UNIT 3: Thinking, Intelligence and Creativity Thinking:

Meaning-Types of thinking: critical thinking, reflective thinking-

reasoning-problern solving- Meta-Cognition. Role of language in
thinking and learning-Intelligence: meaning, types Theories of
Intelligence: Mono Factor theory, Two Factor Theory, Group
Factor Theory-Structure of Intellect-Multiple Intelligence -
Emotional Intelligence Nature and types of intelligence tests-Uses
of Intelligence Tests Creativity: stages of creativity-Measurement
of Intelligence, creativity-Methods of fostering creativity among
students.

Unit-3: Thinking, Intelligence and Creativity

Thinking, Reasoning and Meta Cognition

Thinking

In remembering we reproduce the memory images. In imagination we

put together various memory images in the form of familiar or new patterns. In
day-dreams memory images run in a fleet, working out various themes or
stories in which we may play a central part. Thinking, however is imagination
directed to a particular purpose of finding out certain relationships between the
memory images with reference to a problem at hand. Memory images form the
raw material for both imagination and thinking.

When imagination is systematised and directed to some purpose, it is

called thinking i.e. thinking is controlled imagination with a purpose. Whenever
there is a problem to be solved, we begin to think. The problem may be a
practical and simple one like how best to arrange the furniture in a room, or a
problem may arise from a curiosity to know how an aeroplane flies. In all these
cases, we begin to think in order to get an answer. In this process we use our
past experiences with the help of memory images and also imagine new
relationships and new ways of combining those images. While thinking, we
imagine various possible alternatives and discard the unnecessary and wrong
ones without actually trying them out. Thus mental manipulation of concepts
and ideas with a view to solve a problem, imagining the possible alternatives
and discarding the unnecessary ones are all involved in the cognitive process
called 'thinking'.
Types of Thinking

Thinking is of two types (i) Thinking with the use of memory images and (ii)
Ideational thinking.

Thinking with the use of Memory Images

Sensation get transformed into a percept and retained in memory as a memory

image. When these memory images are recalled and arranged into different
patterns with reference to a problem in our hand, they constitute the possible
alternative solutions to the problem. When we mentally toss these alternatives,
try and discard the unsuitable ones, we are said to think using memory images.

Ideational Thinking

Here in our thinking, instead of memory images of objects, events etc. we make
use of words denoting concepts and ideas. We combine two or more concepts or
ideas to form a thought regarding the possible solution of the problem in hand.
Then we mentally try out these alternatives and select the most probable one as
the solution. This form of thinking with ideas instead of memory images is
called ideational thinking or abstract thinking. Abstract thinking is superior to
perceptual thinking or thinking with memory images.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking and reflective thinking are often used synonymously. However
there is subtle difference between the two.

According to Halpern (1996) "the use of those cognitive skills or

strategies in thinking that increase the probability of a desirable outcome is
called critical thinking. This kind of thinking is purposeful, reasoned and goal
directed. It uses cognitive skills or strategies like solving problems, formulating
inferences, calculating likelyhoods, making decisions, using skills that are most
effective in a particular context and type of thinking task etc. Critical thinking is
called directed thinking because it focusses on a desired outcome".

Reflective Thinking

Reflective thinking is a part of critical thinking process, referring specifically to

the process of analysing and making judgements about what has happened.
Dewey (1933) suggests that reflective thinking is an active, persistent and
careful consideration of a belief or supported form of knowledge, of the grounds
that support that knowledge and the further conclusions to which that
knowledge leads. Learners are aware of and control their learning by actively
participating in reflective thinkingi.e. assessing what they know, what they need
to know and how they bridge the gap - during learning situations.

In summary, critical thinking involves a wide range of thinking skills leading

towards desirable outcomes andreflective thinking focusses on the process of
making judgements about what has happened. However, reflective thinking is
most important in prompting learning during complex problem-solving
situations because it provides students with an opportunity to step back and
forth to think how a particular set of problem solving strategies is effective and
appropriate for achieving their goal.

Activities that Support Reflective Thinking

 Provide enough wait - time for students to reflect when responding to

inquiries.
 Provide emotionally supportive environments in the classroom
encouraging reevaluation of conclusions.
 Prompt reviews of the learning situation, what is known, what is not yet
known, and what has been learned.
 Provide authentic tasks involving ill-structured data to encourage
reflective thinking during learning activities.
 Prompt students' reflection by asking questions that seek reasons and
evidence.
 Provide some explanations to guide students' thought processes during
explorations.
 Provide a less-structured learning environment that prompts students to
explore what they think is important.
 Provide social-learning environments such as those inherent in peer-
group works and small group activities to allow students to see other
points of view.
 Provide reflective journal to write down students positions, give reasons
to support what they think, show awareness of opposing positions and the
weaknesses of their own positions.

Reasoning
Before attempting to understand "reasoning" the higher level of pragmatic
imagination, we should know about the cognitive process of 'Judging'.

Judging involves combining concepts or ideas to reach a higher level of

understanding of reality. The ideas that are combined may be pertaining to
concrete objects or abstract concepts. For example in the judgement "That hut is
in flames", concepts of objects are combined. But in the statement, Truth always
triumphs' abstract ideas are combined. In this manner when we are combining
ideas (i.e. thinking) If we apply the rules of logic and make judgements, it is
called reasoning. Basically reasoning involves prediction. Good thinking helps
logical reasoning; good reasoning helps the thinking process to be efficient to
reach correct solutions of the problem on hand.

Reasoning is mostly directed towards getting at certain definite

conclusions and inferences. The facts relevant to a particular problem must be
put together and grouped according to logical principles of reasoning.
Reasoning may go wrong if all the relevant data are not taken note of. It may
also go wrong if the data are not properly combined and grouped. Even this is
not sufficient. The laws of logical reasoning must be correctly applied in finding
different relationships that arise from these groupings. The following are
examples of good reasoning.

I. All men are mortal

Socrates is a man
Therefore Socrates is mortal.

II. No man is perfect

All scholars are men
Therefore No scholar is perfect

Examples for wrong reasoning are given under:

III.All poets are learned

Most professors are not poets
ThereforeMost professors are not learned

IV All Negroes are black

Some Hindus are black
Therefore Some Hindus are Negroes
Summing up, we can define reasoning as, "reorganising and combining our
experiences and ideas in new ways using the rules of logic, to judge the correct
solution of the problem which confronts us. So reasoning is a tool in 'problem-
solving'. Reasoning adopts both the inductive and deductive methods in making
judgements.

Reasoning has certain aims which are related to our needs. Reasoning is
not only a tool of problem solving but is also a kind of learning, as in reasoning,
often we have to systematically seek and find information which is relevant to
the solution of the problem on hand. Reasoning ability is correlated with
intelligence and the basic process implied in any intelligent activity. Every one
possesses reasoning ability in some degree or other; the difference being only in
the rate and complexity of the problems solved by individuals.

