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Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 991

Hoai An Le Thi
Hoai Minh Le
Tao Pham Dinh Editors

Optimization of
Complex Systems:
Theory, Models,
Algorithms and
Applications
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing

Volume 991

Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland

Advisory Editors
Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
Rafael Bello Perez, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Computing, Universidad
Central de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba
Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
Hani Hagras, School of Computer Science & Electronic Engineering, University of
Essex, Colchester, UK
László T. Kóczy, Department of Automation, Széchenyi István University, Gyor,
Hungary
Vladik Kreinovich, Department of Computer Science, University of Texas at El
Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
Chin-Teng Lin, Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chiao Tung
University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
Jie Lu, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of
Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Patricia Melin, Graduate Program of Computer Science, Tijuana Institute of
Technology, Tijuana, Mexico
Nadia Nedjah, Department of Electronics Engineering, University of Rio de
Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen, Faculty of Computer Science and Management, Wrocław
University of Technology, Wrocław, Poland
Jun Wang, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, The Chinese
University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications
on theory, applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent
Computing. Virtually all disciplines such as engineering, natural sciences, computer
and information science, ICT, economics, business, e-commerce, environment,
healthcare, life science are covered. The list of topics spans all the areas of modern
intelligent systems and computing such as: computational intelligence, soft comput-
ing including neural networks, fuzzy systems, evolutionary computing and the fusion
of these paradigms, social intelligence, ambient intelligence, computational neuro-
science, artificial life, virtual worlds and society, cognitive science and systems,
Perception and Vision, DNA and immune based systems, self-organizing and
adaptive systems, e-Learning and teaching, human-centered and human-centric
computing, recommender systems, intelligent control, robotics and mechatronics
including human-machine teaming, knowledge-based paradigms, learning para-
digms, machine ethics, intelligent data analysis, knowledge management, intelligent
agents, intelligent decision making and support, intelligent network security, trust
management, interactive entertainment, Web intelligence and multimedia.
The publications within “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” are
primarily proceedings of important conferences, symposia and congresses. They
cover significant recent developments in the field, both of a foundational and
applicable character. An important characteristic feature of the series is the short
publication time and world-wide distribution. This permits a rapid and broad
dissemination of research results.
** Indexing: The books of this series are submitted to ISI Proceedings,
EI-Compendex, DBLP, SCOPUS, Google Scholar and Springerlink **

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11156

Hoai An Le Thi Hoai Minh Le
• •

Tao Pham Dinh

Editors

Optimization of Complex
Systems: Theory, Models,
Algorithms and Applications

123
Editors
Hoai An Le Thi Hoai Minh Le
Computer science and Applications Computer Science and Applications
Department Department
LGIPM, University of Lorraine LGIPM, University of Lorraine
Metz Cedex 03, France Metz Cedex 03, France

Tao Pham Dinh

Laboratory of Mathematics
National Institute for Applied Sciences
(INSA)-Rouen Normadie
Saint-Étienne-du-Rouvray Cedex, France

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic)

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
ISBN 978-3-030-21802-7 ISBN 978-3-030-21803-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21803-4
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

WCGO 2019 was the sixth event in the series of World Congress on Global
Optimization conferences, and it took place on July 8–10, 2019 at Metz, France.
The conference aims to bring together most leading specialists in both theoretical
and algorithmic aspects as well as a variety of application domains of nonconvex
programming and global optimization to highlight recent advances, trends, chal-
lenges and discuss how to expand the role of these fields in several potential
high-impact application areas.
The WCGO conference series is a biennial conference of the International
Society of Global Optimization (iSoGO). The first event WCGO 2009 took place in
Hunan, China. The second event, WCGO 2011, was held in Chania, Greece, fol-
lowed by the third event, WCGO 2013, in Huangshan, China. The fourth event,
WCGO 2015, took place in Florida, USA, while the fifth event was held in Texas,
USA. One of the highlights of this biannual meeting is the announcement of
Constantin Carathéodory Prize of iSoGO awarded in recognition of lifetime con-
tributions to the field of global optimization.
WCGO 2019 was attended by about 180 scientists and practitioners from 40
countries. The scientific program includes the oral presentation of 112 selected full
papers as well as several selected abstracts covering all main topic areas. In addi-
tion, the conference program was enriched by six plenary lectures that were given
by Prof. Aharon Ben-Tal (Israel Institute of Technology, Israel), Prof. Immanuel M.
Bomze (University of Vienna, Austria), Prof. Masao Fukushima (Nanzan
University, Japan), Prof. Anna Nagurney (University of Massachusetts Amherst,
USA), Prof. Panos M. Pardalos (University of Florida, USA), and Prof. Anatoly
Zhigljavsky (Cardiff University, UK).
This book contains 112 papers selected from about 250 submissions to WCGO
2019. Each paper was peer-reviewed by at least two members of the International
Program Committee and the International Reviewer Board. The book covers both
theoretical and algorithmic aspects of nonconvex programming and global opti-
mization, as well as its applications to modeling and solving decision problems in
various domains. The book is composed of ten parts, and each of them deals with
either the theory and/or methods in a branch of optimization such as continuous

v
vi Preface

optimization, DC programming and DCA, discrete optimization and network

optimization, multiobjective programming, optimization under uncertainty, or
models and optimization methods in a specific application area including data
science, economics and finance, energy and water management, engineering sys-
tems, transportation, logistics, resource allocation and production management. We
hope that the researchers and practitioners working in nonconvex optimization and
several application areas can find here many inspiring ideas and useful tools and
techniques for their works.
We would like to thank the chairs and the members of International Program
Committee as well as the reviewers for their hard work in the review process, which
helped us to guarantee the highest quality of the selected papers for the conference.
We cordially thank the organizers and chairs of special sessions for their contri-
butions to the success of the conference. Thanks are also due to the plenary lec-
turers for their interesting and informative talks of a world-class standard.
The conference was organized by the Computer Science and Applications
Department, LGIPM, University of Lorraine, France. We wish to especially thank
all members of the Organizing Committee for their excellent work to make the
conference a success. The conference would not have been possible without their
considerable effort.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to our main sponsors: Réseau de
Transport d’Électricité (France), Conseil régional du Grand Est (France), Metz
Métropole (France), Conseil départemental de la Moselle (France), Université de
Lorraine (France), Laboratoire de Génie Informatique, de Production et de
Maintenance (LGIPM) - Université de Lorraine, UFR Mathématique Informatique
Mécanique Automatique - Université de Lorraine, and DCA Solutions (Vietnam).
Our special thanks go to all the authors for their valuable contributions, and to
the other participants who enriched the conference success.
Finally, we cordially thank Springer for their help in publishing this book.

