ESTIMATE AND COSTING

# CONTINGENCIES: The term “contingencies” represents any incidental or miscellaneous

character that cannot be classified under any distinct item sub-head, yet pertain to the work
as a whole. (3% to 5% of the estimated cost is provided to allow for contingencies)

# PRELIMINARY ESTIMATE: A preliminary estimate is the approximate cost of the project

that is calculated at the conceptual stage of the project. When the project drawings and
specifications are not available, a preliminary estimate is prepared. Still, it helps the
client/contractor to make the initial budget and cost control plan.

# DIFFERENCE BETWEEN P.W.D. AND C.P.W.D.:

P.W.D C.P.W.D
PWD - PUBLIC WORKS DEPRTMENT CPWD - CENTRAL PUBLIC WORKS DEPRTMENT

PWDs are responsible for construction, CPWD is responsible for construction,

custody and Maintenance of all assets maintenance and custodian of all assets
of the respective state Governments. including staff and Officers quarters pertaining
to Central government except Defence Services
and Railways.
PWD is under state govt. Territory and
works under the state govt CPWD is under urban development ministry of
departments like college, university, union government of India, concern
bridges etc in India for each state department works for any central govt. Dept.
individual PWD departments. Like BSF, CRPF, IT etc

# MUSTER ROLL: On all construction works, whether undertaken departmentally or

executed through contractor. It is necessary to engage skilled as well as unskilled labour for
day-to-day jobs. These levels are paid wages on the basis of their attendance and quantum
or work they do. For this purpose, it is necessary to keep the record of attendance of such
persons on work. That documents showing the record of attendance is called a muster roll.

# LUMP SUM ITEMS: A lump sum contract is a construction agreement in which the
contractor agrees to complete the project for a predetermined, set price. Under a lump
sum agreement, also known as a stipulated-sum, the contractor submits a total project price
instead of bidding on each individual item.
In lump sum estimating, contractors deliver a single price for the project, rather than a unit
price. The lump sum may be only one total amount for the entire project or it may be a price
for each bid category.
# OVERHEADS:
The overhead costs comes to about 6-8% of the project cost and include the indirect
expenses incurred during the execution of a project
# ADMINISTRATIVE APPROVAL AND TECHNICAL SANCTION: Administrative
approval means the formal acceptance by an administrative department of a proposal that
the Public Works Department should incur a specified amount of expenditure on a specified
work required by, or in connection with that administrative department.
Technical Sanction means the order of a competent authority sanctioning a properly
detailed estimate of the cost of a work of construction or repair to be carried out by the
Public Works Department.

❖ What is analysis of rates? What are the governing factors of rate of any
item?
In order to determine the rate of a particular item, the factors affecting the rate of that
item are studied carefully and then finally a rate is decided for that item. This process of
determining the rates of an item is termed as analysis of rates or rate analysis.
The cost of materials in rate analysis is calculated as combination of cost of material at
origin, its transportation costs, taxes.
PURPOSE OF RATE ANALYSIS
▪ To work out the actual cost of per unit of the items.
▪ To work out the economical use of materials and processes in completing the
particulars item.
▪ To work out the cost of extra items which are not provided in the contract bond,
but are to be done as per the directions of the client.

The governing factors of rate of any item are: -

▪ Specification of an item which indicates the quality and proportion of materials,
the method of construction and protection of work.
▪ The present rate of materials for the item of work up to the work site.
▪ The range of profit and availability of water in connection with the construction
work.
▪ Locality and situation where the work is to be carried out.
▪ Size and extent of work.
▪ Nature of project.
▪ Height/Level of work at which it is being executed.
▪ Environmental and climatic conditions.
▪ Daily wages of different categories of labourer at the locality with their respective
outputs.
▪ The range of lead and lift required for deposition of materials to carry out the item
of work.

❖ Enumerate the various method of approximate estimates and their use.

Discuss in detail the method of Detailed estimation of building on item rate
basis?
TYPES OF ESTIMATES
The estimates are broadly classified as
(i) Approximate Estimates, and
(ii) Detailed Estimates
▪ Before a detailed estimate of the proposed work is to be taken up, it is necessary
to prepare its approximate estimate.
▪ An approximate estimate gives the approximate cost of the work and is prepared
on the basis of cost of the similar works carried out in the past.
▪ Such an estimate is required to obtain administrative approval in case of
Government works.
▪ Once the work is administratively approved by the Government, a detailed
estimate is worked out.
▪ A detailed estimate is prepared after its complete set of drawings are ready.

Thus, the various types of estimates prepared according to their requirements may be
classified as follows:
1. Preliminary or Approximate or Rough Cost Estimate
2. Plinth Area Estimate.
3. Cubic Contents Method
4. Approximate Quantity Method
5. Detailed Estimate (or Item Rate Estimate)
6. Revised Estimate
7. Supplementary Estimate
8. Supplementary and Revised Estimate
9. Annual Repair (A.R) or Annual Maintenance (A.M.)