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning involves the process of comparing and combining the

individual data obtained (or the various experiences acquired) so as to infer
from them a more generalised rule or principle. For example the following
observations are made in different chemical reactions.

i. Dilute Sulphuric acid + Zinc ZincSulphate + Hydrogen gas ↑

ii. Dilute Nitric acid + Copper Cupric Nitrate + Hydrogen gas ↑

iii. Dilute Hydrochloric acid + Silver Silver chloride + Hydrogen gas ↑

From the above three chemical reactions, one can infer inductively the
general principle "All metals react with dilute inorganic acids to liberate
hydrogen". So induction is the process of inferring the unknown from the
known facts.

Deductive Reasoning

A hypothesis or a general principle inferred by inductivereasoning is subjected

to verification in a particular instance to know its truthfulness which is
otherwise called 'deduction'. For example, to establish the validity of the general
principle that "All metals are good conductors of electricity", we can connect a
battery, a small bulb and liquid mercury in series so as to complete the electric
circuit. If the bulb glows, then it proves that electricity passes through mercury.
(which is the only metal in the form of liquid) which validates the stated general
principle. This process of verifying the truthfulness of a general statement by
subjecting it to verification in a particular instance is called deduction.

Thus in scientific method, individual observations are made based on which

hypothesis is formed through induction and subjected to verification through
deduction; if found true the hypothesis is accepted as the solution; if found not
true, the hypothesis is modified and tested again.

Problem - Solving

An individual faces a problem when he finds obstacles in his attempt to

reach a desired goal. If the goal could be reached easily then there is no need for
any reasoning.

John Dewey refers to a problem situation as a 'forked' way situation in which a

person is puzzled as to which road to take to reach his destination. Doubts and
obstacles characterise a problem and we reason to clear the doubts and eliminate
the obstacles.

There is no reasoning without problems. Reasoning originate from a problem.

Seeking new ways, interpretation, choice, 'nsight, criticism and verification as
well as creative imagination are all involved in problem solving. Problem
solving may take place at the perceptual level or at thinking level.

Generally people try the different strategies of solving a problem through trial
and error method. In another approach, the sequential steps in problem solving
are undertaken systematically one after another. This is called 'Algorithm' which
is any problem solving method or strategy that specifies the sequences of all
possible operations that may lead to a solution.

John Dewey has put forward 5 steps in problem solving. These include (i)
Sensing the problem (ii) Collecting and organising data (iii) Formulating
hypotheses (iv) Evaluation and verification and (v) Formulation of a
generalisation leading to further application of the solution to similar problems.

Sensing the Problem

Cognising the problem is the first step in reasoning or problem solving.

There are myriads of problems in the world These do not spark of reasoning so
long as we are not interested in them. Only those problems which affect us
make us reason Even before the time of Newton (and also after his period)
apples used to fall down from the trees. But no one was bothered about it. It was
Newton who only thought why apples are falling down and not moving up? and
immediately it became a problem for him.

Pupils in our schools often refuse to think as they feel the problems posed
during instruction or in their text books are unreal or unrelated to their needs
and interests. Sensitivity to problems depends on one's felt needs, level of
knowledge and experience That is why during the introductory phase of the
lesson we motivate or prepare the students to the concerned lesson by linking it
with pupils' background experience. Any problem should not only be related to
the level of maturity, knowledge and experience of pupils but should also be
stated in clear and well defined terms so that the exact nature could be
understood by them.

Collecting and Organising Data

Accumulation of data needed to formulate a solution to the problem on

hand is the next step in problem solving. Some of the data needed for solving a
problem may already be known to us and we simply recall them. Often we may
need new facts, concepts or principles to effectively deal with the problem and
we seek them out and organise and classify them in an orderly way.

Formulation of Hypotheses

Hypotheses are possible or tentative solutions to a problem and these depend on

our ability to infer relations among the facts in our possession. Insight greatly
helps in formulating verifiable hypotheses. However possession of relevant
facts, persistent analysis and involvement in the problem, continued mental
effort, a scientific outlook free from prejudices etc. will facilitate formulation of
hypotheses.

Verification and Evaluation of Hypotheses

For a problem, there may be many hypotheses. Only one are of them could
possibly a valid solution to the problem. So hypotheses are put into verification,
one after another. The outcome of testing helps us to accept that hypothesis
found to be true and discard others which are not satisfactory solutions to the
problem. A hypothesis proved to be true will be consistent with facts already
accepted as valid and will also be in conformity with new facts spotted.
Application and Generalisation

In the last step, the verified hypothesis is applied to problems in few

related situations to confirm its validity further. It is them generalised to the
extent it serves as a solution to similar problems.

An analysis of these steps makes clear that it involves both Inductive and
deductive inferences. Induction is used in the formulation of hypotheses from
discrete facts and in the stage off generalisation of the verified hypothesis
whereas deduction is the basis for verification of hypothesis.

Illustration:

Galileo observed that air pumps could lift water only up to a height of 33
ft. He bestowed his critical thinking on the fact that why it is not possible to lift
water through air pumps to heights off more than 33 feet. This is the first step of
sensing the problem. This problem was further analysed and on the basis of the
data collected, Pascal came to the conclusion that air pumps work. on the
principle of 'atmospheric pressure and it can balance a water column of only 33
ft.

From the hypothesis of Pascal, Torricellli deduced that if atmospheric

pressure was the reason for air pumps lifting water up to a height of 33 ft. only,
then atmospheric pressure can balance a mercury column of 30 inches alone as
mercury is 13.6 times heavier than water. Torricelli's laboratory experiments
proved his contention right. This finding has been extended and mercury
barometers were discovered. In this illustration though three persons
investigated the problem, the steps involved in their study conform to the five
steps in problem solving.

Training Pupils in 'Critical thinking'

Training children in the art of critical thinking or reasoning will be

effective, limited of course by the natural intellectual endowments of children.
Intelligence is largely inborn and can not be altered much.

Our classrooms are often geared to memorisation and imitation and do not
provide stimulation for reasoning. Certain factors block reasoning, among these
being, (i) poor intelligence (ii) absence of sufficient concepts (iii) wrong
thought habits (iv) limited vocabulary (v) dominant teacher behaviour (vi)
prejudices and (vii) lack of awareness on the part of pupils of the practical
significance of many curricular problems. These blocking factors are to be
understood and those that can be eliminated are to be done away with. The goal
of education is not to impart information but stimulate pupils to think.
Instructional strategies which stress problem solving such as Problem method,
Heurism, Projects and Brain-storming should be made good use of, which will
aid in eliminating such factors as habitual set and functional fixedness which
interfere with reasoning.