July 2019 Hoai An Le Thi

Hoai Minh Le
Tao Pham Dinh
Organization

WCGO 2019 was organized by the Computer Science and Applications Department,
LGIPM, University of Lorraine, France.

Conference Chair

Hoai An Le Thi University of Lorraine, France

Program Chairs

Hoai An Le Thi University of Lorraine, France

Tao Pham Dinh National Institute for Applied Sciences - Rouen
Normandie, France
Yaroslav D. Sergeyev University of Calabria, Italy

Publicity Chair

Hoai Minh Le University of Lorraine, France

vii
viii Organization

International Program Committee Members

Paula Amaral University NOVA de Lisboa, Portugal

Adil Bagirov Federation University, Australia
Balabhaskar Oklahoma State University, USA
Balasundaram
Paul I. Barton Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
Aharon Ben-Tal Technion - Israel Institute of Technology
Immanuel M. Bomze University of Vienna, Austria
Radu Ioan Bot University of Vienna, Austria
Sergiy Butenko Texas A&M University Engineering, USA
Stéphane Canu National Institute for Applied Sciences-Rouen, France
Emilio Carrizosa University de Seville, Spain
Leocadio-G. Casado University de Almería, Spain
Tibor Csendes University of Szeged, Hungary
Yu-Hong Dai Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
Gianni Di Pillo University Rome La Sapienza, Italy
Ding-zhu Du University of Texas at Dallas, USA
Matthias Ehrgott University of Auckland, Australia
Shu-Cherng Fang North Carolina State University, USA
José Fernández- University de Murcia, Spain
Hernández
Dalila B. M. M. University of Porto, Portugal
Fontes
Masao Fukushima Nanzan University, Japan
Vladimir Grishagin N.I. Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod,
Russia
Ignacio E. Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Grossmann
Yann Guermeur LORIA, France
Mounir Haddou National Institute for Applied Sciences-Rennes, France
Milan Hladík Charles University, Czech Republic
Joaquim Judice University Coimbra, Portugal
Oleg Khamisov Energy Systems Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences,
Irkutsk, Russia
Diethard Klatte University of Zurich, Switzerland
Pavlo Krokhmal University of Arizona, USA
Dmitri Kvasov University of Calabria, Italy
Carlile Lavor University of Campinas, Brazil
Dung Muu Le Institute of Mathematics, Hanoi, Vietnam
Hoai Minh Le University of Lorraine, France
Gue Myung Lee Pukyong National University, Korea
Organization ix

Jon Lee University of Michigan, USA

Vincent Lefieux RTE, France
Duan Li City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
Leo Liberti Ecole Polytechnique, France
Hsuan-Tien Lin National Taiwan University, Taiwan
Abdel Lisser Paris-Sud University, France
Angelo Lucia University of Rhode Island, USA
Stefano Lucidi University Roma “La Sapienza,” Italia
Andreas Lundell Abo Akademi University in Turku, Finland
Lina Mallozzi University of Naples Federico II, Italy
Pierre Maréchal University of Toulouse - Paul Sabatier, France
Kaisa Miettinen University of Jyvaskyla, Finland
Michel Minoux Sorbonne University, France
Shashi Kant Mishra Banaras Hindu University, India
Dolores Romero Copenhagen Business School, Denmark
Morales
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Poland
Viet Hung Nguyen Sorbonne University, France
Yi-Shuai Niu Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
Ivo Nowak Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Germany
Jong-Shi Pang University of Southern California, USA
Panos Pardalos University of Florida, USA
Hoang Pham Rutgers University, USA
Janos D. Pinter Lehigh University, USA
Efstratios N. Texas A&M University, USA
Pistikopoulos
Oleg Prokopyev University of Pittsburgh, USA
Stefan Ratschan Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Czech
Republic
Steffen Rebennack Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany
Franz Rendl University Klagenfurt, Austria
Ana Maria Rocha University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
Ruey-Lin Sheu National Cheng-Kung University, Taiwan
Jianming Shi Tokyo University of Science, Japan
Christine A. National University of Singapore
Shoemaker
Eduardo Souza De National Institute for Applied Sciences - Rouen, France
Cursi
Alexander Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia
Strekalovsky
Jie Sun Curtin University, Australia
Akiko Takeda University of Tokyo, Japan
Michael Ulbrich Technical University of Munich, Germany
Luis Nunes Vicente Lehigh University, USA
Stefan Vigerske Zuse Institute Berlin, Germany
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x Organization

Gerhard-Wilhelm Poznan University of Technology, Poland

Weber
Yichao Wu University of Illinois at Chicago, USA
Jack Xin University of California, Irvine, USA
Fengqi You Cornell University, USA
Wuyi Yue Konan University, Japan
Ahmed Zidna University of Lorraine, France
Antanas Zilinskas Vilnius University, Lithuania

External Reviewers

Manuel University of Cádiz, Spain

Arana-Jimenez
Abdessamad Amir University of Mostaganem, Algeria
Domingo Barrera University of Granada, Spain
Victor Blanco University of Granada, Spain
Miguel A. Fortes University of Granada, Spain
Olivier Gallay University of Lausanne, Switzerland
Pedro University of Granada, Spain
González-Rodelas
Luo Hezhi Zhejiang University of Technology, China
Vinh Thanh Ho University of Lorraine, France
Baktagul Imasheva International University of Information Technology,
Kazakhstan
Amodeo Lionel University of Technology of Troyes, France
Aiman Moldagulova Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Kazakhstan
Samat Mukhanov International University of Information Technology,
Kazakhstan
Canh Nam Nguyen Hanoi University of Science and Technology, Vietnam
Duc Manh Nguyen Hanoi National University of Education, Vietnam
Manh Cuong Hanoi University of Industry, Vietnam
Nguyen
Thi Bich Thuy VNU University of Science, Vietnam
Nguyen
Thi Minh Tam Vietnam National University of Agriculture, Vietnam
Nguyen
Viet Anh Nguyen University of Lorraine, France
Miguel Pasadas University of Granada, Spain
Thi Hoai Pham Hanoi University of Science and Technology, Vietnam
Duy Nhat Phan University of Lorraine, France
Jakob Puchinger Paris-Saclay University, France
Lopez Rafael Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil
Organization xi

