BSc. Environmental Studies First Year Semester 1 Lecture Notes, Ebook PDF Download

STUDYNAMA.
COM
India’s Mega Online Education Hub for Class 9-12 Students,
Engineers, Managers, Lawyers and Doctors.
Free Resources for Free Resources for Free Resources for Free Resources for Free Resources for
Class 9-12 Students Engineering Students MBA/BBA Students LLB/LLM Students MBBS/BDS Students
• Lecture Notes • Lecture Notes • Lecture Notes • Lecture Notes • Lecture Notes
• Project Reports • Project Reports • Project Reports • Project Reports • Project Reports
• Solved Papers • Solved Papers • Solved Papers • Solved Papers • Solved Papers
View More » View More » View More » View More » View More »
▼▼ Scroll Down to View your Downloaded File! ▼▼

Disclaimer
Please note none of the content or study material in this document or content in this file is prepared or
owned by Studynama.com. This content is shared by our student partners and we do not hold any
copyright on this content.
Please let us know if the content in this file infringes any of your copyright by writing to us at:
[email protected] and we will take appropriate action.
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY ICSC
E-CONTENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
3. Can be used to generate power for long periods of time thus show stability.
4. It causes negligible pollution.
Disadvantages / Limitations
1. Not absolutely pollution free, many gases like H, S, CO2, NH3 are produced.
2. Drilling operation is noisy.
3. Extensive land area is used
Biomass
Biomass is the organic matter produced by plants or animals which may include wood, crop
residues, cattle dung, manure, agricultural waste, etc. It is basically indirect form of solar energy
which is converted to chemical energy by plants. Energy plantation of some fast growing trees
and non-woody grasses to produce energy either by burning directly or converted into fuels by
fermentation. Certain latex containing plants are also cultivated to produce gasoline. Such plants
are known as petro-crops. Biomass can also be fermented to alcohols like ethanol and methanol
which can be used as fuels.
CREDIT III: BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION
m
TERMS TO REMEMBER
c o
.
a
m
a
Biodiversity It refers to the variety of different species or living organisms.
yn
Poaching of wildlife Means hunting of wildlife.
Threatened species
d
Those species which are under threat is known as threatened species.
Endangered species
tu These are those species whose number have been reduced to a critical level.
Extinction
S Complete disappearance of a species from this earth.
In-situ conservation Conservation of species in its own natural habitat.
Ex-situ conservation Conservation of species outside their natural habitat.
National park Area which is totally prohibited for human activities so as to protect and give natural
habitat to the endangered species.
Exotic species Are those species which are not native and are introduced from another ecozone.
Endemic species The species which are confined to a particular area is known as endemic species.
3.1. DEFINITION AND LEVELS AND VALUES (Commercial, Ecological, Social and Aesthetic)
DEFINITION: Biodiversity is derived from greek words Bios meaning life and diversity meaning
forms.Biodervisity is the total variety of life on over planet.The total number of races ,varieties or
species i,e the sum total of various types of microbes,plants and animals present in a system is reffered
to as biodiversity.
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY:
Biota (Living species) shows variation at three levels of diversity.
1. Genetic diversity (Alpha):

The total number of genes, also known as genetic diversity refers to variation of genes within a
species which differ slightly from each other in one or more characters such as shape, size,
m
disease resistance and ability to withstand vagaries of the environmental conditions. Genetic
diversity is expressed in the form of breeds, races, varieties and forms.
c o
.
2. Species diversity (Beta): The biodiversity is usually studied in terms of species diversity. The
a
total species or the species diversity refers to the variety of species in a region. A community
m
a
consists of a variety of species of plants and animals. This „variety‟ is referred to „diversity‟ and
yn
is also known as species diversity of the community. Species diversity is dependent on two
d
variables, the number of different species in the community (species richness) and distribution of
tu
individuals of species within the community (species evenness).
S
3. Ecosystem diversity (Gamma):
Ecosystem diversity involves both species as well as genetic diversity of the community. This type of
diversity is found with different types of ecosystems like i) Terrestrial ecosystems e.g. forest, grassland
and desert ecosystems. ii) Aquatic ecosystems e.g. freshwater and marine ecosystems. iii) Wetlands e.g.
mangroves and estuarine ecosystems.
VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
COMMERCIAL VALUES: Many of our products like cereals, spices and medicines came into existence
accidentally as these plants and animals produce chemicals for their safety and attraction. Otherwise we
would not have considered these plants and animals valuable. As humans we are wholly dependent on
this diversity of plants and animals. A large number of products are derived from forests including
timber, gum; resins, oils, waxes; dyes and rubber are of immense commercial value. The much of energy
needs of the rural masses are still being met by forests. In China (2016) at one of the health resorts,
fresh oxygen filled in the cylinders is provided to the tourists. The oxygen is filled at pollution free areas
into the cylinders and is being provided to the tourists at a cost. Moreover, the animal products like
hides, horns, ivory, fur etc are a good source of income. However, killing or capturing or uprooting etc.
of any wild plant or animal is prohibited under law. A captured Rhinoceros costs more than rupees
35000/= and similarly monkeys are sold at a good rate in the market. Domesticated animals have given
us hormones, enzymes and food products while the fungi and microbes provide life saving drugs such as
antibiotics. From scientific experiments like testing of any new drug and new surgical methods are often
tested on animals. The common Rhesus monkey has been subjected to many such tests.
ECOLOGICAL VALUES: Healthy ecosystems are vital to life. They regulate many of the chemical and
climatic systems that make available clean air and water and plentiful oxygen. Forests, for example,
m
regulate the amount of carbon dioxide in the air, produce oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis (the
c o
process by which plants use sunlight to create energy), and control rainfall and soil erosion. These
.
a
forests also provide humus to the soil through leaf litter and add nutrient strength to the soil. One of the
m
strengths of our agriculture is the soil nutrients. These nutrients in the soil are being made available to
a
the plants through biogeochemical cycles. These cycles are driven by soil microbes. A gram of fertile
yn
agricultural soil contains 2.5 billion bacteria, 4.0 lacs fungi, 50,000 algae and 30,000 protozoa. All these
d
have their role to play in the soil and its fertility and they interact with each other. These micro
tu
organisms are also helpful in decreasing the toxicity of the soil which comes through the waste products.
S
The wetlands which harbor rich plant diversity filter large amount of industrial and sewage waste helps
in increasing the quality of run-off water from these wetlands. We depend on the micro-organisms in
scavenging the organic and inorganic materials present in our environment like solid waste
decomposition by the action of bacteria. Recently in the year 2016 a new bacterial strain has been
discovered which is responsible for the degradation of the plastic waste.
SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS VALUES: An important place of honor has been given to animals in the galaxy of
Hindu gods and their associates. There are animal gods like hanuman (Monkey), ganapati (mice), Lord
Vishnu sleeps on the snake, rides on the garuda, while the god ishwara and his sons ganapathy and
Subramanayam have the bull, mouse and the peacock as their vahans (ride) and goddess durga has
selected the tiger as her animal to ride. The wild life of India has interacted with our culture as well. The
early Indus civilization shows the use of animal symbols in their seals. Their mythology and literature are
full of accounts of these animals.
AESTHETIC VALUES: The ornamental plants are still a lucrative commodity today. Unusual and
interesting flora and fauna can be very important attractions, especially when combined with scenic
landscapes. The wildlife gives recreation to people of all walks of life. Bird watching is a very popular
pastime among many people. The aesthetic value of the biodiversity also gives us some sort of feeling
the pride. The Kashmir Stag is pride of the people of the state. Similarly the national animal tiger
represents the country India. These protected indigenous plants and animals give people a sense of
satisfaction that our place or region is still rich in the biodiversity. These wild places which harbor rich
biodiversity are also aesthetically pleasant and provide shelter temporarily to get away from the hustle
and bustle of the cities.
m
There are many examples of the benefits and values of the biodiversity. Today scientists believe that
o
more is unknown than known. These values of plants and animals including microbes are still unknown
c
.
and awaits discovery. However, if this biodiversity is not conserved today, including the biodiversity
a
which at present does not provide any benefit to us, may in future be a revolutionary item for the
m
a
humans.
yn
BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVELS
d
tu
Biological diversity has been the back bone of human food, wealth and livelihood security systems, ever
S
since the beginning of human civilization. Interaction between the living world and human societies led
to the domestication of a wide range of plants and animals. Expansion of human settlements and
increasing specialization of agriculture, particularly during the 20th century led to destruction of
habitats rich in biodiversity and the narrowing of the composition of the food basket. The loss of
biodiversity has to be seen against a greater need to produce food and other commodities under
condition of expanding biotic and abiotic stresses and shrinking per capita availability of arable land
and irrigation water. Also there are real possibilities for diverse changes in precipitation, temperature,
ultraviolet-B radiation and sea level rise. The feedstock for the biotechnology industry is also
biodiversity. Under such circumstances, the loss of every species and gene limits our options to shape
our future. Therefore it is imperative upon all the nations to prevent continuing genetic erosion and to
promote concerted efforts to conserve biodiversity by all nations, acting both individually and
collectively. The various steps taken at global, national and local levels to safeguard the biodiversity
resources are:
A global Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) was adopted at the UN conference on environment and
development in 1992. By January 2000, over 170 nations had ratified the CBD is a unique international
agreement, since it provides a framework for integrated action in biodiversity conservation, sustainable
use and equitable sharing of benefits. Political, public and media attention to biodiversity conservation
has certainly increased since the CBD came into force. Many countries have enacted legislation to give
effect to its provisions. Also, an internationally agreed protocol, titled the Cartagena Protocol on bio-
safety was adopted by 130 countries at Montreal in January 2000, as proposed under article 19 of CBD.
The bio-safety protocol is the first treaty under CBD. While awareness of the importance of biodiversity
exemplified by WHO Chiang Mai declaration “save plants to save lives” has grown, political and public
action in implementing the provisions relating to equitable sharing of benefits of biodiversity.
m
o
One attempt at a more holistic approach was the India’s national Biodiversity strategy and Action Plan
c
.
(NBSAP). The aims of this NBSAP were to prepare action plans including for local sites (village, district,
a
and micro-watershed), all states and Union territories, inter-static eco-regions (e.g. Western Ghats) and
m
a
cross-cutting themes. The plans were supposed to outline actions for conservation of biodiversity,
yn
sustainable use of bio-resources, and equity in using and benefiting from these resources, what
resources are required, what legal and policy changes are needed, and so on. As far as possible, NBSAP
d
tu
will also indicate reorientation of existing plans and budgets.
S
Biodiversity-rich but biotechnology poor countries are adversely affected by the prevailing non-
adherence to the ethical and equity principles in benefit sharing contained in Articles 8 and 15 of CBD.
The invaluable contributions of tribal and rural families to genetic resources conservation and
enhancement have been recognized in the CBD. Biodiversity conservation cannot, however, happen
unless it becomes a mass movement and unless laws, policies, technologies, development projects and
demographic trends that are currently threatening it are tackled properly. Indian legislation in
biodiversity emphasizes the role of tribal and rural women in conserving and improving biodiversity.
3.2. THREATS TO THE BIODIVERSITY

Main threats are:-
1. Population growth
2. Resource consumption
3. Climate change
4. Global warming
5. Habitat conversion
6. Urbanization
7. Over exploitation of natural resources
8. Environmental degradation
HABITAT LOSS: m
c o
.
During the recent past, the habitat that too undisturbed have become rare and we are losing it at a very
a
fast pace due to increased resource consumption. The growing needs of human beings require more
m
a
food, housing, electricity and other materials for sustenance. Cutting of forest for agriculture and
yn
housing, construction of dams for electricity generation and construction of roads which resulted in
shrinkage and fragmentation of habitat. All these factors threaten biodiversity at gene, species and
d
tu
ecosystem level hampering the provision of key products and services..
S
POACHING OF WILDLIFE:
The killing of animals for meat, skin and bones etc. is an age old practice. This has led to unlimited
slaughter of many animals by man to meet his materialistic ends. For instance, elephants are poached
for tusks, tigers and big cats for skin and rhinoceros for horns. The increasing costs of these products
have placed these animals under threat. As a consequence of poaching, the populations of elephants,
rhinos and other animals decreased considerably
CONFLICT BETWEEN MAN AND WILDLIFE:

It refers to interaction between wild animals and people and the resultant negative impact on people or
their resources, or wild animals or their habitat.It occures when growing human population overlap
withreduction of resources,habitat destruction etc.Its main causes are:-
I.dwindling habitats.
2.Man-eating tendency
3.Scarcity of food
4.Electric wiring
5.Lack of corridors
POLLUTION OF VARIOUS HABITATS:
m
The pollution of the environment is one of the most horrible ecological crisis to which we are subjected
c o
today. We also know that three basic facilities for living organisms are air, land or soil and water. During
.
a
the past these facilities were pure and almost undisturbed. However, the situation is different today.
m
With the progress in the field of science and technology, the pollution of the environment and serious
a
ecological imbalance is proving disastrous for the survival of the human beings as well as other living
yn
creatures which are necessary to withstand for the functioning of the ecological systems (Remember the
d
role of animals in the food chain and food web). Pollution had invaded and has exploited every bit of
tu
natural resources. The craze of progress in agriculture, industry, transportation, and technology has
S
created adverse effects on all living organisms on the biosphere.
CATASTROPHIC PROCESS:
The demand for food has increased as a result of rise in human population and hence fertilizers were
used to increase food production. Fertilizers have boosted the production of food grains and vegetables
to many times but the world have discovered that this revolution had a costly side, the destruction of
the environment. The fertilizers which were used got washed down into streams, rivers, lakes, seas and
ocean. These at the first instance have depleted the oxygen of the water and made it difficult for fishes
and other water animals to live in. Several lakes have been called as biologically dead which receive such
kinds of wastes. In addition insecticides, pesticides have also caused the aquatic animals to perish. On
the other hand radioactive pollution, thermal pollution, marine pollution, smoke pollution, smog
pollution, metal toxicity, acid rain pollution has arrested the fragile ecosystems on the biosphere and
has posed the threat of extinction of mankind and several other species of life.
ACCIDENTAL CAUSE:
Calcutta, which is one of the most polluted cities in India, releases 1100 tonnes of particulate matter
every day from industries, energy houses and other sources. It was estimated that carbon dioxide
concentration of 38ppm due to auto exhausts during peak traffic hours at selected points was the
highest intensity of air pollutants recovered in India. In China about 60million tonnes of coal was
extracted which polluted the overall sky. In Beijing 39 tones of soot per sq.km.descends each month due
to which it becomes dusty, sooty, cold and dry in winter. Here people wear masks of surgical cotton to
prevent dust from entering the lungs. In many countries motor vehicles have no emission control
equipment and so the emissions from their vehicle contribute to acid rain. The worst air pollution case
m
in the Meuse Valley of Belgium in 1930 where 60 people died. A deadlier London smog in which about 4-
o
5 thousand people died from respiratory ailments. The worlds worst nuclear disaster at Chernobyl in the
c
.
Ukraine area. The Bhopal gas tragedy which took place in India in which almost 3200 people lost their
a
life. There are other several hundred episodes which have resulted into loss of life and property due to
m
a
pollution of the environment.
yn
d
tu
S
BIOLOGICAL INVASION:
DEFINITION: The process by which species (or genetically distinct populations), with no historical record
in an area, breach biogeographic barriers and extend their range.
The entry of Azolla (water plant) in the Kashmir lake waters is a case of biological invasion. In Jammu the
listed invasive species are 75% are herbs, 10% shrubs, 5% grasses, 4% trees and 3% climbers and sedges.
Maximum contribution to the invasive alien species is from American region. In July 1996, the United
Nations Conference on Alien Species identified invasive species as a serious global threat to biological
diversity. Then in April 1997, more than 500 scientists called for the formation of a presidential
commission to recommend new strategies to prevent and manage invasions by harmful exotic species in
the United States. Already, many countries attempt to maintain their biological heritage. Unfortunately,
for a variety of reasons, such tactics have failed. Without greatly increased awareness and coordinated
efforts, the devastating damages will continue.
Exotic species have contributed to the decline of 42 percent of endangered and threatened species in
the U.S. At least 3 of the 24 known extinctions of species listed under the Endangered Species Act were
wholly or partially caused by hybridization between closely related exotic and native species. After
habitat destruction, introduced species are the second greatest cause of species endangerment and
decline worldwide far exceeding all forms of harvest. As Harvard University biologist E. O. Wilson put it,
“Extinction by habitat destruction is like death in an automobile accident: easy to see and assess.
Extinction by the invasion of exotic species is like death by disease: gradual, dangerous, requiring
scientific methods to diagnose.”
CONCEPT OF THREATENED SPECIES
m
o
Threatened species are those which are under threat due to various natural and anthropogenic
c
.
activities. If not protected all the species may become extinct if these casual factors continue operating.
a
The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) is maintaining a Red
m
Data Book which contains a data of animals which are known to be in danger. The classification is based
a
n
on the following factors:
y
1.
d
The present and the past distribution of the species.
The decline u
2.
t in the population of the species.
3.
4.
S
The biology and potential of the species and
The availability and quality of natural habitat of species.
The three categories depending upon the degree of danger to them includes the vulnerable,
endangered and rare species as given below:
 Vulnerable (VU): Species is vulnerable when it is not endangered but facing high risk
of disappearance. Some of the common vulnerable animal species in India are: Golden
languor, Leopard cat etc.
 Endangered (EN): Species whose number has been reduced critically or whose natural
habitats have been adversely affected by natural and artificial means. These are near to
extinction. The important ones from these are: Hanglu, Snow leopard, Nilgiri langur Red
panda, Musk deer, Peacock, Himalayan monal pleasant etc.
 Rare (R): Species which are less in number but are scattered throughout the world.
These does not satisfy the criteria for endangered or vulnerable but they are at risk.Some
Indian rare species are: Indian Desert cat, Wild yak, Markhor etc.
3.3 CONCEPT OF ENDEMIC SPECIES
Endemic species are those species which are confined to a particular area like country, island
and mountain area etc. They are found in a particular environment only. Little variations are
found in such species. Most of the endemic flowering plants in India are reported from North
East India, the Western Ghats, North West Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Out
of 45000 flowering plants found in India 15000 species (i.e. 33%) are endemic. More than 60%
of amphibian species are endemic and half of the lizard species are endemic.
m
Some examples of endemic species are: Banyan, Butter cup, Shisham, Bael (Aegle), Dhak
(Butea) etc.
c o
.
a
CONCEPT OF EXOTIC SPECIES
m
Also called as introduced species or alien species or non-indigenous species.Exotic species are those
a
yn
species which live outside their native distributional range and which has arrived either accidently or
intentionally.Examples are Water Hyacinth,Congress grass etc
d
t u
Effects of species introduction:
S
There are many instances when introduction of exotic species has caused extensive damage to
natural biotic community of the ecosystem. Species introduction can have drastic social,
economic and environmental effects. Some of these are positive but more often they are
negative, such as the disruption of the natural balance of ecosystems.
HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
DEFINITION: Hot spots are those sites that are characterized by high concentration of endemic species
and are facing serious risk of disappearance due to rapid rates of habitat modification or loss. The
concept of hot spots of biodiversity was given by Norman Myers in 1988.
CRITERIA: An area is designated as hotspot when it contains at least 0.5% or 1500 species of plant
species as endemic and have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation. Currently there are 34 hot spots
of biodiversity all over the world that represents just 2.3% of earths land surface but they support more
than half of the world’s plant species as endemics. There are 49,955 endemic plant species or 20% of
world’s recorded species. Of the 34 global biodiversity hotspots, four are present in India represented by
the Himalaya, the Western Ghats, the Northeast India and the Nicobar Islands. Some of the important
global biodiversity hot spots are:
1) Brazil‟s Cerrado.
2) Central Chile.
3) California floristic province.
4) Madagascar.
5) West Afarican forests.
6) Cape floristic province.
7) South central China.
m
8) Eastern Himalaya of India.
c o
9) Western Ghats of India.
.
10) Coastal forests of Tanzania/Kenya.
a
HOT SPOTS IN INDIA
m
a
n
Out of 34 identified hot spots, 4 are found in India. These are
y
Eastern Himalaya d
tu
i) which extends from North Eastern India to Bhutan. The Eastern
Himalayan hot spot is rich in endemic plants and the temperate forests are found at the
height S
of 1780-3500 meters above sea level. Here many deep valleys are also found.
ii) Western Ghats covers the evergreen forests in the states like Karnataka, Maharashtra
and Kerela that lies at height of about 500-1500 meters above sea level. The two main
centers of biodiversity are Agasthyamalai hills and Silent valley.
iii) Northeast India is one of the most biodiversity rich regions of tropical forests in India.
Northeast India, a part of the Himalayan and Indo-Myanmar “hotspots,” is of special
biodiversity interest.
iv) Nicobar Islands covering 8,249 km2 geographical area with a coastline of 1,962 km.
The terrain of Andaman Islands (part of Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot) that has been
formed from the fragments of a continental land mass is in contrast to the Nicobar
Islands (part of Sundaland Biodiversity Hotspot), which were formed due to volcanic
activity. These are lying in North-South direction and simulating an arc stretching over a
length of about 912 km and maximum width of 57 km.
Table: Diversity of plants and animals in India.
Group Number % of world species
Mammals 350 7.6%
Birds 1224 12.6%
Amphibians 197 4.4%
m
Reptiles 408 6.2%
c o
.
Fishes 2546 11.7% a
m
Flowering plants 15000
a 6%
yn
d
Sources: Indira Gandhi Conservation Monitoring Centre (IGCMC), New Delhi & IISc.
tu
3.4. CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
S
DEFINITION: Conservation is defined as the management of human use of the biosphere so
that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefits to the present generation, while maintaining its
potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations, thus conservation embraces in
itself preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization, and restoration of the natural
environment.
The conservation of plants and animals can be studied under two headings:
IN-SITU CONSERVATION
In-situ conservation is the conservation of species in its natural habitat. In-situ conservation is
being done by declaring area as protected area: in India following habitats are being maintained:
1. National parks: A national park is an area which is totally prohibited for human activities
like forestry, grazing, cultivation etc. and is reserved for the betterment of wildlife. National
park is an area to preserve for all times which contains an object of geographical, historical,
and biological importance as a national heritage for the benefit of education and enjoyment
of people. It is enacted or promulgated by central Legislation.
As of August 2015, there were 105 national parks. All national park lands then encompassed
a total of 40,500 km2, comprising 1.23% of India's total surface area.
2. Sanctuaries: Wildlife Sanctuary is an area set aside for the preservation and conservation of
wildlife where man can visit as a privileged visitor without effecting wildlife. In this, quality
of environment is managed or unproved by wildlife Management Techniques or practices. It
is enacted by the state Legislation.
There are about 531 wildlife sanctuaries covering an area of 117607 km2, comprising the
total geographical area of 3.58% of India.
m
c o
Protected Areas of India (as on 14 August, 2015)
.
a % of Geographical Area of
m
No Area (km2) India (%)
a
yn
National Parks (NPs) 103 40500.13 1.23
Wildlife Sanctuaries (WLSs)

d 531 117607.72 3.58
tu
S
Conservation Reserves (CRs) 65 2344.53 0.07
Community Reserves 4 20.69 0.00
Protected Areas (PAs) 703 160473.07 4.88
Source: National Wildlife Database Cell, Wildlife Institute of India
1. Biosphere Reserves: Biosphere Reserve includes natural, minimally disturbed, man

modified and degraded ecosystem. These are meant for conservation of natural areas and the
genetic material which is contained within them.Biosphere reserve programme was
established in 1971 under MAB (man and biosphere) programme of UNESCO.Presently
worldwide there are 621 biosphere reserves in 117 countries. In India presently we have 18
biosphere reserves.Nilgari being the first one and Panna the latest one.Out of 18 biosphere
reserves ,9 are part of the world Network of biosphere reserves on UNESCO Man and
Biosphere Programme list.These are:-
i. Nilgari biosphere reserve
ii. Gulf of Manar biosphere reserve
iii. Sunderbans biosphere reserve
iv. Nanda devi biosphere reserve
v. Nokrek biosphere reserve
vi. Pachmari biosphere reserve
vii. Simlipal biosphere reserve
viii. Achanakmar-Amarkantak biosphere reserve
ix. Nicobar islands biosphere reserve
m
c o
.
2. EX-SITU CONSERVATION
a
m
Ex-situ conservation is the method of conservation where the plant or animal is not conserved in
a
its natural habitat, but can be conserved out in the habitat under controlled conditions under
y n
human supervision. Few noteworthy points of ex-situ conservation are:
d A botanical garden is said to be well established if it has lakes,

1. Botanical gardens: A botanical garden is a living collection of plants and which provides
t u
material for a number of studies.
Sbeds, glass houses, herbaria, libraries and laboratories associated with it. In
ornamental flower
botanical gardens under controlled conditions, those plants are grown which cannot grow
normally. After the growth of these plants, they are reintroduced in the original area to grow and
so help in plant introduction. This plan is very helpful in propagation of economically important
plants like tea, coffee, rubber, etc. Moreover, botanical gardens have elaborate facilities of glass
houses and green houses.
2. Zoological gardens: or park which is common homes for living collections of animals. Zoo‟s
can propagate species threatened with extinction in the wild, sometimes enabling the
repopulation of these species. Server like stock varieties that are not commercially popular but
are culturally significant or are needed for research and breeding programmes. More recently a
number of zoological gardens have been developed as breeding centers for animal species which
are in danger of becoming extinct. Many of these species have been saved by breeding in
captivity. For example, in 1947, it was estimated that there were only 50 nests left in Hawaii and
nowhere else in the world.
3. Tissue culture: Tissue culture technique is another scientific method to conserve plants. This
technique has been developed recently and with the help of this technique, from a single cell we
can get a complete plant. Each cell in a plant is able to grow is the main principle underlying
some reasons like lack of pollinators, sterility or reproductive organs etc it can be made to grow
through tissue culture. Preservation of gene, reproductive materials like seed, semen, etc also
helps in conservation.
4. Gene banks: A gene bank is an institution where valuable plant and animal materials likely to
be lost in the wild or in cultivation is preserved in a viable condition.
5. Cryo-preservation: It may be defined as the conservation of seeds, pollen etc at freezing
m
temperature or at ultra low temperature. By this method we can preserve pollen and seeds of a
c o
plant which are the most essential material for the progeny. The conservation of sperms through
.
a
Cryo-preservation is also done, not only sperms, but animal cells, ovarian and embryonic tissue
m
and also the whole embryo is also used for livestock breeding programmes.
a
Micro-organisms which are an important component of any ecosystem have received hardly any
yn
attention, particularly their association with the higher plants. These Micro-organisms constitute an
d
important element in the establishment and this aspect needs to be looked into with holistic approach.
tu
A wide range of microbes, algae, insects and many other organisms are to be stored for any possible
future use.
S
CREDIT IV: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES, POLICIES AND PRACTICES
4.1. CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF AIR, WATER, SOIL, NOISE AND SOLID WASTE
POLLUTION
CONCEPT OF POLLUTION AND POLLUTANTS

Nature has given us abundant resources in the form of water, air, vegetation, soil, wild animals, metals,
fossil fuels etc. These are the free gift to the mankind. Men are using all these resources in some way or
the other right from the dawn of civilization. Thus, utilization of resources, has improved the
development of any country or a region. In the course of the operation of natural resources man has ill-
used its availability, thus affecting the natural ecosystem. Instead of improving his living conditions, he
has created major long term problems and has been catastrophic for the natural environment.
Pollution is one of the major worries of modern man which is generally defined as the introduction or
addition of harmful materials to an ecosystem. It has been regarded as a human activity in which
plastics, synthetic toxins, non-decomposing chemicals, etc., are brought into the ecosystem; it also
involves natural processes that produce materials that cause ecosystems to die. Volcanoes and forest
fires discharge noxious ash and other atmospheric pollutants that can seriously damage or even destroy
ecosystems. One problem with pollutants, especially applicable to toxic organic substances, is that they
m
become more concentrated as they move along a food chain (bioconcentration). A lake may contain
c o
only moderate levels of the pesticide DDT, but the tiny invertebrates (plankton etc.) in that lake may
.
a
concentrate the pesticide 100 times; still greater concentrations are accumulated and stored in the fatty
m
tissue of the fish that feed on the small invertebrates. By the time the DDT reaches the birds that feed
a
on the fish, its levels are many thousands of times greater than in the lake. Pollution of ecosystems by
yn
elemental metals such as lead and mercury has been well documented. These substances have been
d
particularly devastating to higher level predators such as the tertiary consumers in a food chain. These
tu
include not only large wild carnivores but human beings as well. Lead belongs to the class of heavy
S
metals that tend to interact with and precipitate protein. Tissues like the brain and cells like
erythrocytes (red blood cells) are particularly sensitive to the effects of lead. Among the symptoms of
lead poisoning are weakness and muscle tremors, impaired transport of oxygen by erythrocytes and
nerve destruction. Lead moves into communities through its presence in gasoline. Combustion of leaded
gasoline tends to discharge compounds of lead into the atmosphere. Most cars manufactured today use
lead free gasoline and the atmospheric contamination by lead has considerably decreased. Mercury
salts used were believed to have caused some nerve damage. However, mercury salts from industries
wastes in Minamata Bay (Japan) have been shown to have killed many citizens who ate contaminated
shell fish. Pollution generally involves the introduction of some harmful substance to an ecosystem,
causing disturbances within that ecosystem.
An over abundance of nutrients is provided in the waters of a river or lake, stimulating overgrowth of
phytoplankton (floating microscopic plants) or algae. This floral population soon reaches a density at
which vital gases and nutrients are used up and the overgrown blooms produce toxins and die as an
unpleasant rotting mass. Eutrophication, although rooted in the concept of excessive nutrient levels
may also be caused by a rise in water temperature usually due to the dumping of hot effluents by
factories. The increased temperature may speed up activity within the algal community and produce
overgrowth. The end result is the same as that brought on by an excess of nutrients. Eutrophication may
also involve the overgrowth of larger plants such as weeds.
There are too many men suffering or dying just because the air they breathe, the water they drink and
the food they eat contain substances toxic to man, animal and plant alike. In other worlds, all these life-
supporting factors of environment have come to contain substances that they would ordinarily not
contain; at any rate, in quantities that cannot be tolerated by a living system. Therefore, when we speak
m
of pollution, we mean human activity which puts into the environment toxic substances in proportions
c o
that would endanger not only the lives of human beings but also those of many a species of plants and
.
a
animals. So the word, pollution, in the present context means the man-made only.
m
a
yn
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
d
tu
Pollution is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, water and
S
soil that may harmfully affect the human life or that of desirable species or industrial processes, living
conditions and cultural assests or deteriorate raw material resources. It is thus direct or indirect change
in any components of biosphere that is harmful to living components and in particular undesirable for
man, affecting adversely the industrial progress, cultural and natural assests or general environment. As
per advisory committee EPP (Environmental Pollution Panel), environmental pollution is the unfavorable
alteration of our surroundings through direct or indirect effects of changes in energy patterns, radiation
levels, chemical and physical constitution and abundance of organisms.
POLLUTANT:
Any substance which causes pollution is called pollutant. A pollutant may thus include any chemical or
geochemical substance, biotic component or its product or physical factor that is released intentionally
by man into the environment in such a concentration that may have adverse, harmful or unpleasant
effects. It is also defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in such concentration as may
be or tend to be injurious to the environment. Pollutants are often the residues of materials we make
rise or throw away e.g. smoke from industries and automobiles, sewage from homes and hotels,
radioactive substances from nuclear plants, discarded households articles. However, all pollutants are
not waste material. Fertilizers are used to enrich the soil for increasing crop yields but pollute water if
present in excess.
(OR)
A pollutant can be any chemical, such as a radio-nuclide (radioisotopes); organo-phosphorus compound
m
or trace gas or it may be a geochemical, substance such as dust or a sediment or biological organisms or
o
their products. Sometimes a pollutant can be an entity like heat that is released intentionally or
c
.
inadvertently by man resulting in adverse, harmful or unpleasant or inconvenient effects. These
a
undesirable effects may be direct or indirect, mediated through resource organisms or climatic change.
m
a
Indeed, any substance can act as a pollutant when present in too large quantities.
yn
d
tu
AIR POLLUTION
S
Air being very vital component of earth’s environment which forms the basic of the diversity of life on
this planet, slight change in its composition can have varied effects on the survival of the life. The
presence of certain substances in air beyond those concentration levels that can lead adverse effects on
biotic as well as abiotic environmental factors is termed as air pollution. Causes of air pollution: Air
pollution can best be studied in terms of sources and types of pollution.
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
In general there are three basic categories of sources of pollution. They are:
POINT OR STATIONARY SOURCE: It includes fossil fuels, industries, etc. The industries like petroleum
refineries, fertilizer plants, paper factories, iron and steel industries etc. discharge various gaseous
pollutants into the atmosphere. Burning of wood, charcoal and other forms of fossil fuels releases
carbon dioxide and Sulphur dioxide etc into the atmosphere nitrogen oxides are also released from
burning of petroleum products in industry. A considerable amount of photochemical oxidants are also
formed as a result of the counter reaction mechanism of primary pollutants in various types of
industries.
LINE OR MOBILE SOURCES: It includes those sources which do not cause pollution at a
specific point but are moving sources. These include automobiles as the major sources.
Automobile exhausts release, in addition to particulates, various gases as pollutants into the air.
These include carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide. Lead is another
serious pollutant released through the automobile exhaust as it is used a anti-knocking material in
petrol in the form of tetra ethylene lead (TEL). Big cities which sustain a richer density of
industrial units besides having greater number of automobiles face a great threat of pollution
m
o
from smog which is primarily caused by the emission of fog and un-brunt particulates are
.c
released from burning of fuels in industry and the automobile exhausts.
a
AREA SOURCES: It includes those sources of pollution which are prevalent in certain specific
m
area e.g., natural sources like volcanic eruptions, pollen grains; mining activities etc. The large
a area have caused severe air pollution. About
15,000 tonnes of particulate matter isn
scale coal mining in Jheria, Dhanbad and adjoining
y released in Jheria coal fields per year. Bhopal gas tragedy