Meta-Cognition

Meaning and Definition

Metacognition refers to higher order thinking that involves active control

over the thinking process involved in learning.

"Metacognition" is often simply defined as "thinking about thinking" or

'learning to learn'. Cognitive strategies are used to help achieve a particular goal
while metacognitive strategies are used to ensure that the goal has been reached.

Activities such as planning how to approach a given learning task,

monitoring comprehension and evaluating progress towards the completion of a
task are metacognitive in nature. Because metacognition plays a critical role in
successful learning, it is important for both students and teachers.
Metacognition has been linked with intelligence and it has been shown that
those with greater metacognitive abilities tend to be more successful thinkers.

Elements of Metacognition

The term "Metacognition" is most often associated with John Flavell

(1979). According to Flavell, metacognition consists of both metacognitive
knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation

(i) Metacognitive Knowledge

Metacognitive knowledge involves executive monitoring processes

directed at the acquisition of information about thinking processes. They
involve decisions that help

 to identify the task on which one is currently working,

 to check on current progress of that work,

  to evaluate that progress, and

 to predict what the outcome of that progress will be.

Flavell further divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories:

(a) knowledge of person variables

(b) knowledge of task variables and

(c) knowledge of strategy variables

Stated very briefly, knowledge of person variables refers to knowledge

about how human beings learn and process information, as well as individual
knowledge of one's own learning processes. For example, you may be aware
that your study session will be more productive if you work in the quiet library
than at home where there are many distractions.

Knowledge of task variables include knowledge about the nature of the

task as well as the type of processing demands that will place upon the
individual. For example, you may be aware that it will take more time for you to
read and comprehend a physics text than it would for you to read and
comprehend a Tamil prose text.

(ii) Metacognitive Regulation

This involves the executive regulation processes directed at the regulation and
overseeing of the course of learning. The executive control process consists of

(a) Developing a plan of action

(b) Maintaining / Monitoring of the plan

(c) Evaluating the plan

For example, after reading a paragraph in a text, a learner may question

himself about the concepts discussed in the paragraph. His cognitive goal is to
understand the text. Self- questioning is a common metacognitive
comprehension monitoring strategy. If he finds that he cannot answer his own
questions, or that he does not understand the material discussed, he must then
determine what needs to be done to ensure that he meets the cognitive goal of
understanding the text. He may decide to go back and re-read the paragraph
with the goal of being able to answer the questions he had generated. If, after re-
reading through the text, he can now answer the questions, he may determine
that he understands the material. Thus, the metacognitive strategy of self-
questioning is used to ensure that the cognitive goal of comprehension is met.

Importance of Metacognition

Metacognition enables students to benefit from instruction and influences

the use and maintenance of cognitive strategies. While there are several
approaches to metacognitive instruction, the most effective one involves
providing the learner with both knowledge of cognitive processes and strategies
(to be used as metacognitive knowledge), and experience or practice in using
both cognitive and metacognitive strategies and evaluating the outcomes of their
efforts (develops metacognitive regulation). Simply providing knowledge
without experience or vice versa does not seem to be sufficient for the
development of metacognitive control.

The study of metacognition has provided educational psychologists with

insight about the cognitive processes involved in learning and what
differentiates successful students from their less successful peers. It also holds
several implications for instructional interventions, such as teaching students
how to be more aware of their learning processes and products as well as how to
regulate those processes for more effective learning.
Intelligence and its Measurement

Introduction

The human individual has several points of uniqueness and superiority

over the animals, the most important of which is "Intelligence". Success in
schools and colleges and in one's own profession, social adjustment, possession
of general information etc. are part of the meaning commonly associated with
the concept "Intelligence". Though psychologists have been measuring
intelligence of a person with appreciable degree of reliability but they have not
been able to agree to the nature of intelligence as such. This is primarily due to
the reason that intelligence does not yield for precise measurement as we are
able to measure many of the human characteristics like height, weight, visual
acuity, auditory acuity etc. Nature of intelligence is to be inferred from the way
an intelligent person behaves, the way he thinks, reasons and acts. Intelligence
is to be assessed by judging one's ability to learn, capacity to adapt to new
environments and efficiency to solve problems.

Nature of Intelligence

Psychologists have suggested various points of view regarding the nature

of intelligence. All the definitions can be classified under the following three
groups:

i) Ability for adjustment or adaptation: According to this point of view,

intelligence is the general mental adaptability for new problems and new
situations of life. Thus more intelligent person is one who can more easily and
more extensively vary his behaviour as changing conditions demand.

ii) Ability to learn: This view point emphasizes the ability to learn i.e. one's
intelligence is a matter of the extent to which he is educable. The more
intelligent a person, the more readily and extensively he is able to learn and
enlarge his field of activities and experiences.

iii) Ability to carry on abstract thinking: Here emphasis is laid on the

effective use of concepts and symbols in dealing with situations, especially
presenting, a problem to be solved through the use of verbal and numerical
symbols.

The three categories of definitions of intelligence stated above are not

exclusive of each other but are inclusive and interdependent on each other. No
doubt, on the surface these categories appear quite different; but on critical
examination it could be found that learning ability is the basic requisite
condition for the other two aspects of intelligence.

Definitions of Intelligence

1. Studdard speaks of intelligence, as the " ability to start and sustain, in spite
of emotional interferences, activities that are difficult, novel and useful in an
economical manner".

2. A very comprehensive and widely accepted definition of intelligence has

been given by Wechsler, which states "Intelligence is the aggregate or global
capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal
effectively with the environment". This definition encompasses all the three
major viewpoints which regard intelligence as-

i) adjustment or adaptation ability

ii) ability to learn

iii) ability to carry on abstract thinking

3. Alfred Binet considers intelligence as involving such abilities as,

"understanding, originality, persistence and self- criticism".

Characteristic of an Intelligent Person

An Intelligent person is one who,

i) learns fast and with ease.

ii) displays good adjustment in behaviour and has the capacity to solve the
problems he encounters.

iii) is capable of successfully completing even difficult and complex tasks with
high efficiency and that too economically.

iv) adjust his behaviour according to the demands of the goals which he seeks to
attain.

v) generally acts in pursuit of the welfare of the society

 vi) does not get easily carried away by emotions th doses his attention and
efforts on the task in hand by mobilising all his energy and resources at his
command.

vii) is capable of handling any trying situation and win over it

viil) has the ability to analyse any problem thoroughly

ix) knows the knack of getting along with others and bring them around his
point of view.

x.)British psychologists point out the following two essential behavioural

aspects exhibited by Intelligent persons:

a) Perceive the appropriate relations that exist among objects or ideas.

b) Apply the relations so perceived to new situations in life.

