the first British attempts to
translate Freud 88
R ICCA R DO ST EIN ER

ix
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 Contents
4 Publish and be fair? “I am myself strongly in favour of
doing it”: James Strachey as the candid wartime editor
of The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 1939–1945 120
DE E MCQU I LLA N

5 Joan Riviere: the professional and personal struggles

of a formidable foundress of the International Journal of
Psychoanalysis 160
R AC H E L B . B L A S S

6 Marjorie Brierley’s contributions to the International

Journal of Psychoanalysis 175
N ELLI E L. THOM PSON

7 The International Journal of Psychoanalysis as the voice of

psychoanalysis: united and different 191
R AC H E L B . B L A S S

PART TWO
Form and representation 213
8 Picturing Oedipus: Ingres, Bacon, Freud 215
A DELE T U T T ER

9 Freud and Oedipus–the medal gifted to Sigmund

Freud on his fiftieth birthday 256
CA RINA W EISS

10 Form and feeling: ref lections on a century of

psychoanalytic discourse on meaning and poetry 265
M A RG O T WA D D E L L

11 Psychoanalysis and musicality 277

FR A NCIS GR I ER

12 A midpoint in time: the dual aspect of

the Wolf Man’s dream 301
L U C Y L A FA RG E

Index 323

x
 Figures

1.1 20 Maresfield Gardens, the house, May 1983,

copyright Carina and Heinz Weiss 24
1.2 20 Maresfield Gardens, Freud’s study, May 1983,
copyright Carina and Heinz Weiss 25
1.3 20 Maresfield Gardens, a glass cabinet with
Egyptian, Etruscan, and other antiquities in the
study, May 1983, copyright Carina and Heinz Weiss 26
1.4 20 Maresfield Gardens, fragment of a Roman
sarcophagus on top of a bookshelf, May 1983,
copyright Carina and Heinz Weiss 27
1.5 Front page of a letter March 10, 1986 by Robert
Lustig to Dr. Carina Weiss, copyright Carina and
Heinz Weiss 28
1.6 20 Maresfield Gardens, study, Pompeian wall
paintings, May 1983, copyright Carina and Heinz Weiss 32
1.7 Pompeii, view over the forum towards Mt. Vesuvio
(historical photograph, Ricordo di Pompei, 32
vedute, N. 227, undated, Edizioni A. Scrocchi, Milano) 33
1.8 20 Maresfield Gardens, study, Egyptian figurines in
a bookshelf, May 1983, copyright Carina and
Heinz Weiss 35
1.9 Wood tablet covered with wax used as a writing pad
in the Roman Empire. 1st century A.D. Museo de
Santa Cruz, Toledo, Spain. https://fr.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Fichier:Tablette-de-cire.jpg Auteur: Codex.
Wikimedia Commons, File tablette de cire 38

xi
 Figures
1.10 Vienna, Berggasse 13 consulting room, plastercast
Gradiva relief with papyrus, 1938, reproduced from
Engelmann, 197640
2.1 Original papers of the IJP 1920–1935; originally
English papers compared to papers translated
from German79
5.1 Joan Riviere in garden, Courtesy British
Psychoanalytical Society, Copyright: Melanie
Klein Trust161
5.2 Riviere aged 30 with her daughter Diana (Born 1908) –
(picture taken circa 1912–1913). Courtesy British
Psychoanalytical Society, Copyright: Melanie Klein Trust162
5.3 Letter from Joan Riviere to Strachey 1949. Courtesy
British Psychoanalytical Society, Copyright: Melanie
Klein Trust169
5.4 Letter from Joan Riviere to Strachey 1949. Courtesy
British Psychoanalytical Society, Copyright: Melanie
Klein Trust170
7.1 Volume 1 of the International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
1920194
7.2 Portrait of Melanie Klein, A. Freud, E. Jones.
Reproduced by permission of the Wellcome
Collection and the Melanie Klein Trust 197
8.1 Freud’s office at Berggasse 19, Vienna, Edmund
Engelman, May 1938. The white arrow designates
the engraving of Ingres’s Oedipus and the Sphinx.
Freud Museum, London, reference number IN270.
Used with permission216
8.2 The engraved reproduction of Ingres’s Oedipus and
the Sphinx that hung at the foot of Freud’s analytic
couch (also see Figure 8.3). Freud Museum, London,
reference number 6405. Used with permission219
8.3 Oedipus and the Sphinx, Jean-Auguste-Dominique
Ingres, Musée du Louvre. Originally completed in 1808
when the artist was 28, the canvas was in 1827 modified
for exhibition. Image © Scala / Art Resource, NY.
Used with permission. © Seala/Art Resource, NY220
8.4 Commemorative medal by Carl Maria Schwerdtner
given to Freud on the occasion of his fiftieth

xii
 Figures
birthday. Freud Museum, London, reference number
4395. Used with permission221
8.5 Red-figure hydria decorated with Oedipus and the
Sphinx. From Freud’s collection. Freud Museum,
London, reference number 3117. Used with permission223
8.6 The logo, or “coat of arms”, of the International Journal
of Psychoanalysis 226
8.7 Hermes Tying His Sandal, Roman copy of the 2nd
century CE after a Greek original of the late 4th
century BC, from the Theater of Marcellus in
Rome. Image, open source, https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hermes_with_the_
sandal_(Louvre,_Ma_83)#/media/File:Hermes_
with_the_Sandal-Louvre.jpg 230
8.8 Nicolas Poussin, Et in Arcadio Ego, 1637–1638.
Musée du Louvre. Image, open source: https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et_in_Arcadia_ ego#/
media/File:Nicolas_Poussin__Et_in_Arcadia_ego_
(deuxi%C3%A8me_version).jpg 231
8.9 Sphinx statuette, terracotta, on wooden base,
from Freud’s collection. Freud Museum, London,
reference number 4037. Used with permission 232
Oedipus and the Sphinx after Ingres, Francis Bacon, 1983,
8.10 
Museu Coleçao Berardo, Lisbon. © The Estate of
Francis Bacon. All rights reserved, DACS, London/
Artist Rights Society, New York, 2020. Photo:
Prudence Cuming Associates Ltd, used with
permission 236
Sphinx – Portrait of Muriel Belcher, Francis Bacon,
8.11 
1979, Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo. © The
Estate of Francis Bacon. All rights reserved, DACS,
London/Artist Rights Society, New York, 2020.
Photo: Prudence Cuming Associates Ltd, used with
permission 239
Francis Bacon, Oedipus, 1979, private collection.
8.12 
© The Estate of Francis Bacon. All rights reserved,
DACS, London/ Artist Rights Society, New York,
2020. Photo: Prudence Cuming Associates Ltd, used
with permission 240