Sabina International University of Information Technology,

Rakhmetulayeva Kazakhstan
Hagen Salewski University of Kaiserslautern, Germany
Daniel Schermer University of Kaiserslautern, Germany
Ryskhan International University of Information Technology,
Satybaldiyeva Kazakhstan
Bach Tran University of Lorraine, France
Thi Thuy Tran FPT University, Vietnam
Yong Xia Beihang University, China
Xuan Thanh Vo Ho Chi Minh City University of Science, Vietnam
Baiyi Wu Guangdong University of Foreign Studies
Xiaojin Zheng Tongji University, China

Plenary Lecturers

Aharon Ben-Tal Israel Institute of Technology, Israel

Immanuel M. Bomze University of Vienna, Austria
Masao Fukushima Nanzan University, Japan
Anna Nagurney University of Massachusetts Amherst, USA
Panos M. Pardalos University of Florida, USA
Anatoly Zhigljavsky Cardiff University, UK

Special Session Organizers

1. Combinatorial Optimization: Viet Hung Nguyen (Sorbonne University, France),

Kim Thang Nguyen (Paris-Saclay University, France), and Ha Duong Phan
(Institute of Mathematics, Vietnam)
2. Recent Advances in DC programming and DCA: Theory, Algorithms and
Applications: Hoai An Le Thi and Hoai Minh Le (University of Lorraine,
France)
3. Mixed-Integer Optimization: Yi-Shuai Niu (Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
China)
4. Quadratically constrained quadratic programming & QCQP: Duan Li (City
University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China) and Rujun Jiang (Fudan
University, Shanghai, China)
5. Uncertainty Quantification and Optimization: Eduardo Souza de Cursi
(National Institute for Applied Sciences - Rouen, France) and Rafael Holdorf
(Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil)
6. Computing, Engineering and Data Science: Raissa Uskenbayeva and Sabina
Rakhmetulayeva (International Information Technology University,
Kazakhstan)
xii Organization

7. Complementarity Problems: Applications, Theory and Algorithms: Mounir

Haddou (National Institute for Applied Sciences - Rennes, France), Ibtihel Ben
Gharbia, and Quang Huy Tran (IFP Energies nouvelles, France)
8. Optimization Methods under Uncertainty: Manuel Arana Jimenez (University
of Cádiz, Spain)
9. Spline Approximation & Optimization with Applications: Ahmed Zidna and
Dominique Michel (University of Lorraine, France)
10. Surrogate Global Optimization for Expensive Multimodal Functions: Christine
Shoemaker (National University of Singapore, Singapore)
11. Novel Technologies and Optimization for Last-Mile Logistics: Mahdi Moeini
and Hagen Salewski (Technische Universität Kaiserslautern, Germany)
12. Sustainable Supply Chains and Logistics Networks: Daniel Roy and Sophie
Hennequin (University of Lorraine, France)

Organizing Committee Members

Hoai Minh Le University of Lorraine, France

Vinh Thanh Ho University of Lorraine, France
Bach Tran University of Lorraine, France
Viet Anh Nguyen University of Lorraine, France
Aurélie Lallemand University of Lorraine, France

Sponsoring Institutions

Réseau de Transport d’Électricité, France

Conseil régional du Grand Est, France
Metz Métropole, France
Conseil départemental de la Moselle, France
Université de Lorraine, France
Laboratoire de Génie Informatique, de Production et de Maintenance (LGIPM) -
Université de Lorraine
UFR Mathématique Informatique Mécanique Automatique - Université de Lorraine
DCA Solutions, Vietnam
Springer
Contents

Continuous Optimization
A Hybrid Simplex Search for Global Optimization with
Representation Formula and Genetic Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Hafid Zidani, Rachid Ellaia, and Eduardo Souza de Cursi
A Population-Based Stochastic Coordinate Descent Method . . . . . . . . . 16
Ana Maria A. C. Rocha, M. Fernanda P. Costa, and Edite M.
G. P. Fernandes
A Sequential Linear Programming Algorithm for Continuous
and Mixed-Integer Nonconvex Quadratic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Mohand Bentobache, Mohamed Telli, and Abdelkader Mokhtari
A Survey of Surrogate Approaches for Expensive Constrained
Black-Box Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Rommel G. Regis
Adaptive Global Optimization Based on Nested Dimensionality
Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Konstantin Barkalov and Ilya Lebedev
A B-Spline Global Optimization Algorithm for Optimal Power
Flow Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Deepak D. Gawali, Bhagyesh V. Patil, Ahmed Zidna,
and Paluri S. V. Nataraj
Concurrent Topological Optimization of a Multi-component Arm
for a Tube Bending Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Federico Ballo, Massimiliano Gobbi, and Giorgio Previati
Discrete Interval Adjoints in Unconstrained Global Optimization . . . . 78
Jens Deussen and Uwe Naumann

xiii
xiv Contents

Diving for Sparse Partially-Reflexive Generalized Inverses . . . . . . . . . . 89

Victor K. Fuentes, Marcia Fampa, and Jon Lee
Filtering Domains of Factorable Functions Using Interval
Contractors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Laurent Granvilliers
Leveraging Local Optima Network Properties for Memetic
Differential Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Viktor Homolya and Tamás Vinkó
Maximization of a Convex Quadratic Form on a Polytope:
Factorization and the Chebyshev Norm Bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Milan Hladík and David Hartman
New Dynamic Programming Approach to Global Optimization . . . . . . 128
Anna Kaźmierczak and Andrzej Nowakowski
On Chebyshev Center of the Intersection of Two Ellipsoids . . . . . . . . . 135
Xiaoli Cen, Yong Xia, Runxuan Gao, and Tianzhi Yang
On Conic Relaxations of Generalization of the Extended Trust
Region Subproblem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Rujun Jiang and Duan Li
On Constrained Optimization Problems Solved Using
the Canonical Duality Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Constantin Zălinescu
On Controlled Variational Inequalities Involving Convex
Functionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Savin Treanţă
On Lagrange Duality for Several Classes of Nonconvex
Optimization Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Ewa M. Bednarczuk and Monika Syga
On Monotone Maps: Semidifferentiable Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Shashi Kant Mishra, Sanjeev Kumar Singh, and Avanish Shahi
Parallel Multi-memetic Global Optimization Algorithm for Optimal
Control of Polyarylenephthalide’s Thermally-Stimulated
Luminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Maxim Sakharov and Anatoly Karpenko
Proper Choice of Control Parameters for CoDE Algorithm . . . . . . . . . 202
Petr Bujok, Daniela Einšpiglová, and Hana Zámečníková
Semidefinite Programming Based Convex Relaxation for Nonconvex
Quadratically Constrained Quadratic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Rujun Jiang and Duan Li
Contents xv