Theories of Intelligence

There are many views regarding what constitutes "Intelligence". The

different viewpoints expressed by psychologists regarding the structure and
functioning of Intelligence go by the name theories of intelligence. Important
among them are presented below:

Unitary Theory or Monarchic Theory

This theory holds that intelligence consists of all pervasive capacity.

Binet, Terman and some other classical psychologists supported this view.
According to this theory, if one has a fund of intelligence he can utilise it to any
area of his life, the intelligence of a person gets stamped in all what he thinks
and acts. But in qur practical life we see contrary to this. A genial mathematical
professor may be absent minded or socially ill-adjusted. Further analysis of
scores in an intelligence test battery shows that different tests in the battery are
not highly correlated. Hence it is suggested that the unifactor approach is too
simple and a complex model is needed to explain intelligence satisfactorily.

Spearman's Two-factor Theory

 Spearman proposed his two-factor theory of intelligence in 1904. The
first factor was a general capacity which was basically a reasoning factor.
According to this theory every different mental ability involves a general factor
(G), which it shares with all other mental activities and a specific factor (S),
which it shares with none. 'G' factor is largely innate and accounts for success in
all activities. It is constant in the sense that for any individual it remains the
same of all the correlated activities. It differs from individual to individual. But
success in any specialised field very much depends on the concernèd specific
factor which is essentially learnt. Thus no person is absolutely uniform in his
mental performance. So persons who are good in natural sciences are poor in
social sciences. Some who excel in mathematics are poor in language. Thus,
performance in any situation is predicted by the amount of share of 'G'and 'S'in
different intellect activities. This can be represented as follows:

G: General Factor (approximates to 'common sense)

S: Specific Factors

Implications of Spearman's Theory on Test Construction

An intelligence test, conforming to this theory would be one whose

materials are several parts saturated with the general factor, so that
measurement would cause the testee's level and quality of 'G' to emerge, while
the effects of specific factor 'S would be cancelled out. Thus, the net result of
the test would be a measure of 'G'. Usually such tests as word meaning,
sentence completion, arithmetic, reasoning by analogy and perceived
relationships in geometric form are included as components of a test to measure
general intelligence.

Thorndike's Multifactor Theory

Thorndike was an associationist and he opposed the theory of general

intelligence (Unifactor theory). He proposed that there are specific stimuli and
specific response. Intelligence to him is nothing more than a convenient name
for almost infinite number of actual or potential specific connections between
these stimuli and responses. Differences in intelligence among people are due to
the number of connections in the neurological system. According to the theory,
intelligence is said to be constituted of a multitude of separate factors or
elements, each being a minute element or ability (and hence this theory is
known as atomistic theory of intelligence). A mental act according to this theory
involves a number of these minute elements operating together. If any two tasks
are correlated, the degree of correlation is due to the common elements involved
in the two tasks.

Thorndike distinguished four attributes of intelligence. They are:

a) Level: This refers to the difficulty of a task that can be solved. If we think of
all test items arranged in a sequential order of increasing difficulty, then the
height that we can ascend on this ladder of difficulty determine our level or
attitude of intelligence.

b) Range: This refers to the number of tasks at any given degree of difficulty
that we can solve. Theoretically an individual possessing a given level of
intelligence should be able to solve the whole range of tasks at that level.
'Range' is determined not only by 'level' but also by the breadth of experience
and byopportunity to learn. In intelligence tests, range is represented by items of
equal difficulty.

c) Area: It refers to the total number of situations at each level to which the
individual is able to respond. Area is the summation of all the ranges at each
level of intelligence processed by an individual.

d) Speed: This is the rapidity with which an individual can respond to

items. Speed and attitude are positively related. Speed is much closely bound
up with attitude than are the other attributes. We should not, therefore
emphasize speed too much in our intelligence tests.

Every intelligence test consists these four attributes. When we test a

person, we give him certain number of tasks (area) and these tasks vary in
difficulty (level) and there are certain number of items at each level of difficulty
(range) and they are responded in a given time (speed ). Emphasis on these four
attributes varies from test to test.

Thurstone's Group-factor Theory

Group factor theory has been advocated by Thurstone and his associates.
According to the group factor theory, intelligent activity is not an expression of
innumerable highly specific factors as Thorndike claimed. Nor is it the
expression primarily of a general factor as Spearman held. Instead, the analysis
and interpretations of Thurstone and others, led them to the conclusion that
certain mental operations have in common a 'primary'factor, which gives them
psychological and functional unity and which differentiates them from other
mental operations. These mental operations, then, constitute a group. A second
group of mental operations, has its own unifying 'primary factor'; a third group
has a third, and so on. Each of these primary factors is said to be relatively
independent of others. From further analysis, Thurstone and his colleagues
concluded that seven Primary Mental Abilities (PMA) emerged clearly enough
for identification andused in test design. They are:

1. Space visualisation: The ability to visualing geometric pattern in space,

2. Perceptual speed: Quick and accurate noting of details..

3. Numerical ability: Quickness and accuracy in simple arithmetic operations.

4. Verbal comprehension: Knowledge of meaning and relationship of words.

5. Word fluency: Ability to think and use many isolated words at a rapid rate.

6. Rote memory: Immediate recall of materials learned.

7. Reasoning: Ability to see relationships in situations described in symbols.

Contributions of Thurstone's Theory of Intelligence

Important contributions of Thurstone's theory of intelligence are:

 a) More clearly specified and defined test categories and type of test items to be
included, emerged.

b) Several test batteries have been constructed on the basis of group factor
theory.

c) On the basis of the findings of this theory H.E. Garret has postulated a
developmental theory of intelligence in which he argues that with increasing
age, abilities differentiate out of general abstract intelligence into relatively
independent factors.

Guilford's Structure of Intellect

Structure of Intellect model is the result of factor analysis conducted by

Guilford and his associates in the psychology laboratory at the University of
South California in 1966. Guilfordsuggests that mind is composed of atleast
three major dimensions- Process of operation, material or content, and product.

1. Six Operations: (i) Cognition; (ii) Memory recording: (iii) Memory

retention; (iv) Divergent thinking; (v) Convergent thinking; (vi) Evaluation.

II. Five Contents: (i) Visual content; (ii) Auditory content; (iii) Symbolic
content; (iv) Semantic content; and (v) Behavioural content.