Estimate Of the above estimates, the first four belong to approximate estimates and the
remaining five are detailed estimates.
(i) PRELIMINARY OR APPROXIMATE OR ROUGH COST ESTIMATE:
▪ This approximate estimate is prepared for preliminary studies of the various
aspects of the work and also to decide the financial position and policy for
administrative approval by competent sanctioning authority.
▪ In case of commercial projects such as residential buildings, irrigation and power
projects that earn revenue, the probable income is also mentioned and the
investment in the project is justified.
▪ This estimate is prepared on the basis of practical experience of carrying out
similar works in the past and their rates.
▪ In this estimate, the approximate cost of all important works such as cost of land,
roads, buildings, water supply, sanitary works, electrification etc. are mentioned
separately.
▪ A brief report of the project indicating its necessity, utility and method of arriving
at the cost of each item and the site or layout plan is also enclosed with the
estimate.
(ii) PLINTH AREA ESTIMATE:
▪ The plinth area of the proposed building is calculated for the covered i.e., roofed
portion by measuring the outer dimensions at the plinth level.
▪ The area of courtyards, and other open areas are not to be included while
calculating the plinth area.
▪ The plinth-area method of preparing estimate gives the approximate cost of the
building to be constructed.
▪ Even if the plan of the proposed building is not ready, the floor areas of different
units (i.e., rooms) are worked out from the user’s requirements and about 35% of
 it is added for thickness of walls, circulation and waste to obtain the approximate
total plinth area.
▪ This plinth area is then multiplied by the current plinth area rate in the locality to
obtain the approximate cost of the proposed building.
▪ The method is simple and is usually adopted in practice.
(iii) CUBIC CONTENT METHOD:
▪ The cubic content method is an approximate method of preparing an estimate of
a proposed building and differs from the method (ii) described above in that, in
addition to the total plinth area of the proposed building, it also takes into
consideration its height.
▪ The total cubic contents of the building are obtained by multiplying its total plinth
area by the height.
▪ Knowing the cubic content rate of recently constructed building having similar
specifications in the locality, the approximate cost of the proposed building is
worked out by multiplying the total cubic contents by its cubic content rate.
▪ For multi storeyed building, the height is measured between floor level of one
storey to the top of next floor above it.
▪ As per I.S. 3861, the foundation and plinth and the parapet above the roof are not
taken into consideration in calculating the cubic contents.
▪ The cubic content method is more accurate as compared to plinth area method
as it accounts for the height of the building.
▪ In practice, however, this method is not used.

(iv) APPROXIMATE QUANTITY METHOD:

In this method the structure is divided into:
(a) Foundation Inclusive of Plinth
(b) The Super Structure.
• The cost per running meter of foundation inclusive of plinth is worked out and is
multiplied by the total length of foundation to determine the total cost of foundation
inclusive of plinth.
▪ Similarly, the cost per running meter of the superstructure is found out and is
multiplied by the total length of all the walls of superstructure to get the total cost
of superstructure.
▪ The total cost of the structure is then obtained by the addition of total cost of
foundation inclusive of plinth to the total cost of the superstructure.
▪ A line plan of the proposed structure is required for the above computations.

(v) DETAILED ESTIMATE (OR ITEM RATE ESTIMATE):

▪ This is the accurate method of estimating in which the entire building work is
subdivided into individual items of work
▪ The quantities of each item of works are calculated from the complete set of
drawings (i.e., plan, elevation, sections etc.)
▪ The abstract of the estimated cost is prepared by multiplying the quantities of
each of the above items by the rate of the completion of that item.
▪ The rates of various items of work can be obtained from the ‘schedule of rate’
prepared by the Government organisation or from analysed rates of item.
▪ In order to make provision for unforeseen expenditure for miscellaneous petty
items (for which no provision is made in the estimate) and contingencies a 3 to
5% of the estimated cost is added to it.
▪ An additional 1 to 2% is also provided for the work-charged establishment i.e., for
the salaries to be paid to the chowkidars, technical assistants, supervisors etc.
appointed by the Government (or owner) to look after the work.
 ▪ The grand total of all the above cost is known as the total estimated cost of the
proposed work.
▪ After the administrative approval for the work is obtained, its detailed estimate is
prepared and sent for obtaining technical sanction from the appropriate
competent Government authorities.
▪ The detailed estimate is accompanied by the following documents:
▪ A comprehensive report of the proposed work.
▪ General specifications of the work.
▪ Detailed specifications of various items of work.
▪ Detailed working drawings consisting of plan, elevations, sections, details of
foundations etc. with site or layout plan.
▪ Calculation and design of component parts of the work.
▪ Analysis of rates for the items of work not included in the schedule of rate.

(vi) REVISED ESTIMATE:

It is also a detailed estimate and is to be prepared when:
▪ The original sanctioned amount of estimate exceeds by more than 5%.
▪ Amount spent on the work exceeds administratively sanctioned amount more
than 10%.
▪ When there are drastic changes in original proposal i.e., the original load bearing
structure is now proposed to be converted into a framed structure, even if the
cost of the work does not exceed the sanctioned amount.
▪ The revised estimate is accompanied by a comparative statement in the
prescribed format indicating the changes in each item of works, its rate and
amount as per original and revised with full justification for such variations and
excess etc.
(vii) SUPPLEMENTARY ESTIMATE:
▪ It is a fresh detailed estimate which is to be prepared when additional works are
required to supplement the original proposed work or when further development
or extension of the work is required to be carried during progress of the work.
▪ The abstract must indicate the original amount of the estimate and the total
amount including supplementary amount for which fresh sanction is to be
obtained.
(viii) SUPPLEMENTARY AND REVISED ESTIMATE:
▪ This estimate is prepared when a particular work is abandoned and the cost of
the work remaining is less than 95% of the original sanctioned amount of the
work
▪ or where there are material deviations from the original proposed work which may
result in substantial saving in the estimate.
▪ In such cases a fresh supplementary and Revised Estimate is to be prepared and
sent for revised technical sanction.
(ix) ANNUAL REPAIRS (A.R.) OR ANNUAL MAINTENANCE (A.M.) ESTIMATE:
▪ Annual Repair (A.R.) or Annual Maintenance (A.M.) is a detailed estimate
prepared to keep or maintain the building or roads in proper working and safe
condition.
▪ In case of buildings, this includes items such as white washing, painting of doors
and windows, inside and outside plastering and minor repairs etc.
▪ In case of roads, it includes items such as filling patches, minor repairs to bridges
and culverts, repairs to berms etc.
❖ A) Centre line method & Short Wall-Long wall method
CENTRE LINE METHOD
Under this method, initially it is required to measure the centre line length of the wall, and
then multiply it with the breadth and depth of the wall to determine the quantity. Centre line
method is specifically created for rectangular, circular (polygonal, hexagonal, octagonal)
buildings without inter or cross walls (the cross wall stands for an interior dividing wall of a
building).
Centre line method is fast but it needs special observation and consideration at the
intersections or meeting points of partition or cross walls, etc. For each intersection, half
breadth of the relevant item should be subtracted from the total centre length for getting
exact quantity.
While measuring one room, the length and breadth centre to centre should be taken for quantity
calculation.

The length of the room is 5m and breadth is 4.5; the thickness of the wall on all sides is 0.30 mm.
Initially, you have to find the centre to centre length of long wall and then centre to centre span of
short wall. After that, calculate the total length of the room.
The length of the long wall is taken as 15.90 meter and as there are 2 long walls, the total length
will be = 15.90 x 2 = 31.9m
The length of short wall is taken as 4.80 meter and as there are 4 short walls, the total length will
be = 4.80 x 4 = 19.20
Therefore, the entire length of long wall & short wall = 31.9 + 19.2 = 51.1m
The height of damp proof course or DPC = 0.0381m
The length will be same for building estimation process i.e., 51.1m
The earthwork quantity will be calculated as follow: -
The number of earthworks = 1
Length of earthwork = 51.1m
Breadth of earthwork = 1.05
Height of earthwork = 1.2m
The quantity of earthwork = Length x Breadth x Height = 51.1 x 1.05 x 1.2 = 64.38 cubic meter.
 SHORT WALL-LONG WALL METHOD
For the calculating quantity of various construction item, long wall and short wall method
is used. For measuring the long wall and short wall the external out-to-out length of walls
running in the longitudinal direction generally is considered as “long wall” while the in-to
in internal length of walls running in the transverse direction is called as “short wall” or
“cross wall”. For calculating quantity multiply the length into the breadth and height of the
wall. For finding out the length of long wall, simply add centre length of wall to the two
times half breadth on one side of the wall which gives the out-to-out length of long wall.

Length of Long Wall = Center to Center Length of wall + Half Breadth on One Side +
Half Breadth on the Other side

Length of Long Wall = Center to Center Length of wall + Half Breadth on One Side +
Half Breadth on the Other Side = Center to Center Length of wall + One Breadth
For finding out length of short wall or cross wall subtract from the centre length, so the one
breadth of the wall, which gives the length of the short wall (in-to-in) (instead of adding).

Length of Short Wall = Centre to Centre Length – One breadth

Note: The length of the long wall usually decreases from earthwork to brickwork, and the
length of the short wall is increased.

Here we give example of long wall and short wall method.

Using the above image, you can first find the length of long wall and short wall.
Centre to Centre length of long wall = 5+ (1/2×0.30) + (1/2 x 0.30) = 5.30 m
Centre to Centre length of short wall = 4+ (1/2 x 0.30) + (1/2×0.30) = 4.30 m
After finding out the length of the long wall and short wall, now find the quantity of the
various items which are used in construction.
 Long wall and short wall method is used for finding out the quantity and cost of materials.
This method is simple and accurate, so there is may be no chances of any mistake. But
correctly choose long wall and short wall for finding out accurate quantity.

❖ B) Lump Sum Tender

A lump sum contract or “fixed fee contract” is a traditional means of procurement in which a
single “lump sum” price for all of the works is agreed upon before the works starts. This
means that the contractor is able to accurately price the risk they are being asked to accept.
In lump sum estimating, contractors deliver a single price for the project, rather than a unit
price. The lump sum may be only one total amount for the entire project or it may be a price
for each bid category. A lump-sum payment is an often-large sum that is paid in one
single payment instead of broken up into instalments.

❖ What is bill of quantities? What is its importance? Explain various methods

of preparing bill of quantities.
A bill of quantities (commonly known as BOQ or BQ) is a document prepared by a quantity
surveyor or cost consultant to define the quality and quantity of works required to be carried
out by the main contractor to complete a project.
A bill of quantities also provides the main contractor with measured quantities of works as
identified on the project drawings and specification.
The main purpose of a BOQ is to:
• Standardise the process for tendering contractors to prepare a firm cost to carry
out the works.
• Provide a fair and accurate method for tendering contractors to price the project
using the same information.
• Allow the employer’s consultants to carry out a tender analysis whereby they can
compare both the overall cost received and individual priced items with other
tender offers.
• Enable either the quantity surveyor or contract administrator to confirm that
individual contractors have submitted bona fide tenders compliant with the tender
information, that represent value for money to the client.