dhumans and live stock. The release of poisonous gas Methyl
tu
took a heavy toll of life of
Isocyanide (MIC) which effected large areas adjoining Bhopal. Wars, by releasing various forms
S poisonous gasses pollute the air and disturb the ecology of those areas.
of explosives containing
Agricultural activities including the use of various pesticides pollute the air while spraying of
weedicides, insecticides and fungicides etc. The fumes are released into the air and cause
pollution.
TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS:
The air pollutants are of three main types which are
1. Gaseous pollutants.
2. Particulate pollutants.
3. Radioactive pollutants
1. Gaseous pollutants: There are numerous gaseous pollutants of air which include carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of sulphur, oxides of nitrogen, hydrogen fluoride,
photochemical oxidants, ozone etc. Burning of fossil fuels in industry and home, in
automobiles, sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. Carbon monoxide is released as a
result of incomplete combustion of fuels. Hydrogen fluoride in released from the soil and
rocks rich in fluoride containing minerals. Photochemical oxidants include peroxyacetyl
nitrate (PAN), ozone, aldehydes etc. which are formed by reactions between primary
pollutants like nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons etc in presence of light.
2. Particulate pollutants: Particulate is solid or liquid particles which remain suspended in
air for prolonged periods. They include metallic dust released from various metallurgical
processes; soot from mining and un-burnt fuel particles etc., these particulates can be coal
dust, fly ash; sprayed fumes of pesticides; metal dust of lead, chromium, zinc, mercury
m
etc., cotton dust and various forms of chemicals aerosols. Particulate mass levels can
c o
cause pollution when the mass levels range between 50 g/m3 and 2000 g/m3. Particulates
.
a
including mist, fumes, dust etc which have particle size ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 µm
m
provide nuclei for water droplet and ice formation and result in fog which on combining
a
with smoke forms smog, which is known to cause serious respiratory tract disease.
y n
Aerosols e.g. chlorofluorocarbons released from refrigeration devices and jet airplanes
d The harmful radiations emitted from radioactive substances

deplete the ozone layer present in the upper atmosphere.
3.
t u
Radioactive pollutants:
S
cause air pollution. Expulsion of nuclear substances and wastes of nuclear power plants
also release greater radiations, harmful for living organisms.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
There are varied and diverse effects of various pollutants in air on the biotic as well as abiotic
environment. All the components of air, beyond the optimum levels cause damage to plants, animals,
human beings and the abiotic environment. Some of the major, integrated effects on air pollution in
general are as follows
1. Increased higher concentration of green house gases in air (e.g. CO2, CH4, NO2, SO2, CFC’s, water
vapour etc) have caused increase in average global temperature (Global warming) which can lead to
serious consequences.
2. Depletion of ozone layer by CFC’s is yet another serious effect of air pollution. It was led to increased
inflow of ultraviolet radiations reaching the earth’s surface which can lead serious health hazards in
humans and animals. Constant exposure can damage the vegetation as well.
3. Acid rain is another consequence of air pollution. Gases like oxides of carbon; Sulphur, nitrogen etc
combine with water and fall down as acid rain which causes damage to flora, fauna and abiotic
structural assets like historical monuments etc. The effects are more pronounced in aquatic systems.
4. Carbon monoxide proves to be fetal even in small concentrations as it blocks hemoglobin for binding
of oxygen and reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
m
o
5. Increased ozone concentration in air can lead to pulmonary edema. It along with aldehydes irritates
c
.
eyes and respiratory organs. Air pollution leads to many respiratory diseases including bronchitis and
a
asthma due to the presence of particulate and irritating gasses.
m
a
6. Lead and other metallic particulates have adverse effects on various physiological and biochemical
yn
processes of organisms. Fluorides cause glurosis in animals.
d
tu
7. Crops are adversely affected by increased concentrations of oxides of sulphur, nitrogen, ozone etc.
S
8. Air pollution adversely affects the climate in terms of rain fall, humidity and temperature fluctuations.
Control of air pollution: Pollution control measures are a social responsibility of all those who believe
that pollution free environment is a valuable asset for the sustenance of life. Air pollution control
includes some direct and some indirect measures which prove effective in minimizing the levels of air
pollution.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION

1. Intensive plantation around the settlements reduces the amounts of particulates like dist etc in the
air. The trees having simple leaves have been proven much effective. Social forestry and community
forestry programmes prove to be effective in controlling air pollution.
2. Installation of industrial units away from human habitations so as to minimize immediate effects of
these gases. Besides these, gases get diluted before reaching the people.
3. Shifting to public transport facilities rather than personal conveniences to minimize the release of
automobile exhaust.
4. Using much efficient machinery in industry and automobiles to ensure proper and complete
combustion of fuels.
5. Using absorbers, adsorbers for unwanted chemicals at the source and along the paths of diffusion of
m
pollutants.
6. Enactment of environment laws.

c o
.
a
7. Creating public awareness through debates, discussion, seminars, symposia, etc about the hazards of
m
a
air pollution.
yn
WATER POLLUTION
d
tu
The undesirable changes in the natural characteristics of water lead to water pollution. Usable water
S
being present in limited quantity on globe, the loads of its pollution seems to be more concentrated and
drastically effective. In lentic systems of water, the biota is greatly affected by pollution compared to
lotic ones but at the same time the biota of lentic systems is more resistant or tolerant to pollution.
SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is caused by both natural process of decay and decomposition of animals and plants and
the anthropogenic pressures such as industrial and domestic effluents, use of pesticides, fertilizers etc.
The sources of water pollution can be categorized as:
POINT SOURCES: In which almost definite, constant and fixed composition of effluents are
discharged directly into a water body like industrial discharge and sewage etc.
Sewage: It includes domestic sewage containing food wastes, detergents, human excreta and live stock
excretory wastes. It generally contains, at an average, more than 99 percent solid matter and less than
one percent liquid. It is richer n organic constituents (about 70%). It has been estimated that 60 ppm to
150 ppm chloride content is present in sewage disposal.
Industrial effluents: The discharges from oil refineries, paper and pulp industry, glass, steel, iron,
textiles, sugar industry etc. contains high organic load which when added to water causes water
pollution. Wastes containing lignum (made up of cellulose material) remains unaffected from the
microbial action for long periods causing depletion of fishes up to longer distances in the downstream.
There are various metallic elements which act as accumulating poisons in aquatic systems. Besides these
two major sources of pollution, some other sources include Pesticides, Fertilizers, Radioactive materials
from nuclear wastes, Pathogenic organisms (including bacteria, helminthes and their eggs, protozoa
etc), Oil and excessive salts etc. and Thermal pollution.
m
o
NON POINT OR DIFFUSED: In which the effluents are added at different positions with
c and diverse in nature e.g.
varied composition and volume. These are generally dispersed
.
agricultural and domestic run off etc. a
m
a
Diffuse pollution results from release of variety of substances in many different situations. It includes:
 Agricultural activities involvesn

type of fertilizers andd
y
biocides.
the use of diverse synthetic chemicals including different
 Soil which are tu fertilized with N,P and K for maize and wheat crops show increased
S content i.e. crop yield but reports indicate that there is decrease in protein
carbohydrate
content.
 Nitrate fertilizers find their way into water bodies and render water unfit for drinking.
 Organic wastes that are poorly stored or disposed of and spread to land.
EFFECTSO OF WATER POLLUTION
Water polluted with domestic sewage can spread such epidemic diseases as cholera, typhoid, dysentery
or diarrohea and a number of minor ailments and water borne diseases. The major effect of sewage in
water is that it reduces oxygen content of water. The organic matter content of sewage is higher. The
maximum organic content is subjected to chemical and bio-chemical oxidation processes. Since the
dissolved oxygen content is less, this leads to anaerobic conditions. The estimation of Biochemical
Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.) gives an indication of the amount of pollution in a body of water. The high
amount of B.O.D. indicates large bacterial population. The domestic sewage adds nitrates and
phosphates. In the same way, excess nitrates from fertilizers run down into ponds, lakes and streams.
These nitrates and phosphate encourage a thick bloom of blue-green algae, which depletes the oxygen
content of the water. This suffocates the fish and other aquatic life. The rapid algal growth leads to
decline of nutrient content in the medium, causing rapid decay of algal filaments. The products of their
decay attribute unpleasant taste and smell to the water. The increased productivity of lake and stream
water brought about by nutrient enrichment is known as Eutrophication.
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S
Fig: Important Water pollutants
m
c o
.
a
Industrial effluents often contain specific poisons which are both dangerous to health or else kill
m
off the bacteria and other aquatic life. In February 1972 Sardine fishes migrated at the West coast
a
and reached Bombay. The sewage in this town emptied in Arabian Sea and oxygen was absent
y n
led the fish for suffocation. After being washing by tides, the dead fishes were found on the coast
d
nearly for 5 km distance. The fishes from Kalu, Ulhas rivers at Khopoli and Kalyan were found
dead because of the u
t addition of pollutants from paper, dyestuff, rayon, nylon and other
industries. S
Discharged of acetaldehyde and organic mercury waste into the sea, where it got in to the fish. When
this fish was consumed by local people, they lost hearing, speech, sight and many deaths were reported.
Under the action of naturally occurring bacteria, the organic material in the sewage undergoes
decomposition and use oxygen dissolved in water and purifies it. This act of purification is depressed
when wastes are accumulated in very large amounts. But by the discharge of toxic waste from
industries, these bacteria are destroyed and organic substances decay giving foul smell to the water and
lakes and rivers become highly contaminated. The use of nitrates in fertilizers enters the drinking water
and cause health hazards. Nitrates are converted to nitrites by bacteria when they enter intestine. The
nitrites join the blood stream. Hemoglobin has stronger affinity for nitrites than oxygen and therefore,
infants suffer from acute lack of oxygen. This disease is known as methaemoglobinema (Blue-baby
disease). Industrial wastes having pollutants are classified into three types. The sugar mills and paper
mills discharge wastes containing sugars high B.O.D. value. The organic content of such wastes provides
an abundant source of food for bacteria and fungi. Owing to the metabolic activities of these organisms,
the dissolved oxygen gets reduced and the area is found without oxygen. Aquatic organisms such as fish
either evade this area or are killed. The industrial wastes which have high B.O.D. content have inorganic
and organic intoxicants and may have high or very low pH. In wood pulp waste, besides sugar, have
B.O.D., sodium hydroxide, sodium sulphide, formaldehyde, sodium salts of resin and fatty acids are also
present. High organic content of these wastes reduces the dissolved oxygen content in water which
renders these areas unfavorable for aerobic forms. The presence of even certain wild toxic substances
produces lethal effects on organisms such as fish when present in waters with reduced oxygen. The
effluents coming from chemical and metal industries have more toxic substances and organic matter is
less. Such substances have low B.O.D. and high toxicity. Effluents containing metals like copper, zinc and
m
chloride are poisonous and could kill fishes even at 0.1-0.22 ppm in fresh water. Ions of heavy metals
o
like mercury, lead, chromium and cadmium, etc., cause harmful effects. Mercury produces heavy
c
nervous disorder and its heavy dose may cause brain damage.
.
a
m
Insecticides and herbicides are very harmful. These destroy a number of valuable aquatic food
a
organisms by destroying the larval stages. These depress photosynthetic activity of
y n
phytoplankton. Recently it has been noticed that pesticides inhibit photosynthesis in algae. Now,
d
there is a danger to the life for diatoms which produce half of the earth‟s oxygen and form the
t ulife. By the food chain process the phytoplankton arc seen in the body
main food base of oceanic
of carnivores inShigh concentration and produce fatal effects so that large numbers of fishes are
found dead in areas polluted with DDT. The bird population also reduces. In Man DDT enters by
eating the carnivores and may cause cancer, nervous disorders and leukemia and other serious
ailments.
CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION
Various legislative methods should be employed to control water pollution. Strict check should be
maintained on the quality of drinking water. Improved methods for handling and disposal of sewage,
garbage and night soil should be introduced. To control the epidemics and other disease, proper
methods of sterilization of water drawn from shallow wells, should be developed. Polluted water is
characterised by its oxygen demand and solid content. The city waste and sewage needs proper
treatment and it is done in three steps
1. In Primary Treatment, the solid objects are separated by coarse screens or sieves. The liquid material
passes into the settling tanks. The suspended materials settle down in the tanks and form sludge.
2. In Secondary Treatment the effluents are filtered through a bed of rocks, after which the
bacterial decomposition of organic materials begins. To hasten this process air is bubbled to
increase the oxygen content. This process removes about 90% of the biodegradable materials
present in the water. The effluent is also chlorinated to kill the pathogens and is then discharged
into the water bodies.
3. Tertiary treatment removes the detergents, metal ions, nitrates and pesticides, as these are not
removed in the earlier treatments. In this process, the effluents from secondary treatment are
m
passed through activated charcoal to absorb the pollutants. An alternative and less expensive
c o
method is to use this water for irrigation to raise crops or to grow algae and aquatic plants for use
.
a
in biogas plants. This is now being practiced but some sort of preliminary treatment is required
m
to make the polluted water free of pathogens and pollutants.
a
The creation of public awareness is important to make village ponds, wells and rivers clean and also to
yn
maintain cleanliness in urban areas. The most reliable way to control pollution and improve water
d
quality is undoubtedly to stabilize the ecosystem by balancing the input and output of energy and
tu
nutrients. Some reasonable ways to increase stability of aquatic ecosystems include reduction in waste
S
inputs, harvesting and removal of biomass, trapping of nutrients, fish management and aeration.
In general, pollution means instability whereas a non-polluted habitat is equivalent to a stable