xiii
 Figures
8.13   Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Oedipus
and the Sphinx, 1862, Walters Art Museum,
Baltimore. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Oedipus_and_the_Sphinx_(Ingres)#/media/
File:Jean-Auguste-Dominique_Ingres_-_
Oedipus_and_the_Sphinx_-_Walters_379.jpg246
9.1a  The medal gifted to Sigmund Freud at his 50th
birthday, front with Freud’s bust, diameter
14.2 cm. Photo: Cortesy Freud Museum London257
9.1b The medal in Figure 9.1a. The photo was taken
in 1976 (INO523, Photo: Cortesy Freud Museum
London) and shows the medal in its wooden frame
in one of the shelfs in Freud’s study in Maresfield
Gardens 20  257
9.2a–c A specimen of the smaller edition of the medal
Figure 9.1a and b with the mark “Münze Wien”,
probably meant for relatives, friends, and followers.
Private collection. Photo © J.S. Spering, Höchberg257
9.3  Terracotta statuette of a sphinx. Freud Museum
London, Inv. 4387. Photo © Carina and Heinz Weiss260
9.4  Attic red-figure kalpis, Apollonia Group
(attributed Carina Weiss) 380–360 B.C., Oedipus
sitting in front of the sphinx, Freud Museum
London, Inv. 3117. Photo © Carina and Heinz Weiss262

xiv
 Acknowledgements

The International Journal of Psychoanalysis grants permission for the

publication of the articles below in the book TRANSLATION/
TRANSFORMATION: 100 Years of the International Jour-
nal of Psychoanalysis, edited by Dana Birksted-Breen, pub-
lished by the New Library of Psychoanalysis, Routledge.
Chapter 4. Dee McQuillan, previously published:
McQuillan, D. (2019). Publish and be fair? “I am myself strongly
in favour of doing it”: James Strachey as the candid wartime
­editor of The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 1939–1945. Int.
J. ­Psycho-Anal., 100(3):540–566.
Chapter 5. Rachel Blass, previously published:
Blass, R. B. Joan Riviere: The professional and personal struggles
of a formidable foundress of the International Journal of Psychoanalysis.
Chapter 7. Rachel B. Blass, previously published:
Blass, R. B. The International Journal of Psychoanalysis as the voice of
psychoanalysis: united and different.
Chapter 9. Carina Weiss:
These are modifications of papers previously published:
Weiss, C. The Enigma of the Hour: Display Case Compendium.
Int. J. ­Psycho-Anal., 100(6):1481–1613 (2019).
Chapter 10. Margot Waddell, previously published:
Waddell, M. (2019). “All the light we cannot see”: Psychoanalytic
and poetic ref lections on the nature of hope. Int. J. Psycho-Anal.,
100(6):1405–1421.
xv
 Acknowledgements
Chapter 11, Francis Grier:
This has been previously published in a modified form:
Francis Grier (2019) Musicality in the consulting room,
The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 100:5, 827–851, DOI:
10.1080/00207578.2019.1664905

xvi
 INTRODUCTION
Dana Birksted-Breen

Each day except Sunday I spend an hour on the Prof ’s sofa (I’ve now
spent 34 altogether) – and the “analysis” seems to provide a complete
undercurrent for life. As for what it’s all about, I’m vaguer than ever;
but at all events it’s sometimes extremely exciting and sometimes
extremely unpleasant – so I daresay there’s something in it. The Prof
himself is most affable and as an artistic performer dazzling. He has
a good deal rather like Verrall in the way his mind works.1 Almost
every hour is made into an organic aesthetic whole. Sometimes the
dramatic effect is absolutely shattering. During the early part of the
hour all is vague – a dark hint here, a mystery there -; then it grad-
ually seems to get thicker; you feel dreadful things going on inside
you, and can’t make out what they can possibly be; then he begins to
give you a slight lead; you suddenly get a clear glimpse of one thing;
then you see another; at last a whole series of lights break in on you;
he asks you one more question; you give a last reply – and as the
whole truth dawns upon you the Professor rises, crosses the room to
the electric bell, and shows you out at the door.
That’s on favourable occasions. But there are others when you lie for
the whole hour with a ton weight on your stomach simply unable to
get out a single word. I think that makes one more inclined to believe
it all than anything. When you positively feel the ‘resistance’ as some-
thing physical sitting on you, it fairly shakes you all the rest of the day.
(Strachey, November 6, 1920; Forrester &
Cameron, 2017, p. 529)

1
 Dana Birksted-Breen
The year is 1920. James Strachey is describing to his brother ­Lytton
his analysis with Freud. He had travelled to Vienna that year to
begin psychoanalysis with Freud. Soon his wife Alix also began psy-
choanalysis with Freud. Freud asked the couple to translate some of
his works into English. This initiated their life’s work as psychoan-
alysts and translators; James became Freud’s official translator and
Editor of the Standard Edition, and, with Alix’s assistance, began pub-
lishing the New German-English Psycho-Analytic Vocabulary in 1943.
In 1920, the International Journal of Psychoanalysis was established by
Ernest Jones as the first Editor, under the direction of Freud, and
Strachey became the second Editor after Freud’s death in 1939. Joan
Riviere also met Freud in 1920, starting psychoanalysis with him in
1922 in Vienna. Freud also asked her to translate some of his papers,
and she became the translation editor of the International Journal. Joan
Riviere and Alix and James Strachey were all part of the Glossary
Committee set up by Ernest Jones to create a glossary of psychoana-
lytic terms in English. These form the foundation of psychoanalytic
writings in the English language.
Translation and temporality are the Ariadne’s thread that, as ­Editor-
in- Chief of the International Journal, I chose as a frame for its cente-
nary year: temporality and translation at the heart of ­psychoanalysis,
and translation and temporality at the heart of the development of
the International Journal over 100 years.
Freud wrote: “How are we to arrive at a knowledge of the uncon-
scious? It is of course only as something conscious that we know it,
after it has undergone transformation or translation into something
conscious” (1915, p.166). Further work is needed to transform it into
language and still further into the written word, with the potential
pain and pleasure of this work. Hilda Doolittle, poet and famous
analysand of Freud, captures the experience of psychoanalysis, its
transformation into the written word, and its strange temporality,
paradoxically at once temporal and atemporal:

…it was not that he conjured up the past and invoked the future.
It was a present that was in the past or a past that was in the future.
(Doolittle, 1956, p.16)

Translation/ Transformation was planned as one of the celebrations

of the centenary of the International Journal of Psychoanalysis; its
history is intermingled with and inseparable from the history and

2
 Introduction
development of psychoanalysis. To honour the International Jour-
nal in its specificity, and to accompany the International Jour-
nal  Centenary Conferences on the theme of the unconscious, I
organized an exhibition, presenting archival material set in con-
versation with art works. In preparation, I worked with an inter-
national group of psychoanalysts and researchers from different
countries to research a number of archives, focussing in particular
on the theme of translation-transformation. The exhibition, The
Enigma of the Hour, One Hundred Years of Psychoanalytic Thought,
took place at the Freud Museum to coincide with the London
Centenary Conference. 2,3
This book has developed as an extension of the research that was
initiated for the exhibition, which focussed specifically on the early
history of the Journal, the centrality of translation, and the relation-
ship to the visual arts via the “Bloomsbury editors” who were part
of the European Intelligentsia of the early 20th century, into which
the International Journal of Psychoanalysis was born. The art installations
of the Centenary Celebrations therefore resonated with the early
history of those who created the International Journal of Psychoanalysis.
Some papers elaborate on the short pieces of text that discussed each
item exhibited in the Display Case of the exhibition (original letter,
object, or small artwork) and presented next to it in the Compen-
dium; other papers were developed during the research but never
found their way into the exhibition or the Compendium, and still
others are recent contributions on subjects close to the overall theme
of translation/transformation.
Translation is at the heart of psychoanalysis; psychoanalysis is a
work of translation, the translation from unconscious to conscious,
from experience to verbal expression, the transference from past to
present, from internal to enacted, from dream thought to dream
image, to language and to interpretation. Solms points out:

Freud was, as he wrote, therefore obliged to invent a “figurative

language” peculiar to depth psychology: “We could not other-
wise describe the processes in question at all, and indeed we could
not become aware of them” (Freud 1920a Freud, S. 1920a. “Be-
yond the Pleasure Principle” RSE 18. RSE, 18, 57). Herein lies
the tension between discovery and invention in psychoanalysis.
Freud was in this sense his own first translator.
(Solms, 2018)

3
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 Dana Birksted-Breen
New terms had to be found and decisions about whether to stay
close to the way of writing of the original language (German) or of
the language being translated (into English). Steiner, in his chap-
ter, describes Freud’s own acute awareness of issues of translation
between cultures and languages, and he also describes emotional
factors involved in choices made by Strachey but also Jones before
him, regarding terms to be used in translating Freud:

Thinking of both terms ‘cathexis’ and ‘anaclitic type’, James

­Strachey, but also Jones if one considers his original input too,
managed in some way to ‘occupy’ to ‘besetz’, ‘cathect’ the reader,
but also Freud, with their translation, and to reverse their depend-
ency on Freud as a parental figure, making him in a sort of way
depend on them, hiding their unconscious phantasies of control,
possession, but also of being possessed, in the acoustic skin of
those so very cacophonic and mysterious words.
(Steiner, Translation/Transformation, 2020)

The development of psychoanalysis in the English-speaking world is

linked to the options which were taken by Strachey for the Stand-
ard Edition, and which have been debated ever since. A century
later, the question of the translation of Freud is still open to interest-
ing debates and new findings.4 Notably, it has been suggested that
­Strachey’s translation of certain concepts has obscured the complexity
of Freud’s conception of psychic temporality, in particular the notion
of ­Nachträglichkeit.5 As an English-language journal, the development of
psychoanalysis held within the pages of the IJPA is intimately tied to
these issues.6 Strachey, in his obituary of Joan Riviere, writes about her
work as “Translation Editor”, translating and editing, and the impor-
tance of her work as “the foundation on which all our ­English knowl-
edge of psycho-analysis was first built” (Blass, Chapter 5).
In 1920, the first issue of the International Journal of ­Psychoanalysis – a
journal whose history is intertwined with the history of Freud, his
research into the unconscious, his unstoppable drive for ­k nowledge –
was published: “Our work should go forward on the basis not of our
doubts, but of our discoveries”, he had written a couple of years
earlier (1917, p. 273).7
At that time, Freud was still in Vienna, and Europe was only
just beginning to recover from the devastation of World War I. An
English-language journal seemed the way forward for the diffusion

4
 Introduction
of Freud’s ideas in the English-speaking world, and this was made
possible, thanks to the dedication and financial capacity of the first
editor Ernest Jones. The Journal began as a work of translation from
German to English, but very soon papers were submitted directly
in English, as it became the Journal of the international community.
When Freud finally realized his wish to see the diffusion of his
ideas via the publication of an English-language journal in 1920
alongside the German journals, he was already at a turning point in
his theoretical thinking with the publication that same year of “Be-
yond the Pleasure Principle” (1920), soon followed by The Ego and
the Id (1923), taking psychoanalysis in new directions, particularly in
the Anglophone world, and often trumping the earlier models.
Freud had been in discussion with Ernest Jones about starting an
English-language journal for some years; the first mention of it was
apparently in 1913 (see Bruns, Chapter 2), but it was not until after
World War I that the idea came to fruition. In the same letter in
which he mentions his grief for the recent death of his young wife,
Jones tells Freud that the time has now come for an ­English-language
journal:

At last we are allowed to communicate freely again… I think the

time is ripe for an English journal, or edition of the Zeitschrift (not
identical, of course) owned by the Vereinigung. There is so much
to talk over.
You see I can look forward in life, although I have been
through hell itself these last three months. It has been an in-
describably terrible experience, signifying more even than a
tremendous loss—owing to my inner psychical situation and
the poignant circumstances of my wife’s death. But I am surely
winning through, and have learnt very much by it. Yesterday I
read your paper on grief and melancholy, 1 which made a great
impression on me.
(December 7, 1918, 326)

Freud writes to Jones in December of that year:

Needless to say we are all impatient to get your contributions to

the Zeitschrift and see you taking an active part in the new career,
opening for ‘her ”.
(Freud to Jones, 22 December 2018)