Solving a Type of the Tikhonov Regularization of the Total

Least Squares by a New S-Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Huu-Quang Nguyen, Ruey-Lin Sheu, and Yong Xia
Solving Mathematical Programs with Complementarity
Constraints with a Penalization Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Lina Abdallah, Tangi Migot, and Mounir Haddou
Stochastic Tunneling for Improving the Efficiency of Stochastic
Efficient Global Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Fábio Nascentes, Rafael Holdorf Lopez, Rubens Sampaio,
and Eduardo Souza de Cursi
The Bernstein Polynomials Based Globally Optimal Nonlinear
Model Predictive Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Bhagyesh V. Patil, Ashok Krishnan, Foo Y. S. Eddy, and Ahmed Zidna
Towards the Biconjugate of Bivariate Piecewise Quadratic
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Deepak Kumar and Yves Lucet
Tractable Relaxations for the Cubic One-Spherical Optimization
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Christoph Buchheim, Marcia Fampa, and Orlando Sarmiento

DC Programming and DCA

A DC Algorithm for Solving Multiobjective Stochatic Problem
via Exponential Utility Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Ramzi Kasri and Fatima Bellahcene
A DCA-Based Approach for Outage Constrained Robust Secure
Power-Splitting SWIPT MISO System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Phuong Anh Nguyen and Hoai An Le Thi
DCA-Like, GA and MBO: A Novel Hybrid Approach for Binary
Quadratic Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Sara Samir, Hoai An Le Thi, and Mohammed Yagouni
Low-Rank Matrix Recovery with Ky Fan 2-k-Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Xuan Vinh Doan and Stephen Vavasis
Online DCA for Times Series Forecasting Using Artificial Neural
Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Viet Anh Nguyen and Hoai An Le Thi
Parallel DC Cutting Plane Algorithms for Mixed Binary Linear
Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Yi-Shuai Niu, Yu You, and Wen-Zhuo Liu
xvi Contents

Sentence Compression via DC Programming Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

Yi-Shuai Niu, Xi-Wei Hu, Yu You, Faouzi Mohamed Benammour,
and Hu Zhang

Discrete Optimization and Network Optimization

A Horizontal Method of Localizing Values of a Linear Function
in Permutation-Based Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Liudmyla Koliechkina and Oksana Pichugina
An Experimental Comparison of Heuristic Coloring Algorithms
in Terms of Found Color Classes on Random Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Deniss Kumlander and Aleksei Kulitškov
Cliques for Multi-term Linearization of 0–1 Multilinear Program
for Boolean Logical Pattern Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Kedong Yan and Hong Seo Ryoo
Gaining or Losing Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Jon Lee, Daphne Skipper, and Emily Speakman
Game Equilibria and Transition Dynamics with Networks
Unification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Alexei Korolev and Ilia Garmashov
Local Search Approaches with Different Problem-Specific Steps
for Sensor Network Coverage Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Krzysztof Trojanowski and Artur Mikitiuk
Modelling Dynamic Programming-Based Global Constraints
in Constraint Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Andrea Visentin, Steven D. Prestwich, Roberto Rossi, and Armagan Tarim
Modified Extended Cutting Plane Algorithm for Mixed Integer
Nonlinear Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Wendel Melo, Marcia Fampa, and Fernanda Raupp
On Proximity for k-Regular Mixed-Integer Linear Optimization . . . . . 438
Luze Xu and Jon Lee
On Solving Nonconvex MINLP Problems with SHOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Andreas Lundell and Jan Kronqvist
Reversed Search Maximum Clique Algorithm Based
on Recoloring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Deniss Kumlander and Aleksandr Porošin
Sifting Edges to Accelerate the Computation of Absolute 1-Center
in Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Wei Ding and Ke Qiu
Contents xvii

Solving an MINLP with Chance Constraint Using a Zhang’s

Copula Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Adriano Delfino
Stochastic Greedy Algorithm Is Still Good: Maximizing
Submodular + Supermodular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Sai Ji, Dachuan Xu, Min Li, Yishui Wang, and Dongmei Zhang
Towards Multi-tree Methods for Large-Scale Global Optimization . . . 498
Pavlo Muts and Ivo Nowak

Optimization under Uncertainty

Fuzzy Pareto Solutions in Fully Fuzzy Multiobjective Linear
Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Manuel Arana-Jiménez
Minimax Inequalities and Variational Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Maria Isabel Berenguer, Domingo Gámez, A. I. Garralda–Guillem,
and M. Ruiz Galán
Optimization of Real-Life Integrated Solar Desalination Water
Supply System with Probability Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Bayrammyrat Myradov
Social Strategy of Particles in Optimization Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Bożena Borowska
Statistics of Pareto Fronts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Mohamed Bassi, E. Pagnacco, Eduardo Souza de Cursi, and R. Ellaia
Uncertainty Quantification in Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Eduardo Souza de Cursi and Rafael Holdorf Lopez
Uncertainty Quantification in Serviceability of Impacted Steel
Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Renata Troian, Didier Lemosse, Leila Khalij, Christophe Gautrelet,
and Eduardo Souza de Cursi

Multiobjective Programming
A Global Optimization Algorithm for the Solution of Tri-Level
Mixed-Integer Quadratic Programming Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Styliani Avraamidou and Efstratios N. Pistikopoulos
A Method for Solving Some Class of Multilevel Multi-leader
Multi-follower Programming Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Addis Belete Zewde and Semu Mitiku Kassa
xviii Contents