IMPORTANCE: The prime purpose of the Bill of Quantities (BQ) is to enable all
contractors tendering for a contract to price on exactly the same information. Subsequent
to this, it is widely used for post-tender work such as: material scheduling; construction
planning; cost analysis; and cost planning.
A Bill of Quantities or BOQ is a document used for tendering in the construction
industry. It contains a list of materials or supplies in which the cost for all parts or rates
for combined materials and labour and their costs are itemized.

Format for preparing bill of quantities:

The main sections included in the bill of quantities are Form of Tender, Information,
Requirements, Pricing schedule, Provisional sums, and Day works. For the preparation
of BOQ, 5 main components are to be considered which are as follows:
1. Item Description
2. Unit
3. Quantity
4. Rate per unit
5. Total Amount
❖ BUDGETARY FORECAST:
Budgeting quantifies the expectation of revenues that a business wants to achieve for a
future period, whereas financial forecasting estimates the amount of revenue or
income that will be achieved in a future period.
Budgeting and forecasting help you formulate strategies, plan for the future and align
your goals across the entire organization. Both processes are crucial components of
every company's growth journey, especially during periods of change.

❖ PLINTH AREA RATE:

The cost of construction is determined by multiplying plinth area with plinth area rate.
The area is obtained by multiplying length and breadth (outer dimensions of building).
In fixing the plinth area rate, careful observation and necessary enquiries are made in
respect of quality and quantity aspect of materials and labour, type of foundation,
height of building, roof, wood work, fixtures, number of storey’s etc. Areas include
while calculating the plinth area of building are: -
a) Area of walls at floor level.
b) Internal shafts of sanitary installations not exceeding 2.0 m2, lifts, air-conditioning
ducts etc.,
c) Area of barsati at terrace level: Barsati means any covered space open on one side
constructed on one side constructed on terraced roof which is used as shelter during
rainy season

❖ TASK OR TURN OUT WORK

The capacity of doing work by an artisan or skilled labour in the form of quantity of
work per day in known as the task work or out turn of the labour.
The outcome of work as per partition varies to some extent according to the nature,
size, height, situation, location etc. In bigger cities where specialised and experience
syllabus is available the out on is greater than a small town and country sides. In well
organised work less labour is required.
❖ DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ESTIMATE AND COSTING
ESTIMATE COSTING
Estimation is the process to find Costing is the actual cost of the
probable Cost before production. production.
Estimation is done before and during Costing is done after planning.
planning.
It is exact price or expense.
It is generally varies not exact.
It gives actual result after production.
It gives idea about expense before
production.

❖ LIST OUT THE MAIN ITEMS OF WORKS IN A RESIDENCE. WRITE UNIT OF

MEASUREMENT FOR ANY TEN OF THEM.
a) 100 mm THICK WALL – Cubic Meter (M3)
b) REINFORCEMENT STEEL – Quintal (cwt)
c) ELECTRIC POINTS – Numbers & length of wire in running meter (RM)
d) EARTH WORK AND FOUNDATION - Cubic Meter (M3)
e) GROOVE IN PLASTER – Square Meter (M2)
f) DOORS - Numbers
g) T.W. OF DOOR FRAMES -
h) M.S. ANGLE IRON DOOR FRAME - Quintal (cwt)
i) STEEL RAILING – Running Meter (RM)
j) R.C.C. IN SLAB - Cubic Meter (M3)

❖ DISCUSS THE IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE OF UNITS OF MEASUREMENT IN

SPECIFICATION
Measurement of words occupy a very important place in planning and execution of
any work or project, from the time of the first estimate are made until the completion
and settlement of payments. The method followed for measurement are not uniform
and the practices as prevalent differ considerably in between the states. Even in the
same state different departments follow different methods. For convenience a
uniform method should be followed throughout the country. The uniform method of
measurement to be followed which is applicable to the preparation of the estimate
and bill of quantities and to the side measurement of completed works.

❖ DISCUSS THE METHOD OF PREPRATION OF ESTIMATE FOR SERVICES IN

RESIDENTIAL BUILDING LIKE SEWER LINE, WATER SUPPLY, ELECTRICAL
WORKS.
Approximate cost for water supply, sanitary and electrification works: provisions for
internal service like water supply, sanitary and electrification of building are usually
made on the basis of a percentage of building estimate cost is considered
reasonable according to the specification to the adopted. When external surface of
water supply line sewer line and electric line run abutting a building provision for
internal service should be considered on percentage basis as below:
1. Water supply: 4 - 5% of estimated cost of the building works.
2. Sanitary: 4 - 5% of estimated cost of building works.
3. Electrification- 9% of estimate cost of building work and for electric fans lights 3% of
the estimated cost of building works.
 ❖ SCHEDULE OF RATES
Schedule of rate is a list of rates of various items of works. To facilitate the
preparation of estimates, and also to serve as a guide in setting rates in connection
with contract agreements, as schedule of rates for all item of work is maintained in
engineering department in the form of a printed books known as Schedule of rate
books.