III. Six Products: (i) Units; (ii) Classes; (iii) Relations; (iv) Systems; (iv)
Transformations; and (vi) Implications.

GUILFORD'S S.I. MODEL

Explanation of the different components of intelligence

1. Six Operations:

i) Cognition: This involves immediate discovery. rediscovery, awareness,

comprehension and understanding.

ii) Memory Recording: It is the most important Medamental operation in

learning process. It means retention of what is recognised for a short duration
(Short term memory)

iii) Memory Retention : It refers to the retention of what is recognised for a

long period of time (long term memory)

iv) Convergent Thinking: Generation of information from the given data

where the emphasis is on conventionally accepted best outcomes.
 v) Divergent Thinking: It refers to thinking in different directions, searching
and seeking some variety and novelty. Divergent thinking is closely associated
with creativity.

vi) Evaluation: In this, we reach conclusions and decisions as the goodness,

correctness, adequacy and desirability of information.

II. Five Contents

i) Visual content: It is a concrete material which has been perceived through

ideas

ii) Auditory content: It is a matter or information perceived through ears.

iii) Symbolic content: It is composed of letters, digits or other conventional

signs usually organised in general patterns.

iv) Semantic content: It is in the form of clear cut verbal meanings or ideas for
which no examples are necessary i.e. self-explanatory.

v) Behavioural content: Social intelligence which enables one to understand

human communications.

III) Six Products

1) Units: This is similar to gestalt psychology of figure and ground; relatively

segregated items.

ii) Classes: Conceptions underlying sets of information grouped by virtue of

their common properties.

iii) Relations: Connections between items of information based on variables.

Relational connections are more meaningful and definable.

iv) Systems: This is an aggregate of items of information with a structure.

v) Transformation: Changes like redefinition, modification in existing

information or its function.

vi) Implications: This is concerned with the explorations of information in the

form of expectancies, predictions and consequences.
 Thus, according to Guilford, there can be only 180 different mental abilities, as
a result of 6 processes operating on any one of the 5 contents to produce any
one of the 6 products (6 X 5 X 6 = 180).

Guilford would not agree to the idea of some fixed amount of

intelligence. Instead he claims that development of intellectual skill as in any
other skill depends on practice. Unlike others, Guilford is concerned with the
social behaviour of the individual in addition to academic success. Therefore he
devised some tests of social sensibility. He takes into account inter-personal
skills. He refers to the dynamic cluster of skills which can always be improved.

Educational Implications of 'Structure of Intellect' Model

Teacher may find this model useful in identifying and defining specific
learning outcomes. Those elements relating to convergent and divergent
thinking have stimulated considerable interest and investigation. High divergent
thinking people are high in creativityand produce new forms of responses. High
I.Q. people try to focus on socially acceptable responses.

Howard Gardner - The Theory of Multiple Intelligence

Prof. Howard Gardner of Harward University of U.S.A. in his book

"Framer of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligence" has listed eight types of
intelligence. According to him, intelligence as measured at present through the
use of intelligence tests, is narrowly conceived. Human intelligence is really
broad based and of many kinds. Therefore attempting to assess such a wide
range of mental abilities by the use of a single measure called I.Q. is akin to
caging an elephant in a glass bottle. Keeping in mind the different kinds of
human mental abilities, he propsed an eightfold intelligence, a brief description
of which is presented below:

(i) Linguistic Intelligence: This represents the verbal ability of an individual.

ii) Logical mathematical Intelligence: Logical reasoning and numerical

skills are included in this category of intelligence. The intelligence test which
are presently in use to assessthe I.Q. of individuals attempt to measure the
above two categories of mental abilities only.

(iii) Spatial Intelligence: This type of intelligence is largely displayed by

sculptors, engineers, architects,draughtsmen, experts in drawing and painting
etc.
(iv) Kinesthetic Intelligence: This type of intelligence is displayed by
Surgeons, dancers, sportsmen, Therapists etc.

(v) Musical Intelligence: Musicians, muscicologists, and instrumental players

like violinist, guitarist, pianoist etc. require this type of intelligence to a greater
degree.

(vi) Interpersonal Intelligence: This type of intelligence is highly important

for those who mingle and deal with the public like Politicians, Salesmen, Public
Relations officers,Receptionists, Business Executives eto, requiring the skill to
persuade and win over people.

(vii) Intra-personal Intelligence: This type of mental abilities are exhibited

by planners and strategists.

(viii) Naturalist Intelligence: This category of intelligence is meant for Poets,

Horticulturalists, Environmentalists, Planners who undertake projects of
environmental cleanliness and Ecologists.

According to Gardner, our present school system gives importance to

promote the first two categories of intelligence (Verbal and Numerical ability,
Logical reasoning) only. It should take equal interest in developing other types
of intelligence too in pupils so that experts in fine arts like music, dance,
drawing and painting etc. renouned Surgeons, Designers, Therapists,
Sportsmen, Business Executives etc. could emerge in the society.
Unfortunately, our system of education instead of identifying and fostering such
special talents in children, lables them as those with 'learning disability' and
dumps them to discard.

Those who have exceptional skills in other fields, do not get due care and
recognition in our educational institutions for the simple reason that they lag
behind others in their verbal and numerical abilities. Gardner's Theory of
Multiple Intelligence insists on bringing revolutionary changes in the
instructional system. Classroom instructional activities should become manifold
and multimodal.

They should include multimedia learning, graphical representations, field

trips, self- reflections, team projects, dramatisation, music etc. Then only each
student in the class can learn using those categories of activities appropriate to
the type of intelligence dominant in him/her. Learning becomes optimal and
joyful only if learner's potentials are exploited in the process of imparting
instruction. Today Gardner's Theory of Intelligence is becoming quite popular
among the educationalists, psychologists and philosophers all over the world.

Emotional Intelligence (E.I)

1Meaning and Definition of E.I.

1. Jack Mayor and Peter Salovey have been the leading researchers in emotional
intelligence since 1990. They defined E.I. as "the subset of social intelligence
that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others feelings and emotions,
to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking
and actions".

2. S.Hein (June, 2005) defined emotional intelligence as "the innate potential to

feel, use, communicane recognize, remember, learn from, manage and
understand emotions.

3. Lea Brovedani, defined E.I. as, "being able to recognise, name and
appropriately deal with emotions that we feel and experience. We may all feel
anger emotional intelligence is knowing what to do with the emotion of anger to
achieve the best possible outcome.

Summing up it could be stated that E.l. is the ability to sense and use emotions
to more effectively manage ourselves ant influence positive outcomes in our
relationship with others.

2Applying the Definition of E.I. to a Baby

As a practical example of emotional intelligence, and 10 see how even one

baby's innate level of emotional intelligence can be different than another's, let
us look at a baby's feeling of fear.

Fear, of course, is a natural feeling. Its purpose, as designed by nature, is to

help the baby survive. A baby has a natural fear of abandonment because the
baby knows its life depends on others. When it is left alone, it feels afraid. A
baby is also afraid of being separated from its parents; so if a strangertries to
take the baby away from them, it is natural for the baby to feel afraid. But not
all babies respond to fear in exactly the same way. Let us consider a baby's fear
as we look at each of the components of emotional intelligence.
 1. Feeling afraid is the first step in the baby trying to meet its survival needs. If
it does not feel afraid it cannot take the steps needed to ensure its own safety
and survival.