A Mixture Design of Experiments Approach for Genetic Algorithm

Tuning Applied to Multi-objective Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
Taynara Incerti de Paula, Guilherme Ferreira Gomes,
José Henrique de Freitas Gomes, and Anderson Paulo de Paiva
A Numerical Study on MIP Approaches over the Efficient Set . . . . . . . 611
Kuan Lu, Shinji Mizuno, and Jianming Shi
Analytics-Based Decomposition of a Class of Bilevel Problems . . . . . . . 617
Adejuyigbe Fajemisin, Laura Climent, and Steven D. Prestwich
KMCGO: Kriging-Assisted Multi-objective Constrained Global
Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
Yaohui Li, Yizhong Wu, Yuanmin Zhang, and Shuting Wang
Multistage Global Search Using Various Scalarization Schemes
in Multicriteria Optimization Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
Victor Gergel and Evgeniy Kozinov
Necessary Optimality Condition for Nonlinear Interval Vector
Programming Problem Under B-Arcwise Connected Functions . . . . . . 649
Mohan Bir Subba and Vinay Singh
On the Applications of Nonsmooth Vector Optimization Problems
to Solve Generalized Vector Variational Inequalities Using
Convexificators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
Balendu Bhooshan Upadhyay, Priyanka Mishra, Ram N. Mohapatra,
and Shashi Kant Mishra
SOP-Hybrid: A Parallel Surrogate-Based Candidate Search
Algorithm for Expensive Optimization on Large Parallel Clusters . . . . 672
Taimoor Akhtar and Christine A. Shoemaker
Surrogate Many Objective Optimization: Combining Evolutionary
Search,
-Dominance and Connected Restarts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
Taimoor Akhtar, Christine A. Shoemaker, and Wenyu Wang
Tropical Analogues of a Dempe-Franke Bilevel Optimization
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Sergeĭ Sergeev and Zhengliang Liu
U Weak Slater Constraint Qualification in Nonsmooth
Multiobjective Semi-infinite Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
Ali Sadeghieh, David Barilla, Giuseppe Caristi, and Nader Kanzi
Contents xix

Data science: Machine Learning, Data Analysis, Big Data

and Computer Vision
A Discretization Algorithm for k-Means with Capacity Constraints . . . 713
Yicheng Xu, Dachuan Xu, Dongmei Zhang, and Yong Zhang
A Gray-Box Approach for Curriculum Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
Francesco Foglino, Matteo Leonetti, Simone Sagratella,
and Ruggiero Seccia
A Study on Graph-Structured Recurrent Neural Networks
and Sparsification with Application to Epidemic Forecasting . . . . . . . . 730
Zhijian Li, Xiyang Luo, Bao Wang, Andrea L. Bertozzi, and Jack Xin
Automatic Identification of Intracranial Hemorrhage on CT/MRI
Image Using Meta-Architectures Improved from Region-Based
CNN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
Thi-Hoang-Yen Le, Anh-Cang Phan, Hung-Phi Cao,
and Thuong-Cang Phan
Bayesian Optimization for Recommender System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
Bruno Giovanni Galuzzi, Ilaria Giordani, A. Candelieri, Riccardo Perego,
and Francesco Archetti
Creation of Data Classification System for Local Administration . . . . . 761
Raissa Uskenbayeva, Aiman Moldagulova, and Nurzhan K. Mukazhanov
Face Recognition Using Gabor Wavelet in MapReduce and Spark . . . 769
Anh-Cang Phan, Hung-Phi Cao, Ho-Dat Tran, and Thuong-Cang Phan
Globally Optimal Parsimoniously Lifting a Fuzzy Query Set
Over a Taxonomy Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
Dmitry Frolov, Boris Mirkin, Susana Nascimento, and Trevor Fenner
K-Medoids Clustering Is Solvable in Polynomial Time for a 2d
Pareto Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
Nicolas Dupin, Frank Nielsen, and El-Ghazali Talbi
Learning Sparse Neural Networks via ‘0 and T‘1 by a Relaxed
Variable Splitting Method with Application to Multi-scale Curve
Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
Fanghui Xue and Jack Xin
Pattern Recognition with Using Effective Algorithms and Methods
of Computer Vision Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810
S. B. Mukhanov and Raissa Uskenbayeva
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xx Contents

The Practice of Moving to Big Data on the Case of the NoSQL

Database, Clickhouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
Baktagul Imasheva, Azamat Nakispekov, Andrey Sidelkovskaya,
and Ainur Sidelkovskiy

Economics and Finance

Asymptotically Exact Minimizations for Optimal Management
of Public Finances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
Jean Koudi, Babacar Mbaye Ndiaye, and Guy Degla
Features of Administrative and Management Processes Modeling . . . . 842
Ryskhan Satybaldiyeva, Raissa Uskenbayeva, Aiman Moldagulova,
Zuldyz Kalpeyeva, and Aygerim Aitim
Optimization Problems of Economic Structural Adjustment
and Problem of Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
Abdykappar Ashimov, Yuriy Borovskiy, and Mukhit Onalbekov
Research of the Relationship Between Business Processes
in Production and Logistics Based on Local Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
Raissa Uskenbayeva, Kuandykov Abu, Rakhmetulayeva Sabina,
and Bolshibayeva Aigerim
Sparsity and Performance Enhanced Markowitz Portfolios
Using Second-Order Cone Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
Noam Goldberg and Ishy Zagdoun
Managing Business Process Based on the Tonality of the Output
Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
Raissa Uskenbayeva, Rakhmetulayeva Sabina, and Bolshibayeva Aigerim

Energy and Water Management

Customer Clustering of French Transmission System Operator
(RTE) Based on Their Electricity Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
Gabriel Da Silva, Hoai Minh Le, Hoai An Le Thi, Vincent Lefieux,
and Bach Tran
Data-Driven Beetle Antennae Search Algorithm for Electrical
Power Modeling of a Combined Cycle Power Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
Tamal Ghosh, Kristian Martinsen, and Pranab K Dan
Finding Global-Optimal Gearbox Designs for Battery Electric
Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
Philipp Leise, Lena C. Altherr, Nicolai Simon, and Peter F. Pelz
Contents xxi

Location Optimization of Gas Power Plants by a Z-Number

Data Envelopment Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
Farnoosh Fakhari, R. Tavakkoli-Moghaddam, M. Tohidifard,
and Seyed Farid Ghaderi
Optimization of Power Plant Operation via Stochastic Programming
with Recourse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
Tomoki Fukuba, Takayuki Shiina, Ken-ichi Tokoro, and Tetsuya Sato
Randomized-Variants Lower Bounds for Gas Turbines Aircraft
Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949
Mahdi Jemmali, Loai Kayed B. Melhim, and Mafawez Alharbi
Robust Design of Pumping Stations in Water Distribution
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
Gratien Bonvin, Sophie Demassey, and Welington de Oliveira

Engineering Systems
Application of PLS Technique to Optimization of the Formulation
of a Geo-Eco-Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
S. Imanzadeh, Armelle Jarno, and S. Taibi
Databases Coupling for Morphed-Mesh Simulations and Application
on Fan Optimal Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
Zebin Zhang, Martin Buisson, Pascal Ferrand, and Manuel Henner
Kriging-Based Reliability-Based Design Optimization Using
Single Loop Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991
Hongbo Zhang, Younes Aoues, Hao Bai, Didier Lemosse,
and Eduardo Souza de Cursi
Sensitivity Analysis of Load Application Methods for Shell Finite
Element Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001
Wilson Javier Veloz Parra, Younes Aoues, and Didier Lemosse