ecosystem that resists perturbation. Waste treatment is by no means the only major consideration in
pollution control; various physical and biological methods of stream management can be adopted with a
view to restoring an ecological balance and restoring diversification in the ecosystem to control
pollution. Aquatic algae and other microbes and lower forms of life are efficient accumulators of radio-
active substances from polluted habitats and some of these organisms can concentrate them within
their cells to concentrations much higher than those in the ambient water.
The World Health Organization (W.H.O.) has proposed International Standards for drinking water on the
basis of which five classes of quality are distinguished, viz., biological pollutants e.g. microbes and
pathogens, radioactive pollutants, toxic substances, specific chemicals affecting health, and
characteristics affecting the acceptability of water. The maximum permissible concentrations of various
kinds of pollutants have been prescribed and the characteristics for water acceptability include such
properties as colour, smell, taste, turbidity, pH, hardness, etc.
Various methods are introduced in controlling water pollution like the methods as adsorption, electro
dialysis, ion exchange and reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis is used to separate any substance in liquid
or gaseous solution. It involves the use of porous membrane whose chemical nature can be made such
that it has a preferential attraction for the solvent and a similar repulsion for the solute. This technique
was originally developed to purify sea water but is not playing a significant role in water pollution
control, water renovation, water purification and waste reclamation. This technique is also very valuable
in the treatment of hard waters rich in calcium and magnesium. Reverse osmosis offers an economical
and effective method for upgrading sewage water to a quality suitable for most water uses.
m
o
The main emphasis of pollution control in many countries has been on sanitary and industrial wastes.
c
.
Increasing attention is now being given to the problem of urban drainage. The importance of urban
a
water shed management is being increasingly felt in controlling pollution from street run-off. The
m
a
requirement and methods for possible storm water treatment are now beginning to be considered.
yn
In the end there are many choices on the personal and social levels that we must make consciously in
d
our town or country. Our standard of living and way of life is based upon practices which are inherently
tu
unclean. Without taking steps of our standards of living, the answer seems to lie in this fact that we have
S
to pay more for goods and services, and also more for the health status.
SOIL POLLUTION
Alteration in soil causing reduced productivity is called soil pollution. Since soil supports plant life which
in turn supports animal life, hence soil pollution affects all organisms. Problems of soil pollution are
more acute than other pollution types because soil is non-renewable resources due its very slow
formation.
The weathered earth’s crust form soil that supports a variety of microscopic and macroscopic life-forms.
The top most layer of soil is rich in nutrients and is composed of various types of minerals, organic and
inorganic substances. Biologically soil has a large number of algae, fungi, bacteria, protozoa, nematodes
etc. Over the years, soil has been contaminated by a number of ways which is popularly known as soil
pollution. The current rate of degradation is 10-12 mha/year (2003) and is expected to go up. One of the
major pollution problems is disposal of solid waste material including farm and animal manure,
agricultural wastes, industrial wastes such as chemicals, salts, radioactive materials etc.
CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION
Wind and Water Erosion:
Out of 69 mha (million hectare) estimated to be degraded in India, approximately 43 mha are non-
arable and barren including 4 mha of ravine lands. The Himalayan Mountains with weak geological
formation and poor physiographic conditions are under great stress and suffer from serious water
erosion, though water erosion is also rampant in the hills of Western Ghats and areas of high intensity
rainfall. Water erosion not only removes the productive surface layer of soil, but also reduces the
m
storage capacity of reservoirs. Wind erosion is more prominent in the hot arid region occupying 31.7
c o
mha of which 61 per cent is found in western Rajasthan. Removals of vegetative cover and over grazing
.
a
enhance the intensity and extent of wind erosion and desertification.
m
a
Water logging:
yn
Water logging caused by rise in water table poses a great threat to silt productivity and environmental
d
ecology, especially in the irrigated areas. Roughly an area of 100,000 ha is estimated to be affected by
tu
water logging annually. Introduction of canal irrigation is the major reason.
S
Salinisation and alkalinisation:
The development of soil salinity in India started long back and is more prominent in the arid and
semiarid areas, though some coastal areas in the humid conditions also suffer due to the ingress of
seawater. Continuous use of poor quality groundwater for irrigation also leads to the development of
soil salinity or sodicity, particularly in the slow permeable solid. It is more serious in the Indo-Gangetic
plain, black soil region, arid areas of Rajasthan and coastal Gujarat.
Nutrient loss:
The factor greatly responsible for enormous removal of the plant nutrients is the soil erosion. In India
the nutrient loss is of 5.37 to 8.40 million tones course through erosion every year. The transformation
from high internal input agriculture in the past to present day high external input (fertilizers, pesticides)
agriculture causes this problem.
Chemical:
Disposal of industrial waste is the major problem responsible for soil pollution. The industrial wastes
contain the colloidal material like clay, Fe2O3; Al2O3 and MgO2 etc; dissolved cations like Na+, K+, Ca++,
Mg++, Mn2+, CO and Fe; Dissolved anions like CO32-; HCO3-; OH- ; Cl-; SO42-, HSO3 etc., organic compounds
both bio-degradable and non-biodegradable wastes. The urban and domestic wastes contain mostly the
non-degradable wastes like paper, etc.
Pesticides and insecticides:
These are sprayed on crops to protect then from the pests. Among pesticides the most important are
m
the chlorinated hydrocarbons e.g. DDT, BHC, aldrin, dieldrain, lindane, chlordane, organo-phosphates
include malathion, parathion etc.
c o
.
a
Fertilizers: These are chemical manures that are added to the soil to increase the crop yield which
m
generally contain one or more of the plant nutrients i.e. nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
a
yn
EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION
d
The visible economic impact of land degradation is on agricultural productivity. In a country like India,
tu
where 70% of the population is entirely dependent on agriculture, the reduction in productivity of land
S
resources has a telling effect on the socio-economic conditions. The immediate effects of land
degradation includes reduced crop yield, increasing need for agricultural inputs and decreasing profits,
reduction in the value of land, loss of water resources, increase infrequency and severity of flood,
siltation of reservoirs, rivers etc. and adverse effect on living. Increasingly less remunerative subsistence
farming systems lead the peasants to leave the land uncultivated, which then tends to become barren.
All the above said reasons ultimately results in shifting the land resources from agriculture to other uses
including industry which bring environmental degradation.
1. The industrial pollutants affect and alter the chemical and biological properties of soil.
2. Chemicals and pesticides affect the fertility of soil by killing the soil micro organisms.
3. Pesticides are absorbed by plants and enter to other organisms through food chains and food webs
leading to biomagnifications.
4. Application rates of fertilizers are enhanced.
5. Excretory products of human being containing pathogens contaminate soil and vegetable crops.
Control: Since the problem of land degradation is very complex, it is important to approach the issue in a
systematic and logical manner. The following are some steps that can be taken for reducing the gravity
of the problem:
1. Proper records of land productivity status should be prepared with the help of soil scientists along
with the latest technologies like remote sensing.
2. In areas of high water requirement like cropped areas, effective soil and water conservation
techniques should be adopted with the guidance of engineers. m
c o
.
3. Industrial activities in the nearby areas, which are hazardous to the environment, should be regulated
through laws. a
m
a
4. Sustainable and effective land use system should be followed.
yn
5. Implementation of agro-forest ecosystem, wherever water erosion is a serious threat.
d
tu
6. Adoption of integrated water-shed management system and integrated balanced nutrient
management system.
S
7. Auto-regenerating the soil fertility by adding organic matter through micro-organism and
incorporation of crop residues should be facilitated.
8. By the use of biofertilizers and manures (which are biological in origin), use of chemical fertilizers can
be reduced.
9. By biological control of pests, pesticides can be reduced.
10. Treatment of industrial and municipal sewage can reduce soil pollution, prior to its discharge.
11. Enforcement of environmental regulatory laws.

12. Educating the masses through different media.
NOISE POLLUTION
Noise pollution is defined as unwanted sound that causes discomfort. The release of unwanted sound
into the atmosphere is known as noise pollution. Sound is a major means of communication,
entertainment and expression. Whether the sound is pleasant or noise depends upon the loudness,
duration, rhythm and mode of person. The exposure to found sound is annoying and harmful and is
considered as a major criterion for noise pollution. Noise intensity is measured in decibel (dB) unit.
According to the Delhi pollution control Committee Study, noise levels during peak hours at major traffic
Junctions vary between 75 and 80 dB. Many studies including that of the world health organization
(WHO) and European Environmental Agency (EEA), have documented that any regular exposure to noise
pressure above 55 dB could cause annoyance, irritation, aggressive behaviour and sleep disturbances.
m
The EEA report has in fact, gone to the extent of saying that a routine exposure to 65 dB can result in
c o
hypertension and noise above 75 dB can lead to increased stress levels. One the basis of studies
.
a
conducted, the levels of noise acceptable for human health have been suggested to be:
m
a
yn
Activities Level (dB)
d
tu
Talking 50
S
In household 40
Motor cycle 65-105
Heavy vehicle like trucks, Buses 85-100

at 7 meter distance
Hammer at 2 meter distance 120
Aeroplane at 50-100 meter 90-100

height
SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION

The main sources of noise pollution are:
1. Industries: Such as printing press, textile mills, engineering works etc.

2. Transport vehicles: Such as trucks, trains, airplanes, buses, cars and other vehicles.
3. Domestic gadgets: It includes noise produces by domestic appliances like TV, radio,
washing machines, electric grinders, exhaust fans etc.
4. Defence equipments: Such as tanks, firing practices, rocket launchers etc.
5. Agricultural vehicles: Such as tractors, thrashing and crushing machines etc.
6. Other equipments: Like loud speakers, music systems etc.
EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION
The effects of noise on people can be classified into two categories:
1. Auditory effects.
m
2. Sociological or Psycological effects.
1. Auditory effects.
o
c The most immediate and
.
Auditory effects include both hearing loss and speech interference.
acute effect of noise pollution is impairment of hearing.aA sudden loud noise can cause severe
damage to the ear drum. Long exposure to loudm noise can cause hearing loss which may become
a
permanent.
2. Sociological or Psychologicaly
n
effects.
deffects include an acoustical privacy. Noise pollution increases
u
Psychological /sociological
the rate of heart beat.tIt causes constriction of blood vessels and cause dilation of the pupils of
S in arterial blood pressure, impairment of night vision, are some effects. It
the ear. Fluctuations
causes headache, irritability (annoyance) and extreme emotional disturbances. It aggravates
existing disease by disturbing peace of mind and sleep. The effects of the noise on the foetus are
not fully known. Medical scientists have note that an unborn child will move and kick when
there is loud noise.
CONTROL OF NOISE POLLUTION
The noise pollution can be controlled by the following ways:
1. Technically/modifying and fabricating the machines and using the quieter machines to
replace the noisy ones.
2. Regular replace of machinery can reduce noise because much of this noise may be due to
inefficiency of the machinery.
3. Construction of walls in the highly noisy polluted area can reduce noise in that area.
4. Restricting the use of public address systems.
5. Growing plants can absorb and dissipate sound energy and thus act as a buffer zone.
6. Noise produced by vehicles can be reduced by banning pressure horns and strictly
following the traffic laws.
7. Use of silencers, improvement in design and better installation of machinery in industries
can minimize the noise.
8. Each industrial establishment must have such facilities in order to have a check on the
intensity of noise pollution, being produced throughout the working period.
9. Industrial areas should be planned in such a way that these should be away from
residential areas.
m
c o
.
SOLID WASTES a
m
It refers to non-liquid waste materials arising from domestic, trade, Industrial, agriculture, and
a
yn
other activities. The solid wastes include the materials; food wastes, paper, metals, plastics,
ceramics, worn-out clothes, garden wastes, agriculture wastes, Building wastes, hazardous
d
tu
wastes, dust from mining, hospital wastes including discarded cotton, bottles etc; broken utensils
S
ashes from fires, and a variety of other wastes.
CAUSES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTES:
Due to the rapid development of in every sphere of life, it has been observed that in a very short span of
time, pollution came into existence and it has been attributed to
1) Rapid growth of Homo sapiens
2) Urbanisation
3) Changing life styles
4) Industrialisation
1. Rapid growth of Homo sapiens: or population since the Asiatic climate is hot, which brings down the
puberty age and adolescence comes at very early stage of life i.e. 12 years onwards and thus to satisfy
old traditions and biological needs, early marriages do take place which increases population. The
second factor is poverty. Out of total world population about 58% of population lives in Asia and hence
it is thickly populated. In India nearly 31% of population lives below poverty line, only 15% population is
Elite, most of the poor people believe in large families. All these factors coupled together reflect the
impression that such a large percentage of population under poverty line and illiteracy directly brings
ignorance resulting in non-access to hygienic awareness. The outcome to this is that people live in
unhealthy uncongenial, non-hygienic conditions.
2. Urbanisation: Due to mushrooming of Urban areas, despite the facts that only 25% of Indian
population live in urban areas, people in Urban areas waste articles more than what they consume or
use.
m
o
3. Changing life styles: Now a day people are dominated by westernization and people are going for
c
throw away policy. Therefore, garbage dumps are seen everywhere.
.
a
m
4. Industrialisation: The alarming increasing population is putting demand for greater food production.
a
In order to have such a large amount of agriculture output, 20 million tones of chemical fertilizers are
yn
being used. Besides, other demands are also being taken care by industries thus leading to human
d
problems including waste generation.
tu
S
EFFECTS OF WASTES:
 Health: For the general public, the main risks to health are indirect and these arise from the
breeding of disease vectors primarily files and rats. The most serious is the transfer of
pollution to water, air and soil. Industries are also introducing danger of different kinds like
hazardous wastes during transport and disposal, entry of heavy metals in the food chain etc.
 Environment: The environmental damage caused by solid wastes mostly pertains to
aesthetics. Also, there is the danger of water pollution when the refuse dump enters the water
resources. In addition, uncontrolled burning of open dumps can cause air pollution. Water
will pollute air and land filling may leach the water and pollute ground water.
CONTROL OF WASTES:
1. Utilization of wastes for generating electricity and biomass.