2. A frightened baby uses its fear to take needed action

3. This action is typically crying or screaming, when very afraid. A more

emotionally intelligent baby do a better job of communicating its fear, and thus
will have a higher chance of survival.

4. A baby with higher emotional intelligence will quickly learn to recognize

when the mother or father is angry.

5. The highly emotional intelligent baby will remember the details of how the
mother and father look when they are angry, how their voices sound and what
movements they make.

6. The highly emotional intelligent baby will quickly learn when it does
something which angers the parents.

7. A baby with high E.I. will more quickly learn to manage its own emotions so
as not to anger the parents; in the example, it will learn not to cry, even though
crying is natural, if crying angers the parent.

Characteristics of E.I.

1) It is an innate potential

ii) It depends on the ability to feal emotions

iii) It includes the ability to remember feelings

iv) Each baby is born with a certain, unique potential for emotional sensitivity,
emotional memory, emotional processing and emotional learning ability. The
way we are raised dramatically affects what happens to our potential in each of
these areas. For example a baby might be born with very high potential for
music, but if that child's potential is never recognised, nurtured and encouraged
to develop, then it will never become a talented musician later in life. Also, a
child being raised in emotionally abusive home can be expected to use its
emotional potential in unhealthy ways later in life.

Components of E.I.
 The capabilities that constitute emotional intelligence as advocated by
Jack Mayer and Peter Salovey are as follows:

1) Emotional Appraisal and Expression of Emotion

It includes

i) the capacity for self-awareness: being aware of one's own feelings and
emotions as they are occuring.

ii) the ability to perceive and identify emotions in other peopie, designs, art
work etc. through language, tone of voice, appearance and behaviour.

iii) the capacity for emotional literacy: being able to label specific feelings in
one's own self and others; being able to discuss emotions and communicate
clearly and directly.

2) Emotional Facilitation of Thinking

It consists of

i) the ability to incorporate feelings into analysis, reasoning, problem solving

and decision making

ii) the potential of one's own feeling to guide to, what is important to think.

3) Understanding and Analysing Emotions Employing Emotional

knowledge

This potential capacity consists of

i)the ability to solve emotional problems

ii) the ability to identify and understand the interelationships between emotions,
thoughts and behaviour. For example, to see the cause and effect relationships
such as how thoughts can affect emotions or how emotions can affect thoughts
and how one's emotions can lead to the behaviour in himself and others

iii) the ability to understand the value of emotions to the survival of the species

4) Regulation of Emotion to Promote Emotional and Intellectual Growth

It includes

i) the ability to take responsibility for one's own emotions and happiness
 ii) the ability to turn negative emotions into positive learning and growing
opportunities

iii) the ability to help others identify and benefit from their emotions.

Importance of the Development of E.I.

Just as cognitive intelligence if fostered can produce brilliant individuals

who undertake researches to unravel the secrets of nature and tap its bountyful
resources for the welfare of humanity, similarly if E.I. is fostered in individuals,
we can produce eminent people in poetry and fine arts like music, sculpture,
drawing, painting, dance, drama etc. By development of E.I. man becomes
highly gentle and cultured in his behaviour, devoid of violence and crime.

Measurement of Intelligence

Difficulty in Measuring Intelligence

Measurement of intelligence is not possible in the same way as we

measure the length of a table or the temperature of boiling water, since
intelligence is not a concrete thing. It is only an idea and abstraction and
therefore its direct measurement is not possible, Intelligence tests do not
measure intellectual capacity in action or behaviour. It is believed that every
human action has some intelligence behind it. The level of intelligence an
individual has is measured by (i) the difficulty of the task he can perform; (ii)
the range of tasks he can perform: and (iii) the speed with which he does.

To quote Samdiford, "the harder the task a person can perform, the
greater is his intelligence. Secondly, more of tasks that an individual can do, the
more intelligence he has, and thirdly, the quicker the response of an individual
to the given task, the greater his intelligence is".

Historical Development of Intelligence Tests

The establishment of the first psychological laboratory in 1879 by

Wilhelm Wundt gave an impetus to the devising of tests to measure certain
aspects of intelligent activity. Francis Galton the famous English mathematician
and psychologist, could perhaps be credited with having devised a test battery
for the first time for assessing intelligence. This included measurement of head
size, reaction time, visual acuity, memory of visual forms, breathing capacity
and strength of hand grip. Galton thought superior intelligence was
accompanied by superior physical vigour. However, the tests were not useful.
Similarly, J.M. Cattell published a book in 1890 in U.S.A. on testing mental
abilities in which he had codified principles of such testing and had listed
certain perceptual tests, reaction time tests, speed of movement tests, etc. for
measuring one's intelligence. Ebbinghaus devised in 1897 certain completion
type (filling up the blanks in a story outline with suitable words) for measuring
certain intellectual functions. But the real credit for constructing practically
viable tests for measuring intelligence in specific quantitative terms goes to the
French Psychologist, Alfred Binet, who with the collaboration of Theodore
Simon produced in 1905, the "Binet- Simon Scale of Intelligence".

Types of Intelligence Tests

Intelligence tests could be classified as under:

Individual and Group Tests

Individual tests of intelligence can be used to test only one subject at a

time. If many are to be tested, each has to be done so separately and
individually resulting in enormous expenditure of time and energy. Such
individual tests may also penalise the bright but shy and nervous children who
do not display their best when directly facing the tester. To get over these
obviouslimitations of individual testing, group tests of intelligence were
developed.

The first group tests developed were Army Alpha Test (for those who
knew the English language) and Army Beta Test (for those who are not versed
in English and consisting of digits and diagrams). These group tests are paper
and pencil tests and there is a time limit for completing the test. It was believed
that one who could comprehend correctly and complete quickly the tasks set by
the test items had great intelligence than one who could not so well. Army beta
group test does not involve language.

Subjects are required to respond to each item just by putting a mark next
to the appropriate picture or diagram. Following the army group tests of
intelligence, many standardised group tests of intelligence like the Stanford-
Binet tests of Terman, Otis group tests of intelligence, Kuhlman-Anderson
group tests, etc. have been developed. Group tests of intelligence contain a
variety of items of which the following are sample types - vocabulary items.
word analogies items, sentence completion items, tests of mathematical
reasoning, number series, classification, following directions, picture
arrangement tests, memory for designs. absurditiestest, common sense tests,
digit-symbol substitution tests, paper and pencil mazes, etc. Some of these are
symbolie and pictorial items and others are verbal and abstract items. For the
younger age groups test items often make much use of objects pictures and
concrete items and as age increases words and abstractions become more
stressed.