❖ CARPET AREA
Carpet area of building is the useful area or liveable area or lettable area. This is the
total floor area minus Circulation Area (Veranda, Corridor, Passage, Staircase, Lifts,
Entrance Hall etc) and minus other non-usable area as sanitary accommodations
(Bath and W.C area). For office building carpet area is lettable area or usable area
and for residential building carpet area is liveable area and should exclude the
kitchen pantry store and similar other room which are not used for living purposes.

❖ FIND ESTIMATION OF FOLLOWING

a) ELECTRICAL WORKS IN A RESIDENTIAL BUILDING
b) 1:6 CEMENT AND SAND MORTAR

c) 230mm THICK BRICK WORK IN SUPER STUCTURE IN 1:6 CEMENT AND SAND
MORTAR
d) RCC in column and footing
e) PCC FLOORING
 SPECIFICATIONS
❖ A) CONTRACT DOCUMENTS: For a CONTRACT to be valid, there must be an offer
from the owner in the form of tender notice to get some specified work to be executed
and there must be an acceptance from the contractor to execute the work, both the offer
and the acceptance must be definite and legal.
CONTRACT DOCUMENTS When the tender of a contractor is accepted, an agreement
between the contractor and the owner takes place and the documents defining the rights
and obligations of the owner and the contractor are attached to the agreement bond and
this is called a contract document. Each page of the contract document bears the
signature of the contractor and the accepting authority and any correction in it is initialed.

The contract document must contain: -

1. Title page – name of work, name of owner, name of contractor, contract agreement
no., contents, etc.
2. Index page – contents of the agreement with reference pages
3. Tender notice – brief description of work, estimated cost of work, date and time of
receiving tender, amount of EMD and security deposit, time of completion, etc.
4. Tender form – the bill of quantities, contractor’s rate, total cost of work, time of
completion, amount of security deposit, etc.
5. Schedule of issue of materials – list of materials to be issued by the
owner/department to the contractor with the rates and place of issue.
6. Drawings – complete set of drawings including plan, elevation, sections, detailed
drawings, etc. all fully dimensioned.
7. Specifications – (a) General Specifications which specify the class and type of work,
quality of materials, etc. (b) Detailed specifications – detailed description of each item of
work including material and method to be used along with the quality of workmanship
required.
8. Condition of contract- a) Rates of each item of work inclusive of materials, labour,
transport, plant/equipment and other arrangements required for completion of work b)
Amount and form of earnest money and security deposit c) Mode of payment to
contractor including running payment, final payment and refund of security money, etc.
d) Time of completion of work e) Extension of time for completion of work f) Engagement
of sub-contractor and other agencies at contractor’s cost and risk g) Penalty for poor
quality and unsatisfactory work progress h) Termination of contract i) Arbitration for
settlement of disputes.
9. Special conditions – depending upon the nature of work taxes and royalties included
in the rates, labour camp, labour amenities, compensation to labour in case of accidents,
etc.
10. Deed of pledge

❖ BUDGETARY FORECAST:
Budgeting quantifies the expectation of revenues that a business wants to achieve for a
future period, whereas financial forecasting estimates the amount of revenue or
income that will be achieved in a future period.
Budgeting and forecasting help you formulate strategies, plan for the future and align
your goals across the entire organization. Both processes are crucial components of
every company's growth journey, especially during periods of change.
❖ BID DOCUMENT:
The bid is the document illustrating project quantities and activities of the materials
necessary for each project, with the cost of all activities for each project. Bid
documents include the plans, specifications and estimates (PS&E) developed to
describe all of the elements of a construction project and become the contract
between the local government and the selected contractor.

❖ GENERAL RULES OF MEASUREMENT:

The four rules of measurement: length, capacity, weight and time.
Measurement is the transformation of drawn information into descriptions and
quantities, undertaken to value, cost, and price construction work, as well as enabling
effective management.

❖ QUOTATION NOTICE:
A quotation and an estimate is that: a quotation is an agreed fixed price.
A quotation is a fixed price offer that can't be changed once accepted by the customer.
You must adhere to the quotation price even if you carry out more work than you
expected. If you think this is likely to happen, it makes more sense to give an estimate.
You can also specify in the quotation precisely what it covers, and situations that will lead
to additional charges.
The quotation may be understood as a formal document of promise, given by the
prospective supplier, to supply the stated goods or services needed by the buyer at the
stated price under specific conditions. It comprises of terms of sale, payment and
warranty, which includes the price decided to charge for the product or service, date, time
and place of delivery, validity period of quotation.
Quotation helps the buyer in knowing the cost of goods or services, before making a
purchase. In order to obtain the quotations (i.e., price for the required material),
generally, tenders are floated by the government enterprises.

❖ EARNEST MONEY:
• It is the amount of money to be deposited along with the tender document to the
department by the contractors quoting a tender. This money is a guarantee against
the refusal of any contractor to take up the work after the acceptance of his tender. In
case of refusal, this amount is forfeited.
• EMD of contractors whose tenders are not accepted will be refunded.
• 1% - 2% of the estimated cost of work is the Earnest Money Deposit.