Transportation, Logistics, Resource Allocation and Production

Management
A Continuous Competitive Facility Location and Design Problem
for Firm Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
Boglárka G.-Tóth, Laura Anton-Sanchez, José Fernández,
Juana L. Redondo, and Pilar M. Ortigosa
A Genetic Algorithm for Solving the Truck-Drone-ATV Routing
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
Mahdi Moeini and Hagen Salewski
xxii Contents

A Planning Problem with Resource Constraints in Health

Simulation Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
Simon Caillard, Laure Brisoux Devendeville, and Corinne Lucet
Edges Elimination for Traveling Salesman Problem Based
on Frequency K5 s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043
Yong Wang
Industrial Symbioses: Bi-objective Model and Solution Method . . . . . . 1054
Sophie Hennequin, Vinh Thanh Ho, Hoai An Le Thi, Hajar Nouinou,
and Daniel Roy
Intelligent Solution System Towards Parts Logistics Optimization . . . . 1067
Yaoting Huang, Boyu Chen, Wenlian Lu, Zhong-Xiao Jin, and Ren Zheng
Optimal Air Traffic Flow Management with Carbon Emissions
Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
Sadeque Hamdan, Oualid Jouini, Ali Cheaitou, Zied Jemai,
Imad Alsyouf, and Maamar Bettayeb
Scheduling Three Identical Parallel Machines with Capacity
Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
Jian Sun, Dachuan Xu, Ran Ma, and Xiaoyan Zhang
Solving the Problem of Coordination and Control of Multiple
UAVs by Using the Column Generation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097
Duc Manh Nguyen, Frédéric Dambreville, Abdelmalek Toumi,
Jean-Christophe Cexus, and Ali Khenchaf
Spare Parts Management in the Automotive Industry Considering
Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1109
David Alejandro Baez Diaz, Sophie Hennequin, and Daniel Roy
The Method for Managing Inventory Accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1119
Duisebekova Kulanda, Kuandykov Abu, Rakhmetulayeva Sabina,
and Kozhamzharova Dinara
The Traveling Salesman Drone Station Location Problem . . . . . . . . . . 1129
Daniel Schermer, Mahdi Moeini, and Oliver Wendt
Two-Machine Flow Shop with a Dynamic Storage Space
and UET Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1139
Joanna Berlińska, Alexander Kononov, and Yakov Zinder
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149
Continuous Optimization
 A Hybrid Simplex Search for Global
Optimization with Representation
Formula and Genetic Algorithm

Hafid Zidani1,2(B) , Rachid Ellaia1 , and Eduardo Souza de Cursi2

1
LERMA, Mohammed V University - Engineering Mohammedia School, Rabat,
BP. 765 Ibn Sina avenue, Agdal, Morocco
[email protected],[email protected], [email protected]
2
Laboratory of Mechanics of Normandy, National Institute for Applied Sciences -
Rouen, BP. 08, université avenue, 76801 St Etienne du Rouvray Cedex, France
[email protected]

Abstract. We consider the problem of minimizing a given function

f : Rn −→ R on a regular not empty closed set S. When f attains a
global minimum at exactly one point x∗ ∈ S, for a convenient random
variable X and a convenient function g : R2 −→ R. In this paper, we
propose to use this Representation Formula (RF) to numerically gener-
ate an initial population. In order to obtain a more accurate results, the
Representation Formula has been coupled with other algorithms:
• Classical Genetic Algorithm (GA). We obtain a new algorithm called
(RFGA),
• Genetic Algorithm using Nelder Mead algorithm at the mutation
stage (GANM). We obtain a new algorithm called (RFGANM),
• Nelder Mead Algorithm. We obtain a new algorithm called (RFNM).
All these six algorithms (RF, GA, RFGA, GANM, RFGANM, RFNM)
were tested on 21 benchmark functions with a complete analysis of the
effect of different parameters of the methods. The experiments show that
the RFNM is the most successful algorithm. Its performance was com-
pared with the other algorithms, and observed to be the more effective,
robust, and stable than the others.

Keywords: Global optimization · Genetic algorithm · Representation

formula · Nelder Mead algorithm

1 Introduction
In the context of the resolution of engineering problems, many optimization algo-
rithms have been proposed, tested and analyzed in the last decades. However,
optimization in engineering remains an active research field, since many real-
world engineering optimization problems remain very complex in nature and
quite difficult to be solved by the existing algorithms. The existing literature
presents intensive research efforts to solve some difficulty points, which remains
c Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
H. A. Le Thi et al. (Eds.): WCGO 2019, AISC 991, pp. 3–15, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21803-4_1
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 Greece, ii. 346, seq. understands the long walls to have
been but two in number.

246. Marin. vit. Procl. p. 74. ed. Fabric.

247. Boeckh, Pub. Econ. of Athens, i. 88. seq.

248. Suid. in v. t. ii. p. 611. d. Harpocrat. in v. p. 254. Paus. i.

22. 4. Leake, Topog. p. 177. Wordsworth, Athens and
Attica. p. 112.

249. Up this road goats were never allowed to ascend (Athen.

xiii. 51). Even crows were said never to alight on the top of
the sacred rock; and Chandler (ii. 61) remarks, that
although he frequently saw these birds flying about the
Acropolis, he never observed one on the summit. “The
hooded crow, which retires from England during the
summer, is a constant inhabitant of Attica, and is probably
that species noticed by the ancients under the name of
κορώνη. It is the word applied at present to it by the Greek
peasants, who are the best commentators on the old
naturalists.” Sibthorp in Walp. Mem. l. 75.

250. Wordsworth, Athens and Attica, p. 114.

251. Paus. i. 22. 4.

252. Müll. De Phid. Vit. p. 18 seq.

253. Somewhere in a cavern in the rock of the Acropolis was a

slab called the pillar of infamy, on which were engraved the
names of traitors and other public delinquents. Thrasybulos
accused Leodamas of having had his name on this pillar.—
Aristot. Rhet. ii. 23.

254. Paus. i. 22. 8.

255. On the labyrinth at present shown in Crete, see Tournefort,
i. 76. sqq.

256. They were votive offerings, and the impressions they made
are still visible upon the marble.—Words. Athens and Attica,
117. Lachares afterwards, when Athens was besieged by
Demetrius, carried them away with him into Bœotia.—Paus.
i. 25. 7. To facilitate his escape, he is said to have scattered
handfuls of golden Darics on the road, which, tempting the
cavalry in pursuit, prevented his capture.—Polyæn. iii. 7. 1.