5
 Dana Birksted-Breen
Coming not long after the devastation of the World War I, the new
Journal becomes a sign of survival and of life over death, of creativity
and action in the wake of mourning.
In her address given on the occasion of presenting the portrait of
Ernest Jones, painted by Rodrigo Moynihan, the Slade artist Sylvia
Payne ends by saying:

One of his most spectacular actions was to f ly to Vienna at the

time of Hitler’s invasion of Austria to help Professor Freud, his
family and colleagues. He was instrumental in bringing about
their escape to England, and was untiring in the work he did for
colleagues and friends who had to escape from the Nazis. It was
due to him mainly that Professor Freud was able to spend the end
of his life in peace and safety.
( July 3, 1946)

If this was his most spectacular action, it was also down to Jones that
the International Journal came into being, enhancing the future devel-
opment of Freud’s work. There were many difficulties in getting the
Journal established – financial, practical, and rivalry – as Bruns and
Steiner discuss in their chapters (Chapters 2 and 3, this volume). Dif-
ferent agendas, personal rivalries, and financial issues were at stake.
Freud writes to Jones in January 1919:

As for the journal, I hope you know, that both periodicals, Zeitschrift
and Imago, have become official with the “European” groups. I hope
also you have heard by Sachs, that we are setting on foot a ψα ­Verlag.
Now Rank developed the idea at the same time as you, that you
should bring out an English edition of the Zeitschrift (or both), all the
papers getting translated into the two languages.

Meanwhile, Abraham wanted to resuscitate the Jahrbuch, which had

been the first of a number of psychoanalytic journals started at the
turn of the century, this one under the direction of Jung, and which
had folded up due to rivalries, disputes, and economic problems. But
Freud warns:

… a third publication would be restricted to the purely Ψα public,

which does not have much buying power (…). I am afraid that

6
 Introduction
the material produced by us in the course of a year might not
be sufficient to keep it going. We do not exactly have an abun-
dance of material even for the Zeitschrift (…) what England (and
­A merica) produce is henceforward to be diverted to the English
Journal of Ψα.
(1919, p. 401)

At the meeting held at the newly formed British ­PsychoAnalytical

Society on February 20, 1919, “it was resolved that the subscrip-
tion [to the Society] should be two guineas per annum, which
should include the Journal and the Subscription to the International
­Psycho-Analytic Association” (1920, p. 116).
The International Journal of Psychoanalysis was finally published by the
International Psychoanalytical Press (International ­Psychoanalytischer
Verlag) in Vienna, with Jones as Editor and Otto Rank taking charge
of things in Vienna. After many delays, the first issue was finally
published. Jones writes: “Dear Otto, the Journal arrived today and I
was very proud to see it. The get-up is altogether excellent and you
are greatly to be congratulated (…)”. However, he then adds: “There
are only two slight faults in the whole number, that the printing on
the front cover is not in the middle and that Fleugel’s initials have got
altered” (July 30, 1920). One senses Jones’s increasing frustration in
the next few months:

Dear Otto, I am afraid that I cannot agree to the journal being

issued without my having seen its contents, especially when there
are as many and such serious errors as in the pages you sent, so I
wired to you yesterday to stop the issue at all cost until I could
send you the corrected proofs which I now enclose.
(November 30, 1920)

A few days later, Jones writes:

Dear Otto, you did the right thing to let the decision about Jour-
nal No2 rest with Prof. For my part I would suffer any cost and
any delay rather than see the Journal appear with such impossible
errors. I cannot describe to you how incredibly foreign such mis-
takes are as to write New-York instead of New York, and i instead
of I; the latter is like writing sachs (his name occurs to me because

7
 Dana Birksted-Breen
he always makes this mistake in English). Such things affect me
deeply both for the sake of the Journal and because of my respon-
sibility as editor; the world would not guess that Stern corrected
the Journal in place of me, so that I would simply look ridiculous.
(December 3, 1920)

In the first Editorial, Jones sets out the aims of the Journal:

The main consideration, though not the only one, that has
made this increasingly imperative is the unexpectedly great
progress in recent years of the interest taken in our Science
by readers not familiar with the German language, and the
desirability of making accessible to them the latest researches
in the subject. It has long been evident that a periodical pub-
lished mainly in German could not indefinitely subserve the
function of an official international organ, and, since inter-
est in ­Psycho-Analysis has extended from German-speaking
countries to English-speaking countries far more than to any
other, it was only a question of time when such a Journal as
the present one would have to be founded: with the cessation
of the war, the resumption of scientific activities, and the re-
establishment of contact between different countries, that time
may be judged to have now arrived.
(1920, p. 3, Editorial)

On the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of The International Jour-

nal, Anna Freud notes that “behind the scenes, the reasons for es-
tablishing an English Journal were essentially practical and humble
ones”. She writes,

The International Journal came into being at a period when the

publishing house established by Freud in Vienna (Internationaler
Psychoanalytischer Verlag) had suffered severe financial reverses due
to the first world war and its aftermath. There was urgent need
for rescue operations.

Anna Freud suggests that it was consequent to the Nazi advances

and the subsequent World War II that “the balance between the
German and English language became and remained reversed so far
as psychoanalysis is concerned” (A. Freud, p. 473, 1969).

8
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 Opinion as to the size to plant differs somewhat, but for average
conditions trees from 10 to 12 feet high and with trunks or stems
from 2 to 21/2 inches in diameter[86] are very satisfactory in most
varieties used for street purposes. With such varieties as elms
sycamores, and some southern oaks, somewhat larger trees can be
used equally well, while smaller trees would be better in the regions
of limited rainfall both east and west of the Rocky Mountains and for
tulip trees and sweet gums, especially in the northern portion of
their range of usefulness.
[86] Designated by nurserymen as "caliper."