❖ SINKING FUND
The fund which is gradually accumulated by way of periodic on annual deposit for the
replacement of the building or structure at the end of its useful life, it is termed as sinking
fund.
I = _ Si____
(1+i) n -1

Where S = Total amount of sinking fund to be accumulated

n = Number of years required to accumulate the sinking fund
i = Rate of interest in decimal (E.g., 5% +0.05)
I = Annual instalment required
❖ GENERAL OR BREIF SPECIFICATIONS
These give the nature quality or class of the work and materials, in general terms, to be
used in the various parts of the work. General specification helps to form a general idea
of the whole building or structure and are useful in preparing the detail estimate.

❖ DETAILED SPECIFICATIONS
These give the detailed description of the various item of work laying down the quantities
and qualities of materials, the proportions, the method of preparation, workmanship and
execution of work. Detailed specification describes every item of work separately, in
detail and are helpful for the execution, of the different items of work.

❖ GENERAL RULES OF MEASUREMENTS

1. Measurement shall be item wise for the finished item of work and description of each
item shall be held to include materials, transport, labour, fabrication, hoisting, tools
and plants, overhead and other incidental charges for finishing the work to the
required shape, size, design and specifications. The nomenclature of each item shall
be fully described so that the work involved in item of self-explanatory.
2. In booking dimension, the order shall be in the subsequence of length breadth and
height or depth or thickness.
3. All the work shall be measured net subject to the following tolerance unless
otherwise stated-
a) Dimensions shall be measured to the nearest 0.01 meter, i.e., 1 cm (1/2”)
b) Area server measure to the nearest 0.01 sq. m (0.1 sq. ft)
c) Cubic content shall be worked up to the nearest 0.01 cu m (0.1 cu ft).
4. Same type of work under different conditions and nature shall be measured
separately under separate items.
5. The bill of quantities self fully describes the materials, proportions and workmanship,
and accurately represent the work to be executed. Work which, by its nature cannot
be accurately taken of or which require little measurements, shall be described as
provisional.
6. In case of structural concrete, brickwork or stone masonry, the work under the
following categories shall be measured separately and height cell be described-
a) from foundation to plinth level
b) from plinth level to first floor level
c) from first floor level to second floor level and so on

❖ PRINCIPLES OF UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

The units of different works depend on their nature, size and shape. In general, the
rules of different item of work are based on following principle: -
1. Mass, voluminous and thick works shall be taken in cubic unit or volume. The
measurement of length, breadth and height or depth cell be taken to compute the
volume of cubic contents (cu m).
2. Shallow, thin and surface work shall be taken in square units or in area. The
measurement of length and breadth or heights shall be taken to compute the area
(sq. m).
3. Long and thin work shall be taken in linear or running unit, and linear measurements
(running meter).
4. Piece work, job work etc..., shall be enumerated i.e., taken in number.

❖ DETAIL SPECIFICATION OF
a) PLASTERING IN 1:6 CEMENT AND SAND MORTAR
 The proportion of cement and sand be as specified 1:6. Cement shall be Portland
cement of standard specifications. Send shall be clean and free from dust, dirt and
organic matters and cell not contain more than 4% silt. Find local sand may be used
which shall pass through screen having 9 meshes under per sq. cm (64 meshes per
sq. in). Fineness modulus of sand shall not be less than 10.
The mixing shall be done first day on a pukka platform and then with water. cement
and sand shall be measured with boxes to have the required proportion, sand spread
out on the platform and the required quantity of cement spread on top of sand and
the whole mixed dry. The dry mixture cell can be found roughly into a hollow concept
and water added slowly and gradually bi a a can and the whole mixed to have a
uniform colour and consistency. Quantity of water should not exceed 30 litres (6gls)
per bag of cement. 1 bag of cement (50kg) shall be taken at 1/30 cu m (12cu ft) and
sand shall be measured with box to have required proportion.
Mixing may also be done by means of mechanical mixer. In this process first about 5
to 10% of water shall be put in mixer and then sand and cement in the required
person shall be added. Mixing will be continued until the mix become uniform in
colour and consistency.
Only such quantity of motor as can be used before setting begin, shall be mixed with
water at one time. No motor which has begun to set shall be used even after
remixing, such set motor shall be immediately removed from the site of Work.

b) WOODEN DOORS AND WINDOWS

Timber shall be kind as specified, may be teak, shisham, Sal, deodar, etc. The timber
shall be of the best quality, well-seasoned and free from knots, cracks and other
defects. All wood works shall be planed and neatly and truly finish to the exact
dimensions. All joints shall be neat and strong, truly and accurately fitted, and glued
before being fitted together.
CHAUKHATS- the chaukhats shall be properly framed and joined by mortise and
tenon joint with hard wooden pins, and the joints shall be coated with white lead
before being fitted together. Concealed faces of chaukhats shall be painted with two
coats of coaltar or solignum and the other phases shall be painted with a prime coat
before fixing in position.
SHUTTERS OR LEAVES (JOINERY)- the shutter maybe panelled, glazed and part
glazed battened or as specified. The thickness of shutters shall be 3-2 cm as
specified. The styles, rail and panels planed and neatly and truly finish to exact
dimensions.
FITTINGS- All door shall be provided with handles on both sides and all window with
the handles on the inner side one of the doors of each room shall be provided with
sliding bolts on the outer side for locking. Necessary Hinges, tower bolt, hook Bolt,
stops for keeping the leaves open and also wooden block to prevent leaves is striking
the jambs of wall etc shall be provided. The fitting maybe of iron, brass or oxidized as
specified of approved quality. Screw shall be of suitable length and correct diameter
and shall be fixed with screw driver and not by hammering.
PAINTING- the surface of shutters and chaukhats shall be painted with two court of
approved paint over a coat of priming.