257. A conjecture of Müller, Minerv. Pol. v. 25.

258. Antiquarians have formed many ingenious conjectures; but

to me it appears evidently to have been a female veil, such
as Helenos in the Iliad (σ. 734) commands to be offered to
the same goddess of citadels, by his mother and the other
matrons of Troy.

259. Plut. Sol. § 10. Visconti, Mem. p. 18. Müll. Minerv. Pol. p.
27.

260. Dion. Cass. iv. 7.

261. Herod. ii. 51.

262. Herod. viii. 41. Combe, Terra-cottas of the British Museum,

pl. 28. Petit. Radel, Musée Napol. iv. 33.

263. Paus. i. 27. 1. The Athenians in the age of this traveller

confounded, it seems, Masistios with Mardonios, nothing
very extraordinary several hundred years after the event
referred to. Pausanias speaks of it as a mistake; Mr. Müller,
who is less ceremonious, as a falsehood. Minerv. Pol. 29.
The passion for relics, which led to the preservation of
these objects, existed in all its whimsicality among the
ancients. But they were scarcely so ingenious as the Roman
 Catholics of the continent, whose sacred treasures include a
number of feathers from the wings of the angel Gabriel, a
small bone of one of the cherubim, and a few rays of the
star by which the wise men of the East were led to
Bethlehem. They have also a small phial, containing some
of the darkness that overspread the land of Egypt. (Cf.
Fabric. ad Cod. Pseud. epigr. v. i. p. 93. t. 11. and
Christophori Carmen, ap Boissonade ad Eunap. p. 277.
seq.) In the temples of antiquity relics nearly as curious
were preserved: they had an egg of Leda, possibly, as
Lobeck conjectures, an ostrich’s (Aglaoph. i. 52; Paus. iii.
16. 1); the teeth of the Erymanthean boar (Paus. viii. 24.
2), whose spoils were also shown at Tegea (Lucian adv.
Indoct. § 13); the teeth of the Calydonian boar were
preserved at Beneventum (Procop. Bell. Goth. i. 15. 349.
c); they had also the sword of Memnon (Paus. iii. 3. 6); the
iron spear of Epeios (Justin. xx. 7), the brazen vessel in
which Pelias was boiled, the arrows of Teucer, the chlamys
of Odysseus, were preserved in the temple of Apollo at
Sicyon. (Ampel. Memor. viii. 68. Beckm. Hist. of Invent. ii.
364. Germ. in Lobeck.) In the Troad the anvils were shown
which Zeus suspended to the heels of Hera, when he hung
her up between heaven and earth (Eustath. p. 15. l. 30);
here, too, anyone might see the cithara of Paris. (Plut. Alex.
§ 15.) Like the Catholics, too, they showed the same thing
in two or three places; for example, the hair of Isis might
be seen at Koptos (Etym. Mag. v. κόπτος, 522. 12), and at
Memphis. (Luc. adv. Ind. § 13.) The Romans, according to
Horace (Carm. ii. 3. 21), possessed the bronze wash-hand-
basin of Sisyphos. A much more extensive list may be found
in Beckmann, Hist. of Inven. ii. 42. seq. Eng. Tr.

264. This fountain was likewise called Empedo.—Sch. Arist.

Vesp. 857. I may here mention, by the way, that most
ancient cities were supplied with water by pipes
 underground, as Syracuse.—Thucyd. vi. 100. Cf. Sch. Arist.
Achar. 1145.

265. It is worthy of remark that from this temple all persons of

Doric race were excluded. King Cleomenes, therefore, when
desirous of obtaining admission, denied his birth-right, and
called himself an Achæan.—Herod. v. 72.

266. The quarries of this mountain, worked to so great an

extent by the ancients, are now filling again with marble
which grows rapidly.—Chandler, ii. 191. Cf. Magius, Var.
Lect. t. iv. 182. b. Gemme Fisica Sotterranea, l. 1. c. ix. § 6.
p. 87.—For the manner in which it is thought to vegetate,
see Tournefort, i. pp. 225. 228. sqq.

267. Topog. of Athens, pp. 211, 212. See also Chandler, ii. 49.
sqq.

268. Of these temples Lucian says: ὅμοιαι ... τοῖς Αἰγυπτίοις

ἱεροῖς: κᾀκεῖ γὰρ, αὐτὸς μὲν ὁ νεὼς κάλλιστός τε καὶ
μέγιστος, λίθοις τοῖς πολυτελέσιν ἠσκημένος, καὶ χρυσῷ, καὶ
γραφαῖς διηνθισμὲνος. ἔνδον δὲ ἢν ζητῆς τὸν βεὸν ἢ
πιθηκός ἔστιν, ἢ ἴβις, ἢ τράγος, ἢ αἴλουρος. Imagin. § 11.

269. Vid. Müll. De Parthenon. Fastig. p. 72, sqq.

270. Thucyd. ii. 13. Schol. t. v. p. 375. Bipont. Müll. De Phid. Vit.
p. 22.

271. Arrian. Epict. I. 6. p. 27, seq.

272. Frag. ed. Siebel. p. 54. Müll. Phid. Vit. § 11. p. 22.

273. Boeckh. Corp. Inscrip. p. 182.

274. Quatremère de Quincy, Jup. Olymp. p. 222.

275. Leake, Topog. p. 215.

276. About half a mile from Athens in this direction was a

temple of Artemis (Ἄγρα), on the Ilissos, with an altar to
Boreas; where, according to the fable, the god carried away
Orithyia while playing on the rock with Pharmacia.—Plat.
Phæd. i. 7. In consequence of the alliance thus contracted
Boreas always felt a particular friendship for the Athenians,
to whose succour he hastened with his aërial forces during
the Median war.—Herod, vii. 189.

277. Antigone, in Sophocles, (Œdip. Col. 14-18) speaks of the

towers of Athens as seen from Colonos, and describes that
village, the birth-place of the poet, as rendered beautiful by
the sacred grove of the Eumenides, consisting of the laurel,
the olive, and the vine, in which a choir of nightingales
showered their music on the ear.

278. Near this road stood the Hiera Suke. Athen. iii. 6.

279. Κεραμεικός, ἀπὸ τοῦ κεραμεύς. Etym. Mag. 504. 16. Cf.
Suid. et Harpocrat. in voce. Paris, in like manner, has given
the name of Tuileries to its principal palaces and gardens,
from the tiles (tuiles) which were anciently manufactured
on the spot.