PREPARATION OF HOLES.
Next to the selection of a proper variety, the preparation of the
hole is the most important detail of street tree planting. Because of
the restricted area available for the spread of the tree roots, and
owing to the artificial conditions imposed by the improvement of city
streets, the soil provided for the feeding ground of the roots of the
young tree must be liberal in quantity and of the best quality. From 2
to 3 cubic yards of soil should be provided for each tree. It is
desirable to have at least 18 square feet of opening in the sidewalk,
especially if it is of concrete or other impervious material. Trees will
grow with smaller sidewalk openings, but they are not likely to thrive
so well, and it is impossible properly to prepare a hole for planting a
tree without disturbing at least this much surface soil. The proper
depth of soil is from 21/2 to 3 feet. A hole 3 feet deep large enough
to hold 2 cubic yards of soil has a surface area of 18 square feet. A
hole 6 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet deep will hold 2 cubic yards
of soil, will have the smallest desirable surface area, and will be of
such dimensions as will best conform to the usual sidewalk and
roadway widths and thus not interfere with traffic.
The tree hole must be so drained that water will not stand in it. If
the soil is so impervious as to hold water some artificial drainage
must be provided. That portion of the depth of a hole that acts as a
cistern for holding water is valueless as a feeding ground for roots.
For every cubic foot of soil in the bottom of a hole that might thus
be made valueless by standing water, 11/2 cubic feet of soil should be
added by increasing the length or width of it. Under no
circumstances, however, should the depth of available feeding
ground be less than 2 feet. The deeper the roots may be
encouraged to grow, the less injury is likely to be experienced from
drought.
The soil used should be topsoil from land that has been
producing good crops. This should be well enriched with rotted
manure, one part of manure to four of soil. The addition of such
fertilizers as ground bone, tankage, fish scrap, or cottonseed meal at
the rate of 1 pound to the cubic yard of soil is also helpful.
Commercial fertilizers containing mostly phosphoric acid obtained
from other substances than ground bone are not to be
recommended for use in the soil about the roots at planting time.
When used they should form a surface application, worked into the
soil after planting.

PLANTING.
If trees are shipped from a
distance they should be taken at once
on arrival to some point where the
roots may be carefully covered with
soil; there they should be unpacked
and plenty of loose moist earth
worked thoroughly around and over
the roots as fast as they are taken P20370HP
from the box. This temporary Fig. 29.—Trees properly "heeled
covering of the roots is called in."
"heeling in." (fig. 29) The tops may
be either erect or laid almost on the
ground in successive rows, the tops of one row lying over the roots
of the previous rows, the object being to cover the roots thoroughly
and keep them moist until the tree is wanted for permanent setting.
Not a moment of exposure should be permitted between the box
and the soil. If the roots appear dry, they may be dipped for a few
minutes before "heeling in" in a tub of water or in thin mud.

P20000HP
Fig. 30.—Trees handled in a careless manner. The roots should
have been covered with wet canvas.

Trees in large quantities are often packed directly in cars with a

small quantity of straw about the roots. When shipped in this way
extra care (compare figs. 30 and 31) must be exercised in taking the
trees to the point where they are to be heeled in. The wagon in
which they are to be hauled should have a tight box, and wet canvas
should be tied tightly over the load. The last is important, so that
there may be no chance for the roots to dry.
When taking trees from the ground where they have been heeled
in to the place for planting, great care must also be exercised to see
that the roots are not exposed to sun or wind, but are kept closely
covered with moss, wet burlap, or canvas until planted. Lack of care
in this matter is a greater cause of loss in tree planting than
carelessness in any other particular. One city that has its own
nursery and uses largely trees that are supposed to be difficult to
move, but is careful about not exposing the roots for a moment (fig.
31), has a loss of less than 1 per cent. If the roots once dry the
trees will die, and it takes but a short exposure to dry the roots. The
holes should be prepared well in advance of planting, so that no
time will be lost when conditions are right for putting the trees in the
ground.

P20350HP
Fig. 31.—A load of trees and tree boxes. The roots are packed
in wet moss and a tree is not taken from the wagon until
the planter and two shovelers are at the hole where it is to
be planted.

In regions 1, 10, 11, 12, and 13 (fig. 17) the best time for
planting deciduous street trees is the month or six weeks just
preceding freezing weather in the fall. The other desirable time for
planting is as soon after freezing weather is over in the spring as the
ground is dry enough for the mechanical operations. This should be
as early as possible, as the more opportunity there is for root growth
before warm weather forces the top into growth, the better the
results are likely to be. In regions 6, 8, and 9, where the ground
freezes to a considerable depth, spring planting is to be preferred to
fall planting unless it is possible to drench the soil thoroughly for a
considerable distance around the trees at planting time and after
that to mulch the soil thoroughly and also to protect the top from
the effect of drying winter winds. Where mice abound they may be
harbored in the mulch and may girdle the tree. This may be
prevented by a collar of wire netting about the base of the trunk or
by banking the earth about it. The death of trees at the time of
transplanting is due to the drying out of either roots or tops before
opportunity is given them to become reestablished in their new
locations. This drying may be due to improper exposure at the time
of digging or before packing (fig. 30), poor packing, prolonged delay
in delivery, improper handling between unpacking and planting, or
the existence of conditions conducive to excessive drying out of the
plant after setting.

P14340HP
Fig. 32.—A city nursery.

The atmosphere is continually claiming a tribute of moisture from

all living plants, whether the plant is in leaf and growing or is
dormant. Growing plants, and dormant plants under normal
conditions, are able to replace this moisture by absorption through
the roots. In climates where newly planted trees may obtain
sufficient soil water to replace these losses by drying, fall planting is
best. Where the plants are unable to get sufficient winter moisture,
planting would better be done only in the spring. Where the soil
freezes to a depth greater than that to which the plant roots extend,
the supply of water is cut off from the roots and the tree will be
killed by drying out through evaporation from the top. Where winter
winds are very drying and the soil moisture is limited, evaporation
from the top is likely to be in excess of that supplied by the roots
and the tree is killed in the same way.

Fig. 33.—Setting a tree: A, Measuring from the curb to get

the tree in line; B, filling the hole: C, placing the box;
 D, fastening the box.