❖ WHAT IS THE RELEVANCE OF PREPARING DETAILED SPECIFICATIONS? HOW

DOES IT HELP IN MAINTAINING QUALITY OF CONSTRUCTION? PLEASE
ELEBORATE
The detailed specifications form a part of the contract document.
The detailed. specification of an item of work specifies the qualities and quantities of
materials, the proportion of mortar, workmanship, the method of preparation and
execution and the method of measurement.
The specification is so important to the construction process:
 1. It provides clear instructions on the intent, performance and construction of the
project.
2. It can reference the quality and standards which should be applied.
3. Materials and manufacturers products can be clearly defined.
4. The requirements for installation, testing and handover can be identified.
5. Classification in the specification can be used to support handover and running of the
asset.
6. The drawing or model does not need to be overloaded with detailed information,
which can sometimes be difficult to identify.
7. It can be used to support the costing of a project: not only the materials and products
but also the performance and workmanship
8. The specification forms part of the contractual documents, along with the drawings,
and therefore can help minimise project risk and provide support should there be any
legal disputes.
9. It supports the interpretation of the client brief and gives the client assurance that the
asset which they commissioned is being delivered.
10. It is not only essential for the construction phase but also used as part of the soft-
landing process, subsequent asset management and the lifecycle plan.
11. By being clear and concise and containing all the information, it saves the project
team, the client and the contractor time and money by providing answers to many of
the on-site construction questions.
12. There is the option for the design team to build a suite of office masters, which would
improve efficiency, provide quality assurance and project consistency.
13. Office masters can save the team time and money by being developed over a period
of time and then being adapted to suit the project specifics, therefore drawing on
specialist knowledge when needed.
14. The specification should be used by all the project team throughout the construction
phase; it should be a living document and not stop being used at the design phase.
15. The specification and any variations or value engineering can also be used for the
project audit trail and should form part of the handover documents. It will then form
the basis for the running of the asset by the asset management team.

❖ SPECIFICATION OF AN ITEM. WRITE METHOD OF WRITING SPECIFICATIONS

WITH EXAMPLE.
Description of materials: The quality and size of materials required to do an item of work
shall be fully described for checking up at site according to the bindings provided in the
specification. The proportion of mixing or treatment of materials if required before use
shall be clearly described.
Workmanship: Complete description of workmanship, the method of mixing to the
proportion, the method of laying, preparation of base or surface, compaction, finishing
and curing etc. specifically applicable to the item of work shall be clearly stated in
different clauses.
Tools and plants (T.&P.): The tools and plants to be engaged to carry out a work.

❖ WRITE DOWN THE SPECIFICATION FOR FOLLOWING MATRIAL/ ITEM

a) TIMBER FOR FURNITURE
Timber shall be kind as specified, may be teak, shisham, Sal, deodar, etc. The timber
shall be of the best quality, well-seasoned and free from knots, cracks and other
defects. All wood works shall be planed and neatly and truly finish to the exact
dimensions. All joints shall be neat and strong, truly and accurately fitted, and glued
before being fitted together.
 Timber for furniture shall be properly surfaced and joined by nails and adhesive.
Screw shall be of suitable length and correct diameter and shall be fixed with screw
driver and by hammering.
The surface of furniture shall be polished or laminated properly.

b) PROVIDING AND LAYING OF SEWER LINE

c) PROVING AND LAYING OF THE 60mm THICK CONCRETE BLOCKS

Concrete aggregate shall consist of sharp sand or crusher dust, crusher gravel and
other solutions for propping, water penetration and to enable the work in low
temperatures according technical requirements of the project.
Materials
• Concrete elements- Concrete elements shall consist of sharp sand or crusher dust,
or mixture of these, and hard durable crushed locally occurring stone. All aggregates
shall be free from clay and all other impurities. The coarse part of the aggregate shall
be roughly cubical in shape and not spherical. The grading of the aggregate shall
have the certificate of the place where they are taken from.
• Cement The contractor shall supply with each consignment of cement a copy of the
invoice stating the quantity delivered, the maker’s name and also the maker’s
certificate showing that each consignment has been tested and analysed and
conforms to the Standard. The cement shall be subject to such Standard test as the
Engineer may deem necessary and he may reject any cement, which proves
unsatisfactory notwithstanding the maker’s certificate. For more details regarding the
cement type that shall be utilized for concrete production, see 4.1.4, because for
different concrete types shall be utilized different cement types.
• Water for concrete - The water that shall be used for the concrete production
should be free of substances that damage it, such as: acids, alkalis, clays,
lubrificants and other organic substances. In general, the water of population
supplying system (potable water) is recommended for utilization in concrete
production.