2. Recycling of the waste.
3. Composting for the generation of organic material and it use as soil conditioner.
4. Land fill disposal
5. Re-organization of the man-power.
6. Incineration
7. Hydro pulping and
8. Pyrolysis.
9. Re-use of waste materials
m
However, it is pertinent to mention that all the above measures in some or the other way are not fully
o
fool proof and certain disadvantages are associated with these controlling measure like burning of solid
c
waste may release gaseous pollutants.
.
a
m
4.2. CONCEPT OF NATURAL DISASTERS AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
a
yn
A disaster is an event of nature or man-made that leads to sudden disruption of normal life of society,
causing damage to life and property, to such an extent that normal social and economic mechanisms
d
tu
available are inadequate to restore with a high frequency of natural causes like droughts, floods,
S
cyclones and earthquakes and occasional tragedies like the gas lead at Bhopal.
Disaster is of two types
 Natural: Water and Climate related Disasters: Floods, cyclone, Tornadoes, hurricanes,
Hailstorm, Cloud burst, Heat and cold wave, Snow avalanches, Droughts, sea erosion and
thunder and lightning.
 Geology related disasters: Landslides and mudflows, Earthquakes, mine fires, Dam
failures /bursts.
 Manmade: Chemical industrial and Nuclear related Disasters: Chemical disasters,
nuclear disasters.
Accident related disasters: Forest fires, urban fires, Mine flooding, Oil spills, building collapse, Bomb
blasts, festival related disasters, Electrical disasters and fires, Air, road and rail accidents, Boat capsizing,
Village fire etc.
 Biologically related disasters: Biological disasters and epidemics, Pest attacks, cattle
epidemics, Food poisoning etc. In the 1970‟s and 1980s earthquakes, droughts and
famines were the biggest killers, the situation stands altered now. It is probable that a
combination of factors like better management and food security measures has greatly
reduced the deaths caused by droughts and famines. Floods, high winds and earthquakes
dominated the reported injuries (98%), with ever increasing number in the last decade.
The period from 1973 to 1997 has been associated with a number of large earthquakes in
Asia, which had a relatively high injury to death ratio. Floods, droughts, cyclones,
earthquakes, landslides and avalanches are some of the major natural disasters that
m
o
repeatedly and increasingly affected the human population. India is experiencing massive
cadded in a period of just two

and rapid urbanization. A second urban India is being
.
a which was only 25.7% (1991)
decades. It is estimated that by 2025, the urban component,
m
will be more than 50%. The Ninth Five Year Plan estimates that India‟s population size
aan urban population share of 32%. A characteristic
yn
by 2011, to be 1176.89 million with
feature of the urbanization processes the increase metropolitanisaion. Urbanisation at
unprecedented levelsd
tubuilt and maintained in fracture are subjected to natural hazards like
makes communities increasingly vulnerable when high density
S and earthquake etc. Urbanization dramatically forces the communities to

areas with poorly
fires, flooding
settle down in unstable areas such as steep hillsides prone to landslides, by the side of
rivers that regularly flood, or on poor quality ground causing building collapse.
MANAGEMENT
1. Preparedness: The approach towards coping with the effect of natural disasters has been post
disaster management involving many problems like law and order, evacuation and warnings,
communications, search and rescue, fire-fighting, medical and psychiatric assistance, provision of relief
and sheltering, etc. After the initial trauma of the occurrence of the natural disaster is over within the
first few days or weeks, the phase of reconstruction and economic, social and psychological
rehabilitation is taken up by the government authorities.
2. Emergency response: Many thousands die instantly and many other thousands are either buried alive
in the rubble or are carried away by the hurried water. Response speed and its quality are of great
importance in saving lives in the immediate aftermath of a disaster. The failure to respond quickly for
lack of a good Emergency response Plan (ERP) is the other direct reason for the high death toll. Due to
the lack of a good ERP it took six hours for the Gujarat Government to find out the location of the
quakes epicenter, and another 10 hours to make contact with the Bhuj collector. Following situation like
the Orissa Super cyclone (October 1999) the HPC has highlight the need for the central government to
respond at the earliest in the most appropriate manner.
3. Prevention: Natural occurrences such as floods, earthquakes, cyclones etc. simply cannot be stopped
from taking place. What can be done, however, is to take preventive measures at various levels of
society in order to make the impact of such natural hazards as harmless as possible for people and
people’s properties. The impact of a natural hazard can be reduced; its worst effects can be prevented.
m
Natural disaster skill an average of 1,00,000 persons and cause property damage of Rs.20,000 crores
c o
.
worldwide each year.
a
Certain elements which can be helpful in mitigating natural disasters are:
m
a
1. Zonation of different areas that offer natural hazard risk levels. e.g. earthquake hazard zoning map
yn
2. The vulnerability of buildings to different hazards, e.g. earthquakes, cyclones, etc.
d
tu
3. The design and construction of earthquake resistant engineered buildings and land use zoning.
S
4. Development of network of seismological stations, like cyclone and flood measuring stations.
5. Public participation, the person most motivated to reduce risk are the risk bearers. The best way to
involve them is by making them active agents in the assessment and management of risks. A High
Powered Committee (HPC) was constituted in August 1999; HPC members were drawn from the
ministries, states, NGO’s and experts from relevant fields. It was a first attempt in India towards a
systematic, comprehensive and holistic look at all disasters.
GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming can be described as increase in the average temperature of the atmosphere, oceans,
and land masses of earth. The planet has warmed and cooled many times during the 4.65 billion years of
its history. At present Earth appears to be facing a rapid warming, which is mostly believed to be as a
result of human activities. The chief cause of this warming is thought to be the burning of fossil fuels,
such as coal, oil and natural gas, which releases into the atmosphere carbon dioxide and other
substances known as greenhouse gases. As the atmosphere becomes richer in these gases, it becomes a
better insulator, retaining more of the heat provided to the planet by the sun.
The average surface temperature of Earth is about 15oC (60oF). Over the last century, this average has
risen by about 0.5o Celsius (1o Fahrenheit). Scientists predict further rise in temperature of 1.0 to 3.5o
Celsius (1.8 to 6.3o Fahrenheit) by the year 2100. This temperature rise is expected to warm the oceans,
which will expand their volume and raise sea level by at least 15 cm, flooding some regions in warmer
climates will receive more rainfall than before, but soils will dry out faster between storms. This soil
m
desiccation may damage food crops, disrupting food supplies in some parts of the world. Plants and
c o
animal species will shift their ranges towards the poles or to higher elevations seeking cooler
.
a
temperature and species that cannot do so many become extinct.
m
a
GREEN HOUSE GASES
yn
Green houses gases occur naturally in the environment and also result from human activities. By far the
d
most abundant green house gas is water vapor, which reaches the atmosphere through evapo-
tu
transpiration from water bodies and vegetation. Carbon dioxide is the next abundant green house gas. It
S
flows in to the atmosphere from many natural processes, such as volcanic eruptions; the respiration of
animals, and the burning and decay of organic matter, such as plants. Carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere is consumed by absorbing into oceans water and photosynthesis. Photosynthesis breaks up
carbon dioxide, releasing oxygen into the atmosphere and incorporating the carbon into new plant
tissue.
Due to burning of fossil fuels, solid wastes and wood and wood products is the consequence of human
activities which resulted in carbon dioxide release into the atmosphere at much faster rates than earth's
natural processes can cycle this gas. One hundred years ago, there were about 281 parts per million of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Today there are 368 parts per million, which reflects a 30 percent
increase. The carbon dioxide concentration increases by about 1.5 parts per million per year. If current
predictions prove accurate, by the years 2100 carbon dioxide will reach more than 500 parts per million.
This concentration is double the levels prior to the Industrial Revolution. If people continue to burn
fossil fuels at an increasing rate, the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere could eventually reach four
times what it was in the 1800s. Methane is an even more effective insulator trapping over 21 times
more heat than does the same amount of carbon dioxide. Methane is emitted during the production
and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane also comes from decomposing organic waste in
landfills, and it is released from certain animals, especially cows, as a byproduct of digestion. Since the
beginning of Industrial Revolution, the amount of methane in the atmosphere has more than doubled.
Nitrous oxide is a powerful insulating gas released chiefly by burning fossil fuels and plowing farm soils.
Nitrous oxide traps over 270 times more heat than does the same amount of carbon dioxide. The
concentration of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere has increased 15 percent over pre-industrial levels. In
addition, green house gases are produced in many manufacturing processes, per fluorinated compounds
m
result from the smelting of aluminum, Hydro fluorocarbons during the manufacture of many products,
o
including the foams used in insulation, furniture, and car seats. Refrigerators built in some developing
c
.
nations still use chlorofluorocarbons as coolants. Chlorofluorocarbons are best known for their tendency
a
to destroy Earth's high-altitude ozone layer, but they also act as atmospheric heat retainers.
m
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
a
yn
The warming of the globe as is believed to be due to release of Green House Gases in the atmosphere is
d
tu
called Green House Effect. The energy that lights and warms Earth comes from the Sun. Most of the
S
energy that floods onto our planet is short-wave radiation including both visible and ultraviolet (a type
of light that humans cannot see). When this energy strikes the surface of Earth, the energy changes from
light to heat and warms Earth. The earth's Surface in turn, releases some of this heat especially at night,
as long-wave infrared radiation. Much of this long-wave infrared radiation makes it all the way back out
to space, but a portion remains trapped in Earth's atmosphere. Certain gases in the atmosphere,
including water vapour, carbon dioxide, and methane, provide the trap. Absorbing and reflecting
infrared waves radiated by Earth, these gases conserve heat as the glass in a green-house does and are
thus known as greenhouse gases. As the concentration of these greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
increases, more solar energy remains trapped below. All life on Earth relies on this greenhouse effect.
Without it, the planet would be colder by about 33 Celsius degrees (59 Fahrenheit), and ice would cover
Earth from pole to pole. However, a growing excess of green house gases in Earth's atmosphere
threatens to tilt the balance in the other direction towards continual warming.
CLIMATE CHANGE
DEFINITION: When any major change occurs in temperature, precipitation, wind patterns and it extends
for longer periods of time (decades) is called as climate change.
Climate refers to the physical environmental factors including duration and quantity of light,
temperature, humidity, and wind pressure and evapo-transpiration rate of an area. From the various
sources it has been proven that the earth’s average atmospheric temperature has risen and there is
increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. The increased
concentrations of the greenhouse gases and its effects may contribute to global warming or climate
change which may adversely affect the agriculture, hydrological cycle, wind pattern, distribution of
m
rainfall, migration of birds etc. The climate change is regularly in the news. The concentrations of GHG’s
c o
in the atmosphere are rising. The earth is rapidly warming and its climate is changing. In the years to
.
a
come there could be more frequent, intense floods and droughts, more powerful storms, polar ice sheet
m
melting, more diseases and the sea level rise. Every year the IPCC has produced new assessment
reports.
a
CLIMATE CHANGE FACTS: yn
d
t u
SEA LEVEL RISE: there is clear scientific evidence that the global sea level has increased
S
about 6.5 inches in the last one hundred years. This increase is almost double than the last
century. Due to the climate change, the oceanic temperature has increased, the polar ice has
melted with the result sea level has risen. The ice cover is shrinking at an alarming rate.
GLOBAL TEMPERATURE RISE: there is clear cut evidence that the global surface
temperature has warmed and it has been recorded that since 1970‟s onwards about 20 warmest
years have been evidenced. The average global temperature increased by approximately 10C.
ERRATIC PRECIPITATION: this is another phenomenon of climate change in which
extreme variations of precipitation has been recorded. The wet areas are becoming wetter and the
dry areas are becoming arid.
EXTREME EVENTS: this phenomenon of climate change includes extreme events globally
like high temperatures, very cold temperatures, intense rainfall, snow storms, hail storms,
droughts, landslides etc.
OCEAN ACIDIFICATION: the oceanic acidification occurs due to increased levels in carbon
dioxide. When the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases, it results into more
absorption into the oceans. An amount of about 2 billion tons per year of carbon dioxide gets
absorbed by the upper layers of the oceans.
CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE: Over the last several years’ extensive growth in population, rapid
industrialization, excessive use of fossil fuels, deforestation, increase in automobiles and jet-aero planes
caused a drastic change in climate. Due to the natural and anthropogenic activities like soil erosion,
flood, landslides, volcanic eruption, earthquake, drought, forest fire, population growth, over-grazing,
m
transportation, urbanization, consumerism etc. several problems arise which are harmful to both
o
humans and nature. These activities release greenhouse gases like Co2, CH4, N2O, and CFC’s etc. in the
c
.
atmosphere and cause increase in the average global temperature. The implications of greenhouse are
a
serious. The Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has predicted that this rise of one
degree will happen by the year 2025.
m
a
yn
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS REMEDIES
d
tu
1. Climate change and forests: Forests in India are already subjected to multiple stresses including over
S
extraction, insect outbreaks, live-stock grazing, forest fires and other anthropogenic pressures. Climate
change will be an additional stress. Disturbed and fragmented forests and monoculture forests are likely
to be more vulnerable to climate change.
The vulnerable forests are spread all across India. However, their concentration is higher in the upper
Himalayan stretches, parts of central India, northern Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. In contrast,
north-eastern forests, southern Western Ghats and the forested regions of eastern India are estimated
to be least vulnerable.
Currently, within the forested area of 69 Mha only 8.35 mha is categorized as very dense forest. More
than 20 Mha of forest is monoculture and more than 28.8 mha of forests are fragmented (open forest)
and have low tree density (Source: FSI 2001; FSI 2009). Low tree density, low bio-diversity status as well
as higher levels of fragmentation contribute to the vulnerability of these forests. Government of India
under NAPCC (National Action Plan on Climate Change), has brought a proposal to afforest more than 6
Mha of degraded forested lands (Government of India 2008). It is recommend that care should be taken
to plant mixed species and planting should also be executed in such a way as to link the existing
fragmented forests. Efforts should also be made to convert open forests to dense forests. The analysis
suggests that Western Ghats, though a bio-diversity hotspot, has fragmented forests in its northern
parts. This makes these forests additionally vulnerable to climate change as well as to increased risk of
fire and pest attack. Similarly, forests in parts of western as well as central India are fragmented and are
having low biodiversity. At the same time these are the regions which are likely to witness a high
increase in temperature and either decline or marginal increase in rainfall.
The mountainous forests (sub-alpine and alpine forest, the Himalayan dry temperate forest and the
Himalayan moist temperate forests) are susceptible to the adverse effects of climate change. This is
m
because climate change is predicted to be larger for regions that have higher elevations. There is a need
c o
.
to explore practices such as defensive plantations and pest and fire management.
a
Thus afforestation, reforestation and forest management in northern Western Ghats and eastern India
m
a
may experience carbon sequestration benefits. Hence, in these regions, a species-mix that maximizes
yn
carbon sequestration should be planted. On the other hand, in the forests of western and central India,
hardy species which are resilient to increased temperature and drought risk should be planted and care
d
tu
should be taken to further increase forest resilience. This may be achieved by planting mixed species,
S
linking up forest fragmentations, devising effective pest and fire management strategies and carrying
out defensive plantation activities.
2. Climate change and agriculture: Increased concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the
atmosphere resulted in warming of the global climate system by 0.74 °C between 1906 and 2005. The
trends of rise in temperature, heat waves, droughts and floods, and sea level shown by the Indian
scientists are in line with the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The mean
temperature in India is projected to increase up to 1.7 ºC in kharif (July to October) and upto 3.2 ºC
during rabi (November to March) season, while the mean rainfall is expected to increase by 10% by
2070. The cases of ravaging and recurrent floods in the north-eastern states during 2002, 2003 and
2004; a record 944 mm of rainfall in a day in Mumbai during 2005 incurring loss of Rs 1000 crore and
1000 lives; devastating floods in Surat, Barmer and Srinagar during the monsoon season of 2006, 2014;
the droughts in 2000 and 2002, which affected nearly 11 million people in Orissa and the drought of
2006 in north-east which left the people in peril, amply indicate the climatic anomalies. During 2009, the
late arrival of monsoon and erratic rainfall later affected rice cultivation in over 5.7 million hectares and
262 districts were declared as drought affected. The western Uttar Pradesh was the worst to be affected
with 68 per cent shortage in rainfall. In 2010, when north India received a very good amount of
monsoon rain, the eastern part of the country (Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal) faced a severe
drought. The year 2010 has also been the hottest year ever since the temperature measurement
started. The increasing temperature, deficit in rainfall and occurrence of droughts particularly in non-
conventional pockets are evidences of weather aberrations indicating climatic risks.
Agriculture, particularly in India with nearly 60% rain fed area, has been a highly risky venture with
vagaries of monsoon besides the interplay of other abiotic and biotic factors. Climate change is set to
compound the daunting complex challenges already being faced by agriculture. Therefore, concerted
m
efforts are required for mitigation and adaptation to reduce the vulnerability of Indian agriculture to the
c o
.
adverse impacts of climate change and making it more resilient.
a
Soil can act as a major sink of carbon and can play an important role in reducing level of greenhouse
m
a
gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere through carbon (C) sequestration. Mitigation of CO2 emission from
yn
agriculture can be achieved by increasing C sequestration in soil, which implies storage of C as soil
organic matter. Soil management practices such as tillage, fertilizer, irrigation, crop residue
d
tu
management, etc. modify soil C stocks to varying degrees. Reducing the intensity and frequency of
S
ploughing and leaving crop residues on the soil surface as mulch are important strategies for enhancing
soil organic carbon (SOC) content. Judicious nutrient management is crucial to SOC sequestration in
tropical soils. Long-term manure application increases the SOC pool, and the effects may persist for a
century. Although both organic and inorganic forms of C are found in soils, land use and management
typically have a larger impact on organic C. There are several national and regional estimates of C
sequestration potential in cropland soils. With a large land area and diverse eco-regions, there is a
considerable potential of terrestrial, soil carbon sequestration in India. In order to estimate the changes
in soil carbon stock in cultivated land, one needs to have an estimate of the cropland area and the time
period. According to IPCC (2007), soil carbon inventories can be developed.
3. Climate change and water resources: The lakes, rivers, ponds, wells are important source of water to
the people. The climate change is expected to influence the water cycle (hydrological cycle) likely to
increase the stress on the requirement of water in different regions of India. The increased
temperatures and change in rainfall pattern might decrease the overall fresh water. The other factors
like increased rate of evaporation and evapo-transpiration, loss of glaciers and reduction in snowfall
cover will severely impact the water resources. The lowering of ground water resource, decrease in
percolation of water in the soil, loss of mountain lakes and springs is also a serious concern. Therefore,
adaptive measures like canal irrigation, pond irrigation, rainfall run-off harvesting ponds, roof top rain
water harvesting, check dams and wells are a few to initiated immediately. (details of the water
harvesting is given on page no………)
4. Climate change and tourism: The change in the seasons, rainfall, snowfall, temperature, will directly
impact the tourism industry in India and the world. The increased frequency of natural disasters,
changed weather pattern, bad health conditions etc will diminish the prospectus of the tourism
industry.
m
o
The climate change is a major challenge today we are facing. This is a threat which is all around and it
c
.
has caused significant environmental, economic, social and political challenge of the present and the
future generations to come. a
m
a
yn
d
ACID RAIN
tu
S
It can be described as the presence of excessive acids in rain waters. Un-polluted rain is naturally acidic
because carbon dioxide from atmosphere combines with water to a sufficient extent to form carbon
acid (weak).
CO2 + H2O ►H2CO3
The pH for pure rain water is in the range of 5.6 – 6.5. In some cases a low record of pH 3.0 has also
been recorded. The pH is not altered only by CO2 but ever oxides of Sulphur, nitrogen are known to
change pH towards the acidic state. In the absence of the human activity the concentration of SO 2 in the
atmosphere ranges from 1-3 µg/m3. This is a result of H2S produced by organisms in nature. The H2S in
oxidized to SO2 by O3 in the atmosphere.
H2S + O3 ►SO2 + H2O
A small contribution of SO2 is given by Sulphur springs and a substantial quantity by volcanic activities.
The acid rain problem for the first time came to the attention in Northern Europe in 1958 when Sweden
and Norway lakes were found to be losing their fish populations and some lakes contained no fish at all.
After a thorough survey and investigation, the pH between 2.2 to 2.3. India, Japan, UK and other
countries also found increasing acidity in natural waters and soils due to acid rain. In India the Taj Mahal
and other stoney and historical monuments and buildings are under threat from acid rains. The other
m
historical monuments which are being attacked by acid precipitation are Jamia Masjid, Red Fort and
c o
Qutab Minar in Delhi and Gol Gumbaz in Bayapur. As these historical buildings are made up of marble
.
stone, they are degraded by acids.
a
m
a
yn
CaCO3 + H2SO4 ►CaSO4 + H2CO3
d
tu
The anthropogenic pollution of the atmosphere with SO2 started with the use of metals of Sulphur
S
compounds. The polluted areas in the beginning were small but now they are extended to terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystem of large parts of earth’s surface. The amount of SO2 is rapidly increasing with an
increase in industrialization, urbanization etc. The most important produces of Sulphur emission are coal
burning power plants, industrial boilers and smelters, etc. when the SO2 gets absorbed in suspended
particulate matter in the air such as dust, fly ash etc and comes in contact with moisture droplets, it
turns into sulphuric acid. Not only oxides of Sulphur but even oxides of nitrogen are also known to
create acidic rains. Nitrogen dioxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust is converted into nitric acid. Unless,
they are neutralized in reaction with alkaline compounds in the atmosphere, these strong acids
eventually return to the earth as acid rain.
STRATOSPHERIC OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
Ozone forms a layer in the stratosphere, thinnest in tropics (around then equator) and denser towards
the poles. This layer extends from 19 to 48 kilometers above the earths surface. The concentration of
ozone in stratosphere occurs up to 10ppm. The formation of ozone by the action of sunlight on oxygen
in this action has been taking place for many millions of years, but naturally occurring nitrogen
compounds in the atmosphere apparently have kept the ozone concentration at a fairly stable level. The
presence of this ozone up in the stratosphere absorbs some of the potential harmful ultraviolet (UV)
radiation from sun (at wavelength between 240 and 320) which otherwise can cause skin cancer and
damage vegetation among other things. Although ozone at ground level is a health hazard causing
respiratory ailments such as bronchitis and asthma. It also damages vegetation and causes rubber and
some plastics to deteriorate. Nitrogen oxides and volatile organic gases emitted by automobiles and
industrial sources combine to form ozone.
m
o
The loss of ozone (Greek, ozein “to smell”), a pale blue, highly poisonous gas with a strong odour was
c
.
not known till two American scientists discovered the capabilities of chlorine atom released from
a
chlorofluorocarbons(CFC’s) of eating ozone. The ozone which is present in the stratosphere is
m
a
continuously being produced and destroyed. The production takes place when molecular oxygen is split
yn
by UV-solar radiation and the resulting oxygen atom (O) attach themselves to other oxygen molecules.
d
tu
O2 ►O + O
S O + O2 ►O3 (Ozone)
The destruction of ozone takes place by the reaction
O + O3 ►O2 +O2
Sometimes these reactions are also known as “Chapman reaction”. The layer of ozone formed in the
stratosphere by these reactions is sometimes called the “Chapman layer”. However, this theory has its
limitations that in the reaction the loss of ozone given was too slow. It could not remove enough ozone
to give the values seen in the real atmosphere. There had to be other reactions, faster reactions that
were controlling the ozone concentration in the stratosphere.
OZONE DEPLETION
Loss of ozone in the lower stratosphere over Antarctica was first noticed in the 1970’s. In 1985, the drop
in ozone levels in the Stratosphere showed that the loss was rapid and of large scale over most of the
Antarctica continent. There are also many new measurements and observations of the changes in ozone
that occur over Antarctica. There has been a phenomenal decrease from 1975 onwards in the total
ozone and it was recorded less than half its value during the year 1994. This dramatic fall in ozone was
m
caused by the use of manmade chemicals known as halocarbons which include the well known CFC’s
o
commonly used in fridges and so on. These CFC’s had made their way into the upper atmosphere where
c
.
the much stronger UV radiation from the sun had broken them down into their component molecules,
a
releasing the potentially damaging chlorine(and bromine) atoms, which could destroy ozone. The loss of
m
a
ozone was not restricted to Antarctic only but there had been an ozone decrease over the heavily
yn
populated northern mid-latitudes (30-60N). However, unlike the sudden and near total loss of ozone in
mid-latitudes is much less and much slower only a few percentage per year.
d
tu
4.3. SALIENT FEATURES OF
S
4.3.1. THE WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1974
This is an Act which is meant for the prevention and control of pollution in the environment and for the
matters which are connected with the abatement of pollution. The Act was enacted by the Indian
Parliament in the 25th year. This Act may be called The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974. It shall come into force as may be notified in the Official Gazette and it extends to whole of India.
DEFINITION:
Pollution means such contamination of water or such alteration of the physical, chemical or biological
properties of water or such discharge of any sewage or trade effluent or of any other liquid, gaseous or
solid substance into water (whether directly or indirectly) as may, or is likely to create a nuisance or
render such water harmful or injurious to public health or safety, or to domestic, commercial, industrial,
agricultural or other legitimate uses, or to the life and health of animals or plants or to aquatic
organisms.
Central and State Boards for the Prevention and Control of water Pollution:
The Central Board for the Prevention and Control of water Pollution constituted under section 3 of the
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, shall, without prejudice to exercise and
performance of its power and functions under that Act, exercise the power and perform the functions of
the Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution under this Act. In any state for the
purpose of this Act, shall be deemed under Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act.
Constitution of State Boards:
m
In any state in which the water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, is not in force, that Act is
o
in force but the state Government has not constituted a State Board for the Prevention and Control of
c
.
Water Pollution) under that Act, the State Board shall with effect from such date as it may, by
a
notification in the Official Gazette, appoint, constitute a State Board for the Prevention and Control of
m
a
Air pollution under such name as may be specified in the notification, to exercise the power conferred
yn
on, and perform the functions assigned to, that Board under this Act.
Functions of Central Board:

d
tu
S
Subject to provisions of this Act, the main functions of the Central Board shall be to improve the quality
of water and to prevent, control or abate water pollution in the country.
Functions of State Board:
Subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the performance of this functions, if any
under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Act, 1974 the functions of a State Board shall be
to plan a comprehensive programme for the prevention, control or abatement of pollution and to
secure the execution thereof.
Power to take samples of effluents and products to be followed in connection therewith:

A State Board or any officer empowered by it in this behalf shall have power to take for the purpose of
analysis sample of water from any stream or well or sample of any sewage or trade effluents which is
passing from any plant or vessel of from or over any place into any such stream or well.
Power of entry and inspection:
Subject to the provisions of this section, any person empowered by a State Board in this behalf shall
have a right and any time to enter, with such assistance as he considers necessary, any place.
Prohibition on use of stream or well for disposal of polluting matter, etc:
No person shall knowingly cause or permit any poisonous, noxious or pollution mater determined in
accordance with such standards as may be laid down by the State Board to enter (whether directly or
indirectly) into any stream or well or sewer or on land.
Restrictions on new outlets and new discharges: m

c o
.
Subject to the provisions of this section, no person shall, without the previous consent of the State
a
Board, establish or take any steps to establish any industry, operation or processes, or any treatment
m
and disposal system or any extension or addition there to, which is likely to discharge sewage or trade
a
yn
effluent into a stream or well or sewer or on land (such discharge being hereafter in this section referred
to as discharge of sewage).
d
tu
Penalty for Contravention:
S
Whoever contravenes the provisions of section 25 or section 26 shall be punishable with imprisonment
for a term which shall not be less than one year and six months but which may extend to six years and
with fine.
Enhanced penalty after previous conviction:
If any person who has been convicted of any is again found guilty of an offence involving a
contravention of the same provisions, he shall, on the second and on every subsequent conviction be
punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than two years but which may extend
to seven section no cognizance shall be taken of any conviction made more than two years before the
commission of the offence which is being punished.
Penalty for contravention of certain provisions of the Act:
Whoever contravenes any of the provisions of this Act or fails to comply with any order or direction
given under this Act, for which no penalty has been elsewhere provided in this act, shall be punishable
with imprisonment which may extend to three months or with fine which may extend to ten thousand
rupees or with both and in the case of a continuing contravention or failure, with an additional fine
which may extend to five thousand rupees for every day during which such contravention or failure
continues after conviction for the first such contravention or failure.
Offences by companies:
Where an offence under this Act has been committed by a company, every person who at the time the
offence was committed was in charge of, and was responsible to the company for the conduct of, the
business of the company, as well as the company, shall be deemed to be guilty of the offences and shall
m
be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly, provided that nothing contained in this sub-
c o
section shall render any such person liable to any punishment provided in this Act if he proves that the
.
a
offence was committed without his knowledge for that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the
commission of such offence.
m
a
yn
Power of State Government to make rules: The state Government may frame rules with the constitution
of the State Board for the purpose of this Act in respect of matters not falling within the purview of
d
tu
different sections.
S
4.3.2. THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981
This is an Act which is meant for the prevention and control of pollution in the environment and for
the matters which are connected with the abatement of pollution. The Act was enacted by the Indian
Parliament in the 32nd year. This Act may be called The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1981. It shall come into force as may be notified in the Official Gazette and it extends to whole of India.
DEFINITION:
"Air pollutant" means any solid, liquid or gaseous substances (including noise) present in the
atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living
creatures or plants or property or environment.
Central and State Boards for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution:
The Central Board for the Prevention and Control of water Pollution constituted under section 3 of the
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, shall, without prejudice to exercise and
performance of its power and functions under that Act, exercise the power and perform the functions of
the Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution under this Act. In any state for the
purpose of this Act, shall be deemed under Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act.
Constitution of State Boards:
In any state in which the water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, is not in force, that Act is
in force but the state Government has not constituted a State Board for the Prevention and Control of
Water Pollution) under that Act, the State Board shall with effect from such date as it may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, appoint, constitute a State Board for the Prevention and Control of
m
Air pollution under such name as may be specified in the notification, to exercise the power conferred
on, and perform the functions assigned to, that Board under this Act.
c o
.
Functions of Central Board: a
m
a
Subject to provisions of this Act, the main functions of the Central Board shall be to improve the quality
yn
of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country.
d
tu
Functions of State Board:
S
Subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the performance of this functions, if any
under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Act, 1974 the functions of a State Board shall be
to plan a comprehensive programme for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and to
secure the execution thereof.
Power to declare air pollution control areas:
The State Government may, after consultation with the State Board, by notification in the Official
Gazette, declare in such manner as may be prescribed any area or areas within the State as air pollution
control area or areas for the purposes of this Act.
Power to give instructions for ensuring standards for emission from automobiles:
With a view to ensuring that the standards for emission of air pollutants from automobiles laid down by
the State Board under clause (g) of sub-section (1) of section 17 are complied with, the state
Government shall, in consultation with the State Board, give such instructions as may be deemed
necessary to the concerned authority in charge of registration of motor vehicles under the Motor
Vehicles Act, 1939 and such authority shall, not withstanding anything contained in that Act or the rules
made there under be bound to comply such instructions.
Restrictions on use of certain Industrial plants:
Subject to the provisions of this section, no person shall, without the previous consent of the State
Board, establish or operate any industrial plant in an air pollution control area.
Power of Board to make application to court for restraining persons from causing air pollution:
m
Where it is apprehended by a Board that emission of any air pollutant, in excess of the standards laid
o
down by the state Board under clause of sub-section (1) of section 17, is likely to occur by reason of any
c
.
person operating an industrial plant or otherwise in any air pollution control area, the Board may make
a
an application to court, not inferior to that a metropolitan Magistrate or a Judicial Magistrate of the first
m
a
class for restraining such persons from emitting such air pollutant.
yn
Furnishing of Information to State Board and other agencies in certain cases:
d
tu
Where in any area the emission of any air pollutant into the atmosphere in excess of the standards laid
S
down by the State Board occurs or is apprehended to occur due to accident or other unforeseen act or
even, the person in charge of the premises from where such emission occurs or is apprehended to occur
shall forthwith intimate the fact of such occurrence or the apprehension of such occurrence to the State
Board and to such authorities or agencies as may be prescribed.
Subject to the provisions of this section, any person empowered by a State Board in this behalf shall
have a right to enter, at all reasonable times with such assistance as he considers necessary any place
for the purpose of performing any or the functions of the State Board entrusted to him.
Power to take samples of air:

A State Board or any officer empowered by it in this behalf shall have power to take, for the purpose of
analysis samples, of air or emission from any chimney, flue or dust or any other outlet in such manner as
may be prescribed.
Reports of result of analysis on samples taken under section:
Where a sample of emission has been sent for analysis to the laboratory established or recognized by
the State, the Board analyst appointed under sub-section (2) of section 26 shall analyse the sample and
submit a report in the prescribed form of such analysis in triplicate to the State Board.
Failure to comply with the provisions of certain sections:
Whoever fails to comply with provisions of certain sections shall in respect of each such failure, be
punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than one year and six months but
m
which may extend to six years and with fine, and in case the failure continues, with an additional fine
o
which may extend to five thousand rupees for every day during which such failure continues after the
c
conviction for the first such failure.
.
a
m
Penalty for contravention of certain provisions of the Act:
a
yn
Whoever contravenes any of the provisions of this Act or any order or direction issued, there under, for
which no penalty has been elsewhere provided in this act, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a
d
tu
term which may extend to three months or with fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees or with
S
both, and in the case of continuing contravention, with an additional fine which may extend to five
thousand rupees for every day during which such contravention continues after conviction for the first
such contravention.
Where an offence under this Act has been committed by a company, every person who at the time the
offence was committed was in charge of, and was responsible to the company for the conduct of, the
business of the company, as well as the company, shall be deemed to be guilty of the offences and shall
be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly, provided that nothing contained in this sub-
section shall render if he proves that the offence was committed without his knowledge for that he
exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offences.
4.3.3. THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986
This is an Act which is meant for the protection and improvement of environment and for the
matters which are connected with the abatement of pollution. The Act was enacted by the Indian
Parliament in the 37th year. This Act may be called The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. It shall come
into force as may be notified in the Official Gazette and it extends to whole of India.
DEFINITION:
“Environment” includes water, air and land and the interrelationship which exists among and
between water, air and land, and human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-organism and
property.
Power of Central government to take measures to protect and improve environment: Subject to the
m
provisions of this Act, the Central Government shall have the power to take all such measures as it
o
deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the
c
.
environment and preventing, controlling and abating environmental pollution.
a
m
Appointment of officers and their powers and functions:
a
yn
Without prejudice to the provisions, the Central Government may appoint officers with such
designations as it thinks fit for the purpose of this act and may entrust to them such of the powers and
d
tu
functions under this Act as it may deem fit.
S
Power to give directions:
In exercise of the powers of this Act, Central Government may issue directions in writing to any person
or authority and they shall be bound to comply with such directions.
Rules to regulate environment pollution:
The central Government in exercise of the powers of this Act may be notification in the Official Gazette
make rules in respect of all or any of the matters referred to.
Prevention, Control and Abatement of Environmental Pollution:

No person carrying on the industry shall be allowed to discharge, emit, and handle such hazardous
materials in excess of such standards as may be prescribed which pose threat to the environment. The
person responsible for emitting shall be responsible to mitigate the pollutant caused. He shall be bound
to render assistance to the authorities.
Persons handling hazardous substances to comply with procedural safeguards:
No person shall handle or cause to be handled any hazardous substance except in accordance with such
procedure and after complying with such safeguards as may be prescribed.
Subject to the provisions of this section, any person empowered by the Central Government in this
behalf shall have a right to enter, at all reasonable times with such assistances as he considers necessary
m
any place.
Power to take sample and procedure:

c o
.
a
The Central Government of any officer empowered by it in this behalf shall have power to take, for the
m
purpose of analysis, samples of air, water soil or other substances from any factory, premises or other in
a
yn
such manner as may be prescribed.
Penalty for contravention:

d
tu
S
The contravention of the provisions of the Act and the rules, orders and directions therein, whoever fails
to comply with or contravenes any of the provisions of this Act, or the rules made or orders or directions
issued there under, shall in respect of each such failure or contravention, be punishable with
imprisonment for a term which may extend to five years or with fine which may extend to one lakh
rupees, or with both, and in case the failure or contravention continues, with additional fine which may
extend to five thousand rupees for every day during which such failure or contravention continues after
the conviction for the first such failure or contravention.
Where any offence under this Act has been committed by company, every person who at the time the
offence was committed, was directly in-charge of and was responsible, to the company for the conduct
of the business of the company shall be deemed to be responsible of the offence and shall be liable to
be prosecuted and punished accordingly.
Protection of action taken in good faith:
No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie against the Government or any other officer or
other employee of the Government or any authority constituted under this Act or any member, officer
or other employee of such authority in respect of anything which is done or intended to be done in good
faith in pursuance of this Act or the rules made or orders or directions there under.
Cognizance of offence:
No court shall take cognizance of any offence under this Act except on a complaint made by officer in
charge on behalf of the government.
Powers to make rules: m

c o
.
The Central Government from time to time may frame rules for the purpose of this Act.
a
m
Rules:
a
yn
These rules may be called the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986. In exercise of the powers conferred
by sections 6 and 25 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986), the Central Government
d
tu
hereby makes the rules.
S
4.4. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION: GOALS, OBJECTIVES AND NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
Environmental Education (EE) is a process in which individuals gain awareness of their environment and
acquire knowledge, skills, values, experiences and also the determination, which will enable them to
act - individually and collectively - to solve present and future environmental problems.
Environmental education, properly understood, should constitute a comprehensive lifelong education,
one responsive to changes in a rapidly changing world. It should prepare the individual for life through
an understanding of the major problems of the contemporary world, and the provision of skills and
attributes needed to play a productive role towards improving life and protecting the environment with
due regard given to ethical values.
Environmental education is a learning process that increases people’s knowledge and awareness about
the environment and associated challenges, develops the necessary skills and expertise to address the
challenges, and fosters attitudes, motivations, and commitments to make informed decisions and take
responsible action. The world's first intergovernmental conference on environmental education was
organized by the United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in
cooperation with the U.N. Environment Programme (UNEP) and was convened in Tbilisi, Georgia (USSR)
from October 14-26, 1977.
m
c o
.
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES:
a
m
a
The goals and objectives of environmental education were formulated to help social groups and individuals
yn
towards the following:
d
1. Awareness and sensitivity to the environment and environmental challenges
tu
2. Knowledge and understanding of the environment and environmental challenges
S
3. Attitudes of concern for the environment and motivation to improve or maintain environmental quality
4. Skills to identify and help resolve environmental challenges
5. Participation in activities that lead to the resolution of environmental challenges
6. Evaluation abilities i.e evaluates environmental measures and educational programmes in terms of
ecological, aesthetic, economical, social and educational factors.
GUIDING PRINCIPLES:
Environmental education should:
1. consider the environment in its totality—natural and built, technological and social (economic, political,
cultural-historical, ethical, esthetic);
2. be a continuous lifelong process, beginning at the preschool level and continuing through all formal and
non-formal stages;
3. be interdisciplinary in its approach, drawing on the specific content of each discipline in making possible
a holistic and balanced perspective;
4. examine major environmental issues from local, national, regional, and international points of view so
that students receive insights into environmental conditions in other geographical areas;
5. focus on current and potential environmental situations while taking into account the historical
perspective;
6. promote the value and necessity of local, national, and international cooperation in the prevention and
solution of environmental problems;
7. explicitly consider environmental aspects in plans for development and growth;
8. enable learners to have a role in planning their learning experiences and provide an opportunity for
m
making decisions and accepting their consequences;
o
9. relate environmental sensitivity, knowledge, problem-solving skills, and values clarification to every age,
c
.
but with special emphasis on environmental sensitivity to the learner's own community in early years;
a
10. help learners discover the symptoms and real causes of environmental problems;
m
a
11. emphasize the complexity of environmental problems and thus the need to develop critical thinking and
yn
problem-solving skills;
12. utilize diverse learning environments and a broad array of educational approaches to teaching, learning
d
tu
about and from the environment with due stress on practical activities and first-hand experience.
S
NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS:
There is a need for environmental awareness and a concern to protect it. One must know the grave
dangers that await all life on this planet if due care is not taken towards environmental conservation and
protection. Further, the effect of environmental pollution often does not remain confined to one region.
For instance, the effect of the increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, depletion of ozone,
acid rains etc. are a few to mention. At present we are facing with many environmental issues which
have grown in size day by day. Still land and natural resources are being exploited without any ethics
and the wastes produced are pumped into the environment freely. However, some realisation has
started developing that air, water and land have limited carrying capacities and that pollution control
measures must be instituted to safeguard the environment and the quality of human life.
In developed countries, the cost of environmental policies has been estimated to range between 1
and 2 per cent of GNP. Most of this expenditure is for pollution abatement and natural resources
protection. In the developing countries, the expenditure is much lower and is mainly directed
towards drinking water supply and sanitation. However, the expenditures for pollution control
vary from one developing country to another. In order to control pollution effectively, it is
recommended that in developing countries at least 0.5 and 1% of the GNP must be kept for this
purpose.
Large quantities of pollutants enter the environment as a result of human activities. For example,
the cost of air pollution damages in the United States of America has been estimated to vary
between US$2 billion and US$35 billion per year. Generally speaking, the economic cost of
m
o
pollution damage in developed countries varies between 3 percent and 5 percent of the GNP; this
cThe results of a French study on

cost has kept on growing during the period from 1980 onwards.
.
24 pollutants indicate that the cost of pollution in 1978awas between 3.4 and 4.2 percent of the
GNP. One quarter of this damage was due to air m pollution and another quarter to noise. Similar
aGreat Britain and Northern Ireland where almost
yn
studies have also been done in Canada, Italy,
similar trends were recorded.
Some 30 million square kmd
u (19% of the earth's land surface), with a population of about 80
t with desertification and consequently with huge economic and human
S
million, are threatened
losses. The loss is owed to soil degradation due to salinisation, imperfect cultivation of sub-
marginal lands, and so on.
It has been estimated that the health benefits from a 60% reduction in air pollution in the United
States of America would amount to a total annual saving of US$ 40 billion. The United States
environmental protection agency has estimated that the 12% decrease in particulate pollutants
alone, achieved between 1970 and 1977, provides US$8 billion in health benefits each year,
compared to the total 1977 expenditures on controlling all air pollutants from stationary sources
of US$6.7 billion. In the developing countries, the costs of improving the quality of the
environment and protecting natural resources are far away to society. The construction of
drinking water or sewerage systems in third world countries could reduce the incidence of
infectious diseases, such as typhoid, dysentery, cholera and schistosomiosis, by 50 to 60% or

even more. Such an improvement in human health would lead not only to an increase in
productivity and time on the job but also to less expenditure on goods and services delivered by
the medical sector, most of which are imported.
Environmental awareness and the introduction of strict environmental control measures have
encouraged the development of alternative technologies, for example, recycling and low waste and non
waste technologies. From an economical point of view, such technologies could lead to substantial
savings. Thus, in Norway strict measures to control atmospheric pollution have led to innovations in the
production of ferrosilicon which have reduced production costs by 8 to 12%. In Sweden, changes in the
pulp industry from sulphite to sulphate process and recycling of waste water have led to reductions in
water consumption, production costs and wastes discharged. A similar trend has emerged in several
other countries, for example, in China, Finland, France and the United States of America.
m
o
Environmental regulations through the ban on production and marketing of some products
.c industrial location and new

have had an impact on trade and on the location of some industries. In the United States of
a
America, for example, a number steps have been taken to discourage
m
investment that with the negative environmental consequences, particularly in power plants
a airports. Although relocation of industries in
developing countries is mainly based n
(especially nuclear power plants), highways and
y on economic grounds (availability of cheap labour, natural

d
industry abroad duettou
resources, etc,). For example, there is a trend to locate new capacities of the Japanese aluminium
environmental considerations, together with the availability of raw
S electric power in the host developing countries. In the United States, a
materials and cheaper
trend is emerging towards relocation of industries producing asbestos, mercury, pesticides and
other environmentally hazardous substances; for example, asbestos factories have been installed
in Mexico and Brazil.
In conclusion, available evidence shows that improvements in environmental quality have
generated significant benefits. The benefits of environmental policies have included reduced
mortality and morbidity, improved productivity of labour, technological innovation and
increased amenities.
ROLE OF MASS MEDIA AND ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS (A CASE STUDY)

DEFINITION: Environmental awareness is a planned communication process to promote the knowledge
of environment, keep people up to date about catastrophic impacts of human development and help
them to know about sustainable development.
For the sake of our world, clearly environmental awareness plays a critical role for creating interest in
environment. This is the time which demands us to deliver the sensitivity of environmental issues to the
masses particularly among youth. So a study was conducted to identify the Role of Mass Media in
Creating Environmental Awareness. Identification of percentage of mass awareness on the subject of
environment is also one of the core objectives of survey.
Methodology: The methodology of survey was based on two main approaches:
a) Detailed surveys of the environmental reports of the media include newspaper and electronic media.
m
b) Household or community survey to identify the level of public awareness and knowledge about
o
environment. Household survey was carried out in the two different areas one in Srinagar and another
c
.
in Budgam. These areas were selected to conduct house hold survey and the areas were chosen on the
a
basis of the status and quality of life of peoples living there. The Srinagar city was taken as high class
m
a
area where peoples are living with all the basic and luxurious facilities of life and Budgam was taken as a
yn
middle class area society where people have no excess to all luxurious facilities of life. School and
College going students of age group 14 to 23 years. A total of 50 numbers of students were interviewed
d
tu
to access the role and mass media in creating environmental awareness and to identify the percentage
S
of students well known about environmental issues.
Results: Results of study based on interviews, reports, Household survey are given below:
a) The reports of electronic media and the print media (newspapers), through electronic media, the
people are more and well aware of the environment because of the efforts made by media for the last
many years. Now the coverage of environmental issues seems to be in the policy of media coverage
including the print media. Media is also helping the people and civil society groups to raise the issues
and keep people aware.
b) 72% of the respondents from Budgam area where people living with average lifestyle and Middle
Class Community were found with good piece of knowledge about environment which includes
knowledge of global warming (78%) and concept of ozone depletion (73%). About 55% percent of the
students form Budgam area also stated that they are Environmental friendly by putting waste in waste
bins, keep clean their rooms and houses, prefer to use clothe bags instead of plastic bags where
possible, save water and switch off the unnecessary lights. Only 31% of the Budgam respondents stated
that they get environmental news from TV channels.
Respondents belonging to the Srinagar city, where people living with more than average lifestyle and
high Class Community are well educated and 94% of the respondents were found well aware about the
environmental concerns, like global warming (91%), ozone depletion (82%), air pollution, noise
pollution, and water pollution. About 66% of the respondents from Srinagar city also stated that they
are Environmental Friendly in some ways and always tried to contribute to save environment. Also they
keep themselves involve in the activities. The same percentage of students said that they also
participate in debates and seminars conducted on environment themes and supported by their schools
and colleges. About 55% of the respondents from Srinagar city stated that media (TV Channels &
Newspapers) helps them to keep aware of environmental issues. m
c o
.
Conclusion: As students living in Srinagar city are well aware of the environmental issues than the
a
students at Budgam. So it can be concluded that the strong educational background, well educational
m
a
institute and executive professional level of family are the most contributing factors for awareness of
yn
students on the subject of environment but no doubt media is playing vital role in this regards.
Respondents belonging to both localities (Budgam and Srinagar) almost have the knowledge of
d
tu
environment but the most contributing factors in this regards are educational institutes and then media.
S
Media is playing a good role to the extent which satisfies the need of community peoples. Although the
news channels and papers have started number of programs on community as well as environmental
issues but more environmental programs which attract the attention of youth, public and students
should be fact based need to be telecast in this regards.
ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS
DEFINITION: A non-governmental organization (NGO) is an organization that is neither a part of a

government nor a conventional for profit business. Usually set up by ordinary citizens, NGOs may be
funded by governments, foundations, schools, businesses, or private people.
Today we come across various non-governmental organizations whose concerns are focused on various
areas such as social issues, health issues, and environmental issues. These NGO’s are involved in the
whole spectrum of developmental activities from creating environmental awareness to undertaking
watershed development, from disaster management to sustainable livelihoods, from joint forest
management to giving inputs to policies. They range from clubs which encourage nature camping to
agencies which undertake research and monitoring.
There are large number of NGOs in India and other countries that are exclusively working for
environmental protection, conservation and awareness. The number of these non-governmental
organizations which are actively involved in environmental protection in our country is, in fact, more
than in any of the developing country.
Some of the international environmental organizations are Greenpeace, Worldwide Fund for Nature’
(WWF), Earth First, etc. m
c o
I. Greenpeace: .
a
m
Greenpeace is an environment-friendly international organization, which aims at promoting
a
environmental awareness. It is an independent, campaigning organization, addressing the
yn
environmental abuse through direct, non-violent confrontations with governments and companies. It
d
exposes the global environmental problems and provides solutions for a healthy environment.
tu
Greenpeace focuses on the most crucial worldwide threats to our planets biodiversity and environment.
they include: S
1. Stop Climate Change
2. Protect Ancient Forests
3. Save the Oceans
4. Stop Whaling
5. Say No to Genetic Engineering
6. Stop the Nuclear Threat