Advantages of Group Tests of Intelligence

1) As many can be tested at the same time, they are economical.

2) They permit shy and socially withdrawn subjects to display their best in test
situations.

3) Administration of group tests is also comparatively easy. Stencil scoring as

well as mechanical devices help in quick and accurate scoring of large number
of test papers in a very short time.

Limitations of Group Teate of Intelligence

1) They are not of much use in attempting an indepth study of a single person's
intelligence.

2) Paper and pencil group test often resemble class or school examinations and
children who have developed negative attitude towards examinations may
transfer such attitudes to mental tests

3.) Group tests have a time limit and hence bring pressure of time and tension
on the testees.
4) Children who have reading difficulties may have problems in comprehending
what is expected of them in such teats and their scores may be lower than what
they should really be.

Group tests of intelligence are useful when the intelligence of many

persons has to be roughly measured for some practical purpose in a short period
of time available.

Verbal and Performance Tests

The early tests of intelligence were verbal or linguistic in nature. So to

take such teats, knowledge of language of the Imatis necessary. The verbal tests
of intelligence have certain disadvantages Some may give wrong responses not
because they lack sufficient intelligence but because of misunderstanding of the
language items in such tests. Similarly those whose mental abilities are not
higher but who have language proficiency may score high in verbal tests. Also
linguistic tests of intelligence cannot be applied to test the abrities of those who
do not know the language, very young children, tribal or aboriginals and those
with sensory handicaps. To get over these limitations performance tests of
intelligence were devised. (Performance tests are non-verbal; but all non- verbal
tests need not be performance tests). Non-verbal tests such as matrices, mazes,
eto, do not use words but use symbols and diagrams and other perceptual
designs; whereas performance tests of intelligence make use of concrete objects
with which the subject has to do something.

Performance tests of intelligence assess the behaviour arising out of

intelligence and involve doing certain standardised tasks using ordinary
materials like cubes, beads, etc, with which one is familiar. Tests devised by
Pinter and Patterson, Collins and Draver, and Bhatia (for Indian children) are
some popular performance tests of intelligence. Bhatia's tests of intelligence
includes: (i) Koh's Block Design test (ii) Alexander's Pass Along test (iii)
Pattern-Drawing test (iv) Immediate Memory test for digits and (v) Picture
construction test. In estimating the mental level of performance, the time taken
to complete the assigned task as well as the errors committed in the course of
performance are taken into account and the M.A. arrived at from the table of
norms provided with the test battery.

Limitations of Performance Tests

 1) Administering and interpreting performance tests of intelligence requires
specially trained personnel.

2) There appears to be little positive correlation between one's score in verbal

and in performance tests of intelligence and so performance tests are not as
reliable as verbal tests nor should they be used as substitutes for verbal tests.
They should be used only when verbal or perceptual non-linguistic tests cannot
be used.

3) They cannot predict scholastic achievement.

4) Performance test materials are costly.

5) Many factors other than intelligence seem to help success in performance

tests.

6) Performance tests cannot be used as group tests.

7) Many materials used in performance tests of intelligence appear similar to

the sophisticated toys with which children from higher socio-economic groups
may be familiar and such children due to familiarity with material may score
high though they may not really have such high mental ability.

Uses of Intelligence Tests

1) Intelligence tests help in providing educational and vocational guidance.

2) They give the most valuable objective information

regarding level and quality of mental abilities of children.

3) They help in classifying students into homogeneous groups of ability or

performance.

4) They help in diagnosing the causes for back- wardness.

5) They help in predicting future progress.

6) They are useful in selecting individuals for different jobs.

7) They are used in research in Psychology and Education.

8) They are used in clinics and mental hospitals in order to record the
effectiveness of the treatment.
Limitations of Intelligence Tests

1) It is really difficult to say that intelligence tests have cent per cent validity
and they measure only native mental capacity.

2) Socio-cultural differences, lack of interest or coaching, test unreliability and

many other factors make us careful in not fully accepting the computed I.Q. as a
true indication of pupil's mental worth.

3) Intelligence tests are also culture-specific and not completely culture-fair.

4) Intelligence tests cannot use scales which have a known zero point and equal
intervals. Therefore a person who does not answer any item correctly in an
intelligence test is not necessarily totally lacking in intelligence. Similarly a
derived score of 140 does not represent twice the intelligence of a derived score
of 70; it simply represents more intelligence.

5) Measured I.Qs. are affected by, testing climate, familiarity of the individual
with test items, emotional interference, etc.

Culture-Fair Tests

In should be remembered that most of the intelligence tests are culture

specific and the items often favour socio-economic groups which the test
conductor is linked. This bias may not be conscious but is there. Matters taken
for granted in one culture cannot be taken for granted in another culture; this
applies equally to deprived sub-cultures within more advanced cultures in the
same society. Further, mental tests emphasize speed and in non-competitive
cultures, speed is not valued as much as slowness. It is for this reason that what
are known as "culture free" or "culture fair" tests of intelligence are attempted to
be constructed now. Certain tests devised by Cattell which consists of items of
classification, completion of series, matrices and spatial perception and the
progressive matrices of Ravan (it consists of figures and designs; the subject
apprehends relationship between figures and selects appropriate part for
completion of each pattern of system of relations) appear to be culture-free and
applicable to children of different cultures as well as socio-economic levels.

Creativity

Introduction
 Terms like creativity, Innovativeness etc. are now widely used in the
field of education. Recent emphasis on creativity appears to stern from two vital
issues. There seems to be widespread attempts in many countries in the world to
stifle originality and independence in thinking and facilitate brain washing and
indoctrination. Development of creativity appears to be the alternative in this
sordid state of human affairs. Further, new ideas, processes and inventions have
become absolutely necessary for the continued development of science and
technology. For this, creativity forms the basis. The outcome of creative
thinking is "novelty" and "Innovativeness". Search for alternative fuel which is
to be cheap and reusable, producing artificial human organs, cloning in different
plants and animals etc. are all creative efforts of man.

Meaning of 'Creativity'

Creativity is the capacity of the individual to discover or produce new

ideas. It may also include restructuring or rearranging the old idea. The only
precaution for renaming an expression as creative is that it should not be a mere
repetition or reproduction of what has already been experienced or learned.

Ausubel defines creativity as "a rare capacity for developing insights,

sensitivities and appreciations in a circumscribed content area of
intellectual or artistic activities".

Torrance speaks of creativity as a mental process of seeing or creating

most unforeseen and novel relationships between two or more things or ideas.
In fact according to Torrance two stages are involved in this process

(i) to shake and throw things together, and to discriminate from a variety of
different possibilities and

(ii) to synthesize and bring together elements in a new and original ways.