The storage of materials that shall be used in concrete production should fulfill the
following conditions:
• The cement and its ingredients should be stored in order to be divided from the other
materials, which are not suitable for concrete production and damaged its quality.
• The cement should be stored in dried spaces which keep it away from water rain
moistening.

d) CENTERING OF ARCHES

e) WOODEN IN TILE FLOORING

Wooden in tile shall have a top layer of not less than 1/4" thickness of the tiles. The conc.
bed shall be same as that for stone flooring above. The tiles shall be soaked in water for least
15 minutes and shall be kept drying for some time. Tiles shall be laid in approved pattern.
They shall be as close as possible so that the joints between the tiles are almost invisible.
After completion of entire floor of an area the surface shall be spread with cement slurry of
same colour as the tiles surface colour. The slurry shall be rubbed in so as to seal the joints
between the tiles. As soon as the slurry in joints is hardened the surface shall be kept under
water for least 7 days. The surface shall be ground smooth with approved type of grinding
machine. The floor shall be kept wet during the grinding process. After second coat of polish
with grinding the surface shall be washed clean with water and shall be soaked in water to
the satisfaction of the unless approved by the Architect.
 f) REINFORCEMENT STEEL
Steel reinforcement are steel bars that are provided in combination with plain cement
concrete to make it reinforced concrete. Hence these structures form steel reinforced
cement concrete structure (R.C.C). Steel reinforcement is commonly called as ‘rebars’.
Plain concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. Tensile property for concrete
structures is obtained by incorporating steel reinforcement. The steel reinforcement is
strong in both tension and compression. The tensile property provided by the steel
reinforcement will prevent and minimize concrete cracks under tension loads.
The coefficient of thermal expansion of steel reinforcement and concrete are similar in that
they undergo similar expansions during temperature changes. This property will ensure that
the concrete is subjected to minimal stress during temperature variations.
The surface of the steel reinforcement bars is patterned to have a proper bond with the
surrounding concrete material.
The two main factors that provide strength to the concrete structures are steel and
concrete. The design engineer will combine both the elements and design the structural
element such a way that the steel resists the induced tensile and shear force, while the
concrete takes up the compressive forces.
Steel reinforcement is a reinforcing choice compared to other reinforcing materials due to its unique
advantages. They are:
1. Compatibility with Concrete: The fresh concrete is placed on the formwork mold
already prepared with reinforcement. The steel reinforcement won’t float in
concrete during the concrete placing procedure. Hence, steel reinforcement does not
demand special tying up with formworks.
2. Robustness of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars are robust in nature that they
have the ability to withstand the rigors, the wear and tear during the construction
activities.
3. Bent Property of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars once manufactured to
standard size, it can be bent to the required specifications. Hence fabricated steel
bars are delivered easily at the site.
4. Recycling Property: The steel reinforced left over after the service life of a
structure is recycled again and used for new construction.
5. Easily Available: Every region of a country will have a steel supplier or
manufacturer. Hence steel reinforcement is easily available.

g) BRICK FOR SUPER STUCTURE

1. Brickwork, all bricks shall be made of good brick earth.
2. Bricks shall be thoroughly burnt, and shall be deep cherry red or copper color.
3. Bricks shall be regular in shape and their edges should be sharp.
4. Bricks shall emit clear ringing sound on being struck.
5. Bricks shall be free from cracks, chips, flaws and lumps of any kind.
6. Bricks shall not absorb water more than one-sixth of their weight after one
hour of soaking by immersing in water.
7. Bricks shall have minimum crushing strength of 105 Kg per Sq. cm. (1500 lbs
per sq. in.)
Mortar shall be specified and materials of mortar shall be of standard
specifications.
1. For cement mortar, cement shall be fresh portland cement of standard
specifications.
2. Sand shall be sharp, clean and free from organic and foreign matters.
3. For rich mortar, coarse or medium sand should be used.
 4. Proportion of cement sand mortar may be of 1:3 to 1:6 as specified.
5. Materials shall be first mixed dry to have a uniform colour in a clean masonry
platform.
6. Then mix mortar by adding clean water slowly and gradually to have
workable consistency and mixed thoroughly by turning at least three times.
7. Only freshly mixed mortar shall be used.
8. Old and stale mortar shall not be used.
9. Mortar for one hour’s work only shall be mixed with water so that the mortar
may be used before setting starts.
10. The brick work shall be kept wet for a period of at least 10 days after laying.
11. At the end of day’s work, tops of wall shall be flooded with water my making small weak
mortar edging to contain at least 25 mm (1 “) deep water.
12. The brickwork shall be protected from the effect of sun, rain, frost etc. during the
constructions and up until such time it is green and likely to be damaged.

h) COARSE AGGREGATE
1. The coarse aggregate is clean, hard, non-porous, free from lumps of clay and
vegetable matter.
2. Water absorption of aggregate is not more than 10 % of its weight after 24 hours
immersion in water.
3. Angular and roughly cubicle particles are ideal. River gravels make the best
coarse aggregate.
4. Aggregate is chemically inert material.
5. Brick aggregate is not used in RCC work.
Coarse Aggregate should not contain any of the following deleterious materials.
• Pyrites
• Coal
• Lignite
• Mica
• Clay
• Alkali
• Soft fragments
• Sea shells
• Shale or similar laminated material
NOTE: The maximum quantity of deleterious materials should not be more than 5%
of the weight of the aggregate