7. Eliminate Toxic Chemicals
8. Encourage Sustainable Trade
Successful achievements of Greenpeace:
1. A ban on toxic waste exports to less developed countries.
2. A moratorium on commercial whaling.
3. A United Nations convention providing for better management of world fisheries.
4. A Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary.
5. A 50-year moratorium on mineral exploitation in Antarctica.
m
o
6. Ban on the dumping at sea of radioactive and industrial waste and disused oil installations.
c
.
7. An end to high-sea, large-scale driftnet fishing.
a
m
a
8. A ban on all nuclear weapons testing their first ever campaign.
yn
d
II. Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF)—India:
tu
WWF is an international organization for wildlife conservation with its focus on protecting species of
S
wildlife fauna. As its range of activities broadened, the international organization believed that its name
no longer reflected the scope of its activities and became the Worldwide Fund for Nature in 1986. But
the affiliated groups in the United States and Canada retained the original name. The organization is
now simply referred to as WWF. The WWF-India is committed to protecting and saving the already
degraded and threatened natural ecosystems in the country. The organization is today dedicated to the
conservation of natural habitats and ecosystems in India. The Secretariat of the organization functions
from New Delhi. The organization is part of the WWF family with 27 independent national organizations.
The coordinating body, the WWF International, is located at Gland in Switzerland. In order to suit India’s
specific ecological and socio-cultural situation, WWF-India expressed its mission in 1987 as follows: “The
promotion of nature conservation and environmental protection as the basis for sustainable and
equitable development.” WWF-India implements its conservation programs through Field Programs,
Public Policy, Education, Communications, NGO Networking, and Resource Mobilization.
The WWF-India Mission has five broad program components:
1. Promoting India’s ecological security; restoring the ecological balance.
2. Conserving biological diversity.
3. Ensuring sustainable use of the natural resource base.
4. Minimizing pollution and wasteful consumption, promoting sustainable lifestyles.
The key environmental issues, which WWF-India has involved itself with, are:
m
o
The tiger conservation program, fresh-water and wetlands program, river dolphin conservation
. c
program, wildlife trade monitoring, managing forests, environmental law, information management and
environmental education.
a
m
III. The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS):
a
yn
Founded in 1883, is recognized as one of the foremost conservation research organizations in the world.
d
tu
It aims to collect data on the specimens on natural history throughout the Indian sub-continent. To
disseminate knowledge of flora and fauna by means of lectures, field trips, literature, expeditions and to
S
study wildlife-related problems and recommend management plans to conserve wildlife and its habitat.
It conducts field research projects on bird migration. It also conducts studies of certain endangered
species of wildlife and their habitat and through environmental education imparts the knowledge and
awareness of the need to conserve wildlife. It has undertaken a wide range of projects in conjunction
with both local and overseas counterpart organizations on birds, reptiles, mammals, natural history, and
the impact of developmental programs on wildlife.
D. Development Alternatives Group:
Development Alternatives Group based in Delhi works in all parts of the country. It was established in
1983 to design options and promote sustainable development through programs of economic efficiency,
equity and social justice, resource conservation, and self-reliance. Its activities cover the entire nation. It
is working in the field of pollution monitoring and control, waste recycling management, wasteland
development, and appropriate technology.
Its objective is to design options and promote sustainable development through programs of:
i. Economic efficiency,
ii. Equity and social justice,
iii. Environmental harmony,
iv. Resource conservation, and
v. Self-reliance.
m
c o
E. The Energy Research Institute (TERI):
.
a
m
Established in 1974, is a wholly independent, non-profit research institute. Its mission is to develop and
a
promote technologies, policies, and institutions for efficient and sustainable use of natural resources. It
yn
has been imparting environmental education through projects, workshops, audio-visual aids, and quiz
competitions.
d
tu
S
It deals with policy-related works in the energy sector, research on environmental subjects,
development of renewable energy technologies and promotion of energy efficiency in the industry and
transport sector. TERI also has a major program in biotechnology, the applications of which are oriented
toward increased biomass production, conversion of waste into useful products and mitigating the
harmful environmental impacts of several economic activities.
TERI established the TERI University in 1998. Initially set up as the TERI School of Advanced Studies, it
received the status of a deemed university in 1999. The University is a unique institution of higher
learning exclusively for programs leading to PhD and master level degrees. Its uniqueness lies in the
wealth of research carried out within TERI as well as by its faculty and students making it a genuinely
research oriented University.
ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS IN INDIA: CHIPKO MOVEMENT, SILENT VALLEY AND NARMADA
ANDOLAN
There are certain people called activists who are not dependent on the forests or wildlife in any
way but who wants the resources should be conserved to prevent undue damage to the environment.
Some of the examples where ordinary people have played a great role in conservation of resources are
as under:
1. CHIPKO ANDOLAN:
The contribution of common people towards the conservation of forests is the Chipko Andolan (Hug the
trees movement). The Chipko Andolan originated from an incident in a remote village called ‘Reni’ in
Garwal, high up in the northern Himalayas in the early 1970’s. The word “chipko” refers “to stick” or “to
hug”. The name of the movement comes from a word meaning “embrace”: where the villagers hug the
m
trees, saving them by interposing their bodies between them and the contractors’ axes. A logging
o
contractor had been allowed to cut down trees in a forest close to a village. The people of the village did
c
.
not want this forest to be cut down because it would have spoiled their healthy environment. One day,
a
when the men folk of the village were out of work, the contractors workers came in the forest to cut
m
a
down the trees. In the absence of men, the women of the village reached the forests quickly and clasped
yn
the tree trunks with their arms, preventing the workers from cutting down the trees. The forest trees
were thus saved. The Chipko movement quickly spread across all the communities and helped in the
d
tu
conservation of forests.
S
This gave a start to the “Chipko Movement”. The main objective of this movement was to ensure an
ecological balance and the survival of the tribal people whose economic activities revolved around these
forests. Sunderlal Bahuguna, a renowned Gandhian, with a group of volunteers and women started the
non-violent protest by clinging to the trees to save them from felling.
2. NARMADA ANDOLAN:
The Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) is the peoples, movement that mobilized itself against the
development in the mid- and late-1980s. The movement first started as a protest for not
providing proper rehabilitation and resettlement for the people who have been displaced by the
construction of Sardar Sarovar Dam. Later on, the movement turned its focus on the preservation
of environment and the eco-systems of the valley.
The arguments in favor of the construction of the dam say that it is intended to irrigate large
tracts of land in Gujarat, provide drinking water to drought- prone villages and towns and
generate electricity. The withdrawal of the World Bank from the project was considered to be a
major victory for the anti-dam activists.
In October 2000 the Supreme Court gave a judgment approving the construction of the Sardar
Sarovar Dam. The court decided that the height of the dam be raised to 90 m. This height is
much higher than the 88 m which anti-dam activists demanded, but it is definitely lower than the
proposed height of 130 m.
After the Supreme Court judgment, the Gujarat Government has taken up the construction of the
dam. As the World Bank withdrew its financing in 1993 the project is now largely financed by
the state governments and market borrowings. Now the project is expected to be fully completed
by 2025.
3. SILENT VALLEY
m
c o
.
An NGO in Kerela namely Save Silent Valley (SSV) was a social movement aimed to protect Silent Valley
a
which is an evergreen tropical forest area in the Palakkad district of Kerela, India. The Kuntipuzha river
m
a
that flows through Silent Valley was surveyed and identified an ideal site for electric generation by the
yn
Kerela State Electricity Board in 1958. In 1973 the Save Silent Valley (SSV) take an initiative to save the
Silent Valley Reserve Forest from being flooded by a hydroelectric project. The Kerela Shastra Sahitya
d
tu
Parishad (KSSP) was another NGO working for environmental awareness among masses from many
S
years. It was the only organization in 1978 whose campaign turned out to be a public education
programme in many respects. The movement in many ways helped to save the ecosystem of Silent
Valley. The valley was declared as Silent Valley National Park in 1985.
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
DEFINITION: Ethos, the Greek work from where “ethic” is derived means the character. Environmental
ethics can be described as the individual’s character or ethic to become compatible with the
environment or recognition of the need for the survival of human beings. This requires minimum
manipulation of environmental components and judicious use of resources treating all of the earth as a
sacred land so that its contents are neither diminished nor changed permanently. It is the basic idea of
environmental ethics.
Natural environment, man’s most precious heritage, has been suffering a tremendous onslaught by
reckless developmental activities. The tragic drama of human cruelty and savagery, death and
destruction being played at the angelic land resources and it has crumbled the foundation of our old
civilization and left nothing unaffected and unharmed. At a time when our environment is drastically
deteriorating, it is ironical that man has admitted that there have been disorders and he started thinking
of the future for survival.
There are certain controversies about human-environment relations resolve conflicts between two
different values/ethic systems:
1. Ego-centric: The ego-centric world view states that man is the only species who is
important and the planet earth has unlimited supply of resources. The ego-centric
world view is based on assumption that what is good for individual is good for the
society.
m
c o
2. Eco-centric: The eco-centric world view states the every life has the right to live and
.
the earths resources are limited. It also states that all the species have equal rights
over the resources. a
m
a
Issues: The World Environment Day may pass off like any other such occasion when speeches are made
yn
about the dangers of the threats to the environment, environmental groups and activists may like to
d
mark the occasion with louder concerns but all in vain.
tu
S
Physical environment: The quality of the physical environment is deteriorating by every passing day
despite growing awareness about it. The rapid growth of population and inadequate living standards is
destroying the immediate living environment of the people. Added to this is the ignorance and
callousness of the citizens themselves that they do not maintaining a reasonable quality of the
environment?
Urbanisation: The phenomenon of urbanization has led to tremendous pressure on natural resources
and their depletion. Excessive exploitation of ground water reserves has caused land subsidence and
damage to infrastructure. The ozone layer depletion, acid rain and global warming is a direct outcome of
the release of large amount Green House Gases into the atmosphere. The two most basic, biological
requirements for life – air and water, are seriously getting polluted throughout the world. The situation
is worse in all spheres of life. This poses a threat to human existence. Our cultural and ethical
environment is also witnessing negative changes. We are ruthlessly skinning our planet alive and
heading towards achieving the moons landscape at a greater rate.
Pollution:ooooooooooooooooo
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS:
There is a need to shift towards optimum resources utilization through better and efficient management
system. This can be achieved by:
a) Conservation and sustainable utilization of biological diversity.
b) Diversified and organic farming: At present our agricultural system is ruled over by a certain group of
crops as more than 80 percent of our food comes from about 10 crop species only. The farming practice
is monoculture. Diversification of crop will be a boon from ecological as well as nutritional viewpoint.
m
Today our food and fruits have become poisonous through biological magnification. There a possibility
c o
that in future we may not be able to consume foods due excessive accumulation of pesticides and
.
a
herbicides and chemical fertilizers. The case Minamata bay where the excessive accumulation of methyl
m
mercury in the crabs has largely affected the humans by their consumption. Similarly the presence of
a
nitrate in water from the secondary sources of agricultural wastes is responsible for
yn
methaemoglobinema (blue baby syndrome). There are several episodes in the history of ecology and
d
environment where excessive use of fertilizers has affected the biological life and non-biological things.
tu
There is an urgent need to find out the best possible alternatives like use of biofertilisers (Rhizobium,
S
Azolla, Nitrobacter), biopesticides like BT strain which will enhance the agricultural productivity and at
the same time are environment friendly.
c) Change in existing farming system through Integrated Intensive Farming System (IIFS) and precision
farming.
d) Soil management.
e) Integrated water management.
f) Integrated pest management.
g) Awareness.
h) Control of diffusion of pollutants in air, water and through control equipments.
i) Afforestation.
j) Industrial management.
k) Population growth regulation.
l) Proper use of non-renewable resources.
Above all we should make up our mind, and soul, for the conservation of every resource on the earth
through sustaining its longevity.
m
c o
.
a
m
a
yn
d
tu
S

BSc. Environmental Studies First Year Semester 1 Lecture Notes, Ebook PDF Download

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BSc. Environmental Studies First Year Semester 1 Lecture Notes, Ebook PDF Download

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

BSc. Environmental Studies First Year Semester 1 Lecture Notes, Ebook PDF Download

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

STUDYNAMA.

▼▼ Scroll Down to View your Downloaded File! ▼▼

CREDIT III: BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION

In-situ conservation Conservation of species in its own natural habitat.

Ex-situ conservation Conservation of species outside their natural habitat.

Biota (Living species) shows variation at three levels of diversity.

1. Genetic diversity (Alpha):

3.2. THREATS TO THE BIODIVERSITY

CONFLICT BETWEEN MAN AND WILDLIFE:

POLLUTION OF VARIOUS HABITATS:

CONCEPT OF THREATENED SPECIES

3.3 CONCEPT OF ENDEMIC SPECIES

Table: Diversity of plants and animals in India.

Group Number % of world species

Mammals 350 7.6%

Birds 1224 12.6%

Amphibians 197 4.4%

Wildlife Sanctuaries (WLSs)

Community Reserves 4 20.69 0.00

Protected Areas (PAs) 703 160473.07 4.88

Source: National Wildlife Database Cell, Wildlife Institute of India

1. Biosphere Reserves: Biosphere Reserve includes natural, minimally disturbed, man

d A botanical garden is said to be well established if it has lakes,

CONCEPT OF POLLUTION AND POLLUTANTS

A pollutant can be any chemical, such as a radio-nuclide (radioisotopes); organo-phosphorus compound

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

y released in Jheria coal fields per year. Bhopal gas tragedy

The air pollutants are of three main types which are

d The harmful radiations emitted from radioactive substances

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION

6. Enactment of environment laws.

SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION

 Agricultural activities involvesn

EFFECTSO OF WATER POLLUTION

Fig: Important Water pollutants

In general, pollution means instability whereas a non-polluted habitat is equivalent to a stable

CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION

Wind and Water Erosion:

Pesticides and insecticides:

4. Application rates of fertilizers are enhanced.

9. By biological control of pests, pesticides can be reduced.

11. Enforcement of environmental regulatory laws.

Motor cycle 65-105

Heavy vehicle like trucks, Buses 85-100

Hammer at 2 meter distance 120

Aeroplane at 50-100 meter 90-100

SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION

1. Industries: Such as printing press, textile mills, engineering works etc.

1) Rapid growth of Homo sapiens

3) Changing life styles

1. Utilization of wastes for generating electricity and biomass.

4. Land fill disposal

5. Re-organization of the man-power.

7. Hydro pulping and

9. Re-use of waste materials

Disaster is of two types

cadded in a period of just two

S and earthquake etc. Urbanization dramatically forces the communities to