Bruner states that all forms of creativity grow out of a combinational activity, a
placing of thing in new perspective.

Drevdahl defines creativity as the capacity of a person to produce compositions,

products or ideas which are essentially new or novel and previously unknown to
the producer.

In the words of C.R. Rogers "Creative process is the emergence in action

of a novel relation or product, growing out of the uniqueness of the individual
on the one hand, and the materials, events, people or circumstances of his life
on the other".

Characteristics (Nature) of Creativity

1. The end product of creative thinking should be something tangible such as a

poem, a piece of music, a scientific theory or a new mechanical or electrical
contrivance.

2. Everyone possesses creative powers to some degree.

3. Although creative abilities are natural endowments, yet they are capable of
being nourished or nurtured by training or education.

4. Any creative expression is a source of joy and satisfaction to the creator.

There is perfect individuality in one's creative expression.

5. The creator is the person who is able to make ego involved statements like 'It
is my idea', 'I have solved the problem', etc. In creative expression, there is
complete ego involvement.

6. Creativity involves divergent thinking, having freedom for multiplicity of

responses, choices and lines of action. By travelling on the routine, beaten track
one cannot create but only reproduce or repeat.

7. The field of creative expression is very wide. It covers all the aspects of
human accomplishments like scientific inventions and discoveries, composing
of poems, writing of stories and dramas and good performance in the field of
dance, music, painting, sculpture, political and social leadership, business,
teaching and other professions.

8. The important components of creativity as identified by J.P. Guilford and

Torrance are: i) ideational fluency; ii) originality iii) flexibility; iv) divergent
thinking; v) persistence; vi) self-confidence; vii) sensitiveness; and viii) ability
to see relationships and make associations.

Dimensions of Creativity

According to Guilford and Torrance, Creativity has the following

dimensions

 Spontaneous flexibility (ability or disposition to produce a great variety

of ideas, freedom from inertia).
  Fluency (this aspect is quantitative in nature which is related with fertility
of ideas).
 Sensitivity to problems (seeing defects, needs, deficiencies, seeing the
odd or the unusual).
 Originality (calls for remote associations or relationships; remote either in
time or in logical sense).
 Elaboration (ability to work out the details of a plan, idea or outline).
 Redefinition (ability to define or perceive in a way different from the
usual established or intended way or uses)

Stages in the Creative Process

Graham Wallas and Patrick (independently) have indicated four stages

of creativity. They are preparation, incubation, illumination and verification
(and revision if needed).

1.Preparation : In the preparation stage, the problem is defined and explained.

It means orientation with the problem and involves purposeful study, discussion
with others and acquisition of facts. Relevant facts and materials considered
essential are gathered. The plan of action is formulated. Creative work is largely
work of diligence and industry. Perspiration, rather than inspiration is proper
preparation. No painter, poet, scientist or novelist has reached great eminence
overnight and almost every creative thinker reports that he worked laboriously
during his early days.

2.Incubation: This stage is characterised by overt behaviour. During this

stage one can make rest or sleep or do even some other problem. Just as nothing
is added to the egg but only it is kept warm, so during the period of incubation
no new knowledge or experience is added to the existing stock. During this
stage there is no external disturbance. It is common experience that we
sometimes forget an important name. If recalling is postponed, later on it comes
to our mind. Hurry and compulsion are fatal to creativity. In incubation, the
mind is relaxed. If incubation is hastened it will result in abortion.

3.Illumination: Incubation leads to illumination, During this stage, there is the

sudden appearance of the solution to the problem. In the case of the
chimpanzees in Kohler's experiment, there was the sudden dawn of insight,
resulting in the connection of the sticks with the fruit. So illumination implies
insight. Illumination may occur any time, even during dreams.
4.Verification: Then comes the final stage, that of verification. During this
stage, we determine whether the solution is the correct one or not; sometimes
the solution needs some modification. This is the evaluation of the solution of
the problem. Then in the light of the results of verification or testing, revision is
made till the solution is workable. These stages should not be considered as
rigid and fixed. One may get the illumination without passing through
incubation. In certain cases, the cycle has to be repeated till they get at the
solution. Creativity as a natural endowment needs stimulation and nourishment.

Identification of the Creative Children

The term 'creativity' cannot be used synonymously with giftedness.

Creativity in all its shapes and forms is the highest expression of giftedness that
may or may not be found in a particular gifted child. Creative children could be
identified by employing any of the two approaches:

i. Making use of tests of creativity,

ii. Making use of non-testing devices like observation, interview, rating scale,
personality inventory, check lists, etc.

Fostering Creativity among Children

Creativity is an attribute that leads to solving problem in new ways;

therefore, the educational objectives, the methodology of learning and
stimulating environment and the evaluative techniques, all have to be
reconstructed so that the creative abilities of students may be developed. The
following are the blocks to creative thinking, which have to be removed:

a. high standards of achievement for low levels of work

such as routine skills of unimportant material;

b. inflexibility of assignments and methods of work;

c. over-emphasis on school marks; and

d. the authoritarian teacher.

Gallagher makes the following suggestions for the development of creativity of

pupils:

i. organise the curriculum primarily on the basis of concepts rather than facts;
ii. allow more individual assignments under competent supervision;

iii. bring the students in contact with the best talent and knowledge available
from the teaching staff;

iv. follow the general philosophy that truth is something to be sought for rather
than revealed;

v. provide inservice teacher education for more competence in both subject

mastery and method of teaching.

Torrance suggests five steps for fostering creativity among pupils:

1. Be respectful of unusual questions.

2. Be respectful to imaginative unusual ideas.

3. Show your pupil that their ideas have value.

4. Occasionally pupils do something for practice without the threat of

evaluation.

5. Evaluate with causes and consequences. Instead of saying, "this is good" and
"that is bad", point out the consequences that this and that lead to and children
evaluate the goodness or badness of various results.

Bruner as well as Suchman suggest the use of discovery and inquiry

methods in teaching in order to foster creativity among children.

Wallach and Nathan Kogan believe that the gamelike, relaxed, untimed
and evaluative situation is necessary for the fullest expression of creativity.

Demos and Gowan held that instructor's role in furthering the student's
creativity is a protective and nurturing one and appears to consist of the
following steps or phases.

1. Inspiration : Inspire the student to learn to disagree or emulate.

2.Stimulation: Provide for exciting and new experiences in the curriculum

3. Psychological safety and freedom: Provide a warm, safe and permissive

atmosphere in which the creative students feel accepted.

4. Guided discovery: Provide direction to a level and area where it is most

effective for learning by independent discovery on the part of the student.
 5. Encouragement: Develop child's ideas through constructive criticism and
refer to competent authorities, to book and other sources.