In regions normally adapted to fall planting, newly set trees may

be killed by a dry autumn followed by a dry winter with, high winds
or by a cold winter with so little snow that the ground freezes below
the roots. On the other hand, trees may often be successfully
planted in the fall where such practice is not usually successful by
thoroughly mulching the soil if freezing is the sole cause of the
difficulty, or by drenching the soil thoroughly and then mulching well
if lack of moisture and high winds are the causes of the trouble.
Protection from the wind by wrapping the trunk and large limbs with
burlap or some other protecting material is also desirable.
After a liberal opening has been made in the specially prepared
soil the tree should be brought, preferably from the city's own
nursery (fig. 32), but if such a nursery has not been provided, then
from among the newly received trees that have been "heeled in" as
already described.
If the tree has been well handled and the roots carefully
protected it is ready for setting. It is desirable to immerse the roots
in a thin mixture of clay and water just before putting it in the hole if
there is suspicion that the roots have been exposed. This can be
done before leaving the nursery or "heeling in" ground, but the roots
must be properly protected. Any mutilated ends of roots should be
removed, the top should be severely pruned, as described later, and
the tree should be placed in the hole in line with the other trees (fig.
33, A) and at such a height that after the filling is completed it will
be about an inch deeper in the ground than it was before
transplanting. The roots should be spread out in as near their
original position as practicable, and soil should be carefully worked
in about them with the fingers, so that each rootlet may come in
contact with soil and not be crowded against other rootlets. When all
the roots have been placed and covered the soil should be
thoroughly trampled or tamped to bring the roots into as close
contact as possible with it. Then more soil should be put in and the
ground again tamped. Of course, in order to get satisfactory results
the soil used for planting must not be too wet or too dry. If the soil
is in such a state as to hold together in soggy masses and not spring
apart again when squeezed in the hand, it is too wet for planting. If
the soil is too dry, it will not stay in contact with the roots during the
planting operations. A soil that is too dry may be well-watered a day
or two in advance of the planting, or if excessive dryness does not
make it difficult to handle, the tree may be planted and then be
thoroughly watered. After the watering 3 or 4 inches of loose soil
should be spread over the wet ground in order to prevent undue
evaporation. It should not be trampled or pounded in any way after
the water is applied. If trees planted in moist retentive soils are
watered after planting they should be provided with a mulch of
similar earth. East of the Missouri River trees planted in soil that is in
good condition usually do not need watering at the time of planting.
Trees planted from pots, cans, or boxes should have the ball of
earth taken from the receptacle handled with care, so as not to
break it further than to loosen some of the roots on the outside of
the ball; then the soil should be as carefully placed about this ball
and the loosened roots as about the roots of trees without balls.
Trees planted with balls need no root pruning and little top pruning.

PRUNING.
At planting time the trees should be so pruned as to remove from
one-half to three-fourths of the leaf buds. The head should be
formed in the nursery, so that at planting time the only problem is
how to reduce the amount of prospective growth the first season
without destroying the form of the head. Specific directions are
difficult, because different species of trees are so different in their
character of growth. A species that is naturally compact in growth
(fig. 34) should be pruned by removing whole branches rather than
by having the ends of branches removed. One that is open and
spreading (fig. 35) will probably need the shortening of the longer
limbs as well as the removal of interior branches. The first pruning
should be the removal of such branches as can be spared. If enough
 buds can
not be
removed
in this way
without
leaving
the head
too open,
then the
shortening
of the
branches
must
follow. It
is usually
necessary
to remove
three-
fourths of
the limbs
P20368HP
P20367HP
to Fig. 35.—A sycamore trimmed for
Fig. 34.—A pin oak trimmed accomplis planting. Well primed, without
for planting. Note the h this. An bad stubs.
bad stubs (A, A) on the expert can
left-hand side of the do this
tree.
pruning or most of it more easily before
the tree is planted than afterwards. Some
additional pruning may be necessary
after the tree is set.
In addition to the pruning of the top the roots may need some
cutting. Any broken pieces or ends should be removed, making a
clean cut with a sharp knife, as new rootlets put out more readily
from a cleanly cut fresh surface than from ragged breaks. If the
roots are very long, without branches or rootlets, it sometimes
makes planting easier to cut off some of the ends. As roots are the
braces by which a tree is supported in the ground, it is undesirable
to reduce their length unless some positive good is to be gained by
it.

P20372HP
Fig. 36.—Types of tree guards.

The best implement for cutting small limbs is a sharp knife, and
for larger limbs a fine-toothed saw. Pruning shears are sometimes
used, but they are likely to bruise the wood. If used at all, the blade
should always be turned toward the tree so that the bruise made by
the supporting bar will be on the portion cut off. Where branches are
taken off, the cut should be close to the remaining limb, so that no
suggestion of a stub will remain. (Figs. 34 and 35.) Where ends are
cut from branches the cut should be just above a bud, and the
remaining bud should point in the direction that it is desired the limb
should grow.

STAKES AND GUARDS.

Under city conditions young trees need the support of a strong
stake as well as protection for the trunk. Boys like to swing around
small trees or see the tops fly up if bent to the ground. Men find
them convenient hitching posts for their horses, and horses
frequently like the taste of the bark or tear it off for the sake of
having something to do.
 Guards are of many forms (fig. 36), from stakes 21/2 inches
square set 3 feet in the ground and extending 6 feet above, with
heavy-netting placed about the tree and stapled to the stake, to
heavy wooden cribs of four stakes and intermediate slats and
wrought-iron patterns of many forms.
The trees should be firmly secured to the tops of the guards so
that they will not swing against them in the wind and be rubbed.
This is best done by securing the tree in place in the guard by two
loops of pieces of old garden hose, soft leather, or rope, in such a
way as not to bind the tree too tightly while keeping it from swinging
much or rubbing. The essentials are a firm support for the tree while
young with reasonable protection of the trunk from careless
depredations until the tree has reached a diameter of 6 inches or
more.

LATER CARE.
If after planting, the season is dry and it becomes necessary to
apply water, the ground should be soaked thoroughly, and as soon
as it has dried sufficiently to work up loosely it should be hoed or
raked to make a good earth mulch. A mulch of strawy manure or
litter may be used in place of the earth mulch if desired. The
watering should not require repeating for a week or more.
If the weather becomes warm soon after planting and the trees
come into leaf, wither, and droop, further pruning may save them.
The reason for the difficulty is probably that the growth of the top
has been greater than the newly formed roots can support;
therefore the additional pruning is likely to restore the balance
between the top growth and root growth. At least three-fourths of
the remaining young wood should be removed. This may leave the
tree looking almost like a bean pole, but if it induces a vigorous root
growth the top can easily be re-formed.
 Young trees should have an annual inspection, and all crossing
branches and any that are not well placed to form a good head
should be removed. Attention should be given also to all forks, and
where two branches start almost parallel to one another or at a
small angle, making a fork liable to split apart as the tree grows, one
branch should be removed. Where three branches start from almost
the same point there is little likelihood of their splitting apart, but
with only two growing at a less angle than 30° there is liable to be
trouble in the case of most kinds of trees. On trees on which few but
long shoots form, it may be well to remove the ends of such shoots.
As a rule, it is undesirable to use for street planting trees with this
kind of growth. Young trees should be trained into a desirable shape
by the use of a pruning knife each year, so that a saw will not be
necessary later. Some trees have a tendency to form too dense a
head. The interior branches of these should be removed and the
head made as open as possible while the work can be done with a
knife. No attempt should be made to alter the natural form of a tree
but only to insure its best development. A skillfully pruned young
tree will show no evidences of the pruning after three or four years.
 CARE OF MATURE TREES.
PRUNING.
It is very little trouble to train a tree into a good shape by using
the pruning knife while the limbs are small, but it is usually difficult
to re-form a tree after it has grown to maturity. One who
understands tree growth, however, can often reshape the top of a
neglected tree to advantage, though many who make a business of
tree trimming know so little about it that they do more harm than
good. More mature trees have been hurt by severe pruning than
have been helped. Of course, dead or dying wood should be
removed whenever it is found, no matter what the age of the tree.
This should be done by cutting off the limb back to the nearest
healthy crotch. A limb should not be cut off square across (fig. 21)
unless the tree is apparently in a dying condition and the whole top
is treated thus in an attempt to save its life. In such a case, a
second pruning should follow within two years, at which time the
stubs left at the first trimming should be cut off in a proper manner
near the newly started limbs. Healthy silver maples and willows are
frequently cut in this way, but the maples in particular would better
be cut down at once than to subject the public to the dangers of the
insidious decay that almost always follows such an operation on
these trees and completes their destruction promptly.
Trees that have been neglected a long time frequently have
interfering or crossing branches, or are too low headed or too
densely headed for the place where they are growing. Defects of this
kind may be at least partially remedied. The removal of limbs by
cutting them off at a crotch in such a manner that the wound is
parallel with the remaining branch (fig. 37) inflicts the least possible
damage. Such a wound in a healthy tree will soon heal over if the
cut is made through the slight collar or ring that is nearly always
present at the base of a branch. The closer this cut can be made to
the trunk the better the appearance when the cut is healed. The
closer the cut the larger the wound, but the difference is
unimportant if the wood is well protected until it is healed. These
operations are entirely different in purpose and result from the
"heading in" or "heading back" so often practiced under the guise of
tree pruning, either from a false notion of forming a top or for the
passage of wires.
Changing the form of a tree by pruning should not be attempted.
Each species has its own form or forms, and no attempt should be
made to change or distort a tree from its normal habit of growth.
Successful pruning will accentuate rather than disguise a tree's
characteristics.
All cuts should be made
so that no stubs or
protuberances are left to
prevent quick healing. Small
wounds need no after
treatment if the cut is well
made. Large wounds should
have the wood of the center
of the cut well protected to
prevent decay until the new
growth has had an
opportunity to heal over the
cut. An application made to
the center of the cut to
preserve the wood should
not be permitted to come
near the cambium layer or
inner bark, especially of soft- P20371HP

wooded trees like the tulip Fig. 37.—Part of a tree trunk showing proper
and improper methods of removing old
and magnolia, as the oil or limbs. Although healing has started on
other substances contained the stub (at the right) it is likely to
in the paint, tar, or other proceed very slowly. The nearer the cut
is to the tree the larger the wound but
covering may spread to the the less conspicuous the stub will be
cambium layer and kill it. It when healed.
is well not to make any
application within half an
inch of the outside of the wound unless the coating has been
thoroughly tested.
Dead wood should be entirely removed, the cut being made
through good live tissue. Removing such wood frequently exposes
decayed cavities, usually from bad stubs or injuries which have
started decay that has followed back to the main limbs or the trunk.
The treatment of such cavities is the province of tree surgery and is
discussed in another publication.[87]
[87] Collins, J. F. Practical tree surgery. In U. S. Dept. Agr.
Yearbook, 1913, pp. 163-190, pl. 16-22. Published as Yearbook
Separate 622, obtainable from the Superintendent of Documents
for 10 cents in coin.

One source of trouble with a large tree that has developed with
two trunks or branches instead of three or more is the liability of
their splitting apart in the crotch. This is especially characteristic of
the elm. Careful attention to the early pruning of trees may eliminate
this defect, but when it exists in mature trees it is frequently
advisable to connect the branches by a strong chain (fig. 18) in
order to prevent the limbs from being torn apart.

FEEDING.
It is difficult to do anything to stimulate the growth of street
trees after they are once started, because usually the only
uncovered area over the roots is the small opening immediately
about the tree; hence, the importance of supplying the best of soil
well enriched at the time of planting. Sometimes a stimulation is
desirable, which can be accomplished by dissolving one-half to 1
pound of nitrate of soda in 50 gallons of water and applying from 1
to 25 gallons of the liquid, depending on the size of the tree. Unless
the soil is damp at the time of application water will be needed
immediately afterward. This material should be applied only when
the tree is in full leaf and growing. If applied when the tree is
dormant it is likely to be leached from the soil before it is absorbed.
If applied late in the season, that is, within three months of freezing
weather, it would likely stimulate a late growth that would be liable
to be killed the following winter and might make the whole tree
more susceptible to injury from cold.
Water is one of the great needs of city trees, as the ground
surface is often almost completely roofed over with water-tight
coverings. It is usually a help for the pavement washings to drain
into the parking space where the tree is planted. If a curb is placed
about the parking space, frequent, regular watering is necessary
where the ground is thoroughly covered with water-tight pavements.
Where growing under suburban conditions, that is, with streets
partially pervious to water, liberal parking spaces, and adjoining
lawns, street trees will respond to all extra care given the near-by
open spaces, whether parkings, lawns, or gardens. If these are well
cared for the trees should have ample sustenance from them
without any direct applications.
In order to prevent the soil about a tree from being packed too
hard by trampling it is frequently desirable on business streets to
cover the soil about it with an iron grating.

SPRAYING.
Street trees, like all other forms of vegetation, are subject to
attacks of insects and diseases. Because of the unfavorable
conditions under which they grow, spraying for biting and sucking
insects and suitable treatment for borers or other burrowing insects
require especially careful attention.
 In addition to a number of troubles common to street trees in
general, each species is liable to troubles of its own; hence, the
need of competent supervision by a trained man with an efficient
outfit rather than leaving; the work to individual initiative.
Because of the height which many street trees attain a powerful
outfit is required to spray them properly. One capable of maintaining
a pressure of 200 pounds per square inch is desirable. The type of
spray required for tall trees is different from that used on fruit trees
and other low plants. For low trees the ideal spray is a mist within a
few feet of the nozzle, application being accomplished by having the
nozzles near the foliage to be treated. For tall trees it is desirable
that the liquid should leave the nozzle in a solid stream, which is
broken into spray as it passes through the air. The material has to be
projected with sufficient force to reach the highest trees before
being entirely converted into mist, as it is impracticable to extend
the nozzles into the trees to reach the farthest portions, as is done
with fruit and other low trees. The spray can not be applied as
uniformly as a mist, but it is impracticable to climb into the tops of
shade trees to cover every part with a cloudlike spray. On the other
hand, the mist spray is better for small trees, as much injury may be
done to low trees or to the lower branches of high trees by the force
of the stream from high-pressure outfits.
It is estimated that in practice up to 95 per cent of the attacking
insects can be killed with insecticides carefully applied by the stream
method under high pressure.
In addition to the mechanical problem of satisfactorily covering
high trees with insecticides or fungicides there is the problem of
selecting materials that will be effective against the insects and
diseases and at the same time will not disfigure the paint or stone
work of adjacent buildings with which the materials must inevitably
come in contact in street tree spraying. It frequently happens that
the most effective remedies must be rejected because of the
damage they would do to buildings and that less efficient materials
must be used.
 Whitewashing the trunks of trees is a useless and unsightly
practice—useless, as it does not prevent the attacks of insects, and
unsightly, because it makes the trunks of the trees obtrusive when
they should be inconspicuous.
Banding with cotton or proprietary preparations may occasionally
be useful, but because such applications are so seldom helpful and
because some of the preparations result in injury due to constriction
of the trunks, it should not be resorted to except upon special
recommendation of an entomologist familiar with the existing
conditions.
Details as to enemies to be expected, methods of treatment, and
materials to be used may be found in other publications[88] or may
be obtained by correspondence with the nearest State agricultural
experiment station or with the United States Department of
Agriculture.
[88] See list on following pages.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED

STATES DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE RELATING TO
DISEASES AND INSECTS AFFECTING
SHADE AND ORNAMENTAL TREES.
AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION.
Control of Root-Knot. (Farmers' Bulletin 648.)
The San Jose Scale and Its Control. (Farmers' Bulletin 650.)
The Bagworm, an Injurious Shade-Tree Insect. (Farmers' Bulletin
701.)
The Catalpa Sphinx. (Farmers' Bulletin 705.)
The Leopard Moth: A Dangerous Imported Enemy of Shade Trees.
(Farmers' Bulletin 708.)
The Oyster-Shell Scale and the Scurfy Scale. (Farmers' Bulletin 723.)
The White-Pine Blister Rust. (Farmers' Bulletin 742.)
Carbon Disulphid as an Insecticide. (Farmers' Bulletin 799.)
The Gipsy Moth and the Brown-Tail Moth and Their Control.
(Farmers' Bulletin 845.)
Common White Grubs. (Farmers' Bulletin 940.)
The Blights of Coniferous Nursery Stock. (Department Bulletin 44.)
Forest Disease Surveys. (Department Bulletin 658.)

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF

DOCUMENTS,
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,
WASHINGTON, D. C.
The Mistletoe Pest in the Southwest. (Bureau of Plant Industry
Bulletin 166.) Price, 10 cents.
The Death of Chestnuts and Oaks Due to Armillaria mellea.
(Department Bulletin 89.) Price, 5 cents.
New Facts Concerning the White-Pine Blister Rust. (Department
Bulletin 116.) Price, 5 cents.
The Huisache Girdler. (Department Bulletin 184.) Price, 5 cents.
Report on the Gipsy Moth Work in New England. (Department
Bulletin 204.) Price, 30 cents.
A Disease of Pines Caused by Cronartium pyriforme. (Department
Bulletin 247.) Price, 5 cents.
Food Plants of the Gipsy Moth in America. (Department Bulletin
250.) Price, 10 cents.
Dispersion of Gipsy Moth Larvæ by the Wind. (Department Bulletin
273.) Price, 15 cents.
The Cottonwood Borer. (Department Bulletin 424.) Price, 5 cents.
Solid-Stream Spraying against the Gipsy Moth and the Brown-Tail
Moth in New England. (Department Bulletin 4.80.) Price, 15
cents.
Protection from the Locust Borer. (Department Bulletin 787.) Price, 5
cents.
Principal Insects Liable to be Distributed on Nursery Stock.
(Entomology Bulletin 34, n. s.) Price, 5 cents.
The Locust Borer. (Entomology Bulletin 58, part 1.) Price, 5 cents.
Additional Data on the Locust Borer. (Entomology Bulletin 58, part
3.) Price, 5 cents.
The San Jose or Chinese Scale. (Entomology Bulletin 62.) Price, 25
cents.
Report on Field Work against the Gipsy Moth and the Brown-Tail
Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 87.) Price, 35 cents.
The Importation into the United States of the Parasites of the Gipsy
Moth and the Brown-Tail Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 91.) Price,
65 cents.
The Dispersion of the Gipsy Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 119.) Price,
20 cents.
The Green-Striped Maple Worm. (Entomology Circular 110.) Price, 5
cents.
The Oak Pruner. (Entomology Circular 130.) Price, 5 cents.
The Dying Hickory Trees: Cause and Remedy. (Entomology Circular
144.) Price, 5 cents.
Flour Paste as a Control for Red Spiders and as a Spreader for
Contact Insecticides. (Entomology Circular 166.) Price, 5 cents.
Three Undescribed Heart-Rots of Hardwood Trees, Especially of Oak.
(Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 1, No. 2.) Price, 25 cents.
A Serious Disease in Forest Nurseries Caused by Peridermium
filamentosum. (Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. v, No. 17.)
Price, 10 cents.
The Chestnut Bark Disease. (Separate 598, from Yearbook of the
Department of Agriculture for 1918.) Price, 10 cents.
Practical Tree Surgery. (Separate 622, from Yearbook of the
Department of Agriculture for 1913.) Price, 10 cents.
Forest Tree Diseases Common in California and Nevada. (Forest
Service Unnumbered Publication.) Price, 25 cents.

ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED
FROM
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AT
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Transcriber Notes
Illustrations were moved so as to not split paragraphs.
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