280. Strab. ix. 1. 239–241.

 CHAPTER V.
CAPITAL CITIES OF GREECE.—SPARTA.

From what has been said, the reader will, perhaps, have acquired
a tolerably correct idea of the city of Athens, its splendour and
extent. But the remaining fragments of Hellenic literature do not
enable us to be equally clear or copious in our account of Sparta.[281]
In fact so imperfect and confused is the information that has come
down to us respecting it, so vague, unsatisfactory, and in many
respects contradictory are the opinions of modern scholars and
travellers, that after diligently and patiently examining their
accounts, and comparing them with the descriptions of Pausanias,
the hints of Xenophon, Livy, Polybius, and Plutarch, with the casual
references of the poets, I am enabled to offer the following picture
only as a series of what appear to me probable conjectures based
upon a few indisputable facts.
The reader who has endeavoured to discover anything like order
in Pausanias’ topography of Sparta,[282] will fully comprehend the
difficulty of constructing from his information anything like an
intelligible plan of the city. Nevertheless, by setting out from a fixed
point, by laboriously studying the thread of his narration, by divining
the secret order he seems to follow in enumerating and delineating
the various public buildings of which he speaks, and by comparing
his fragmentary disclosures with the present physiognomy of the
site, I have formed a conception of the features of ancient Sparta
which may, perhaps, be found to bear some resemblance to the
original.
We will suppose ourselves to have passed the Eurotas, and to be
standing on the summit of the loftiest building of the Acropolis, the
Alpion for example, or the temple of Athena Chalciœcos,[283] from
which we can command a view of the whole site of Sparta from the
Eurotas, where it flows between banks shaded with reeds and lofty
rose laurels[284] on the east, to the brisk sparkling stream of the
Tiasa, and the roots of the Taygetos on the west. North and south
the eye ranges up and down the valley,[285] discovering in the latter
direction the ancient cities of Therapne[286] and Amyclæ,[287]
celebrated for their poetical and heroic associations. Beyond the
Eurotas eastward, occupying the green and well-wooded acclivities
upwards, from the banks of the stream towards the barren and red-
tinted heights of the Menelaion,[288] lay scattered the villas of the
noble Spartans, filled with costly furniture and every other token of
wealth,[289] while here and there, on all sides, embosomed in groves
or thickets, arose the temples and chapels of the gods surrounded
by a halo of sanctity and communicating peculiar beauty to the
landscape.
Contracting now our circle of vision, and contemplating the distinct
villages or groups of buildings of which the capital of Laconia
anciently consisted,[290] we behold the encampments as it were of
the five tribes, extending in a circle about the Acropolis.[291] The
quarter of the Pitanatæ,[292] commencing about the Issorion and the
bridge over the Tiasa on the west, extended eastward beyond the
Hyacinthine road[293] to the cliffs overhanging the valley of the
Eurotas above the confluence of that river with the Tiasa.
Immediately contiguous to the dwellings of this tribe in the north
eastern division of the city, opposite that cloven island in the
Eurotas, which contained the temple of Artemis, Orthia, and the
Goddess of Birth, dwelt the Limnatæ,[294] who possessed among
them the temple erected by the Spartans to Lycurgus. North again of
these, and clustering around that sharp eminence which constituted
as it were a second Acropolis, were the habitations of the Cynosuræ,
[295]
whose quarter appears to have extended from the old bridge
over the Eurotas to the temple of Dictynna, and the tombs of the
Euripontid kings on the west. From this point to the Dromos, lying
directly opposite the southern extremity of the Isle of Plane Trees,
formed by the diverging and confluent waters of the Tiasa, lay the
village of the Messoatæ,[296] where were situated the tomb of
Alcman, the fountain Dorcea, and a very beautiful portico
overlooking the Platanistas. The road extending from the Dromos to
the Issorion formed the western limits of the tribe of the Ægidæ,[297]
whose quarter extending inward to the heart of the city, appears to
have comprehended the Acropolis, the Lesche Pœcile, the theatre,
with all the other buildings grouped about the foot of the ancient
city.
The prospect presented by all these villages, nearly touching each
other, and comprehended within a circle of six Roman miles, was
once, no doubt, in the days of Spartan glory, singularly animated
and picturesque. The face of the ground was broken and diversified,
rising into six hills of unequal elevation, and constituting altogether a
small table-land, in some places terminating in perpendicular cliffs;
[298]
in others, shelving away in gentle slopes to meet the meadows
on the banks of the surrounding streams. Over all was diffused the
brilliant light[299] which fills the atmosphere of the south, and paints,
as travellers uniformly confess, even the barren crag and crumbling
ruin with beauty.
The structures that occupied the summit of the Acropolis appear
to have been neither numerous nor magnificent. The central pile,
around which all the others were grouped, was the temple of Athena
Chalciœcos,[300] flanked on the north and south by the fanes of Zeus
Cosmetas and the Muses. Behind it rose the temple of Aphrodite
Areia, with that of Artemis Cnagia, and in front various other edifices
and statues, dedicated to Euryleonis, Pausanias, Athena
Ophthalmitis, and Ammon. Somewhere in the neighbourhood of the
temenos of Athena stood two edifices, one called Skenoma and the
other Alpion. The relative position of all these it is now extremely
difficult, if not impossible, to determine. Let us therefore descend
into the agora, and having briefly described the objects which there
offered themselves to the eye of the stranger, endeavour to thread
our way through the various streets of Sparta, pointing out as we go
along the most remarkable monuments it contained.
In all Greek cities the point of greatest importance, next to the
citadel, was the market-place, where the body of the citizens
assembled not only to buy and sell, but to transact public business,
and perform many ceremonies of their religion. Thus, in the agora of
Sparta, in the centre of which probably stood an altar, surrounded by
the statues of Apollo, Artemis, Leto, and the soothsayer Hagias who
foretold the victory of Lysander at Ægospotamos, sacred chorusses
and processions were exhibited during the Gymnopædia in honour
of Phœbos Apollo, in consequence of which, a part at least of the
place obtained the name of Choros: here, likewise, was a colossal
statue, erected in honour of the Spartan Demos, with a group
representing Hermes bearing the infant Dionysos in his arms, and a
statue of King Polydoros, doubtless set up in the neighbourhood of
his house, Boonetos, lying between the street Aphetæ and the steep
road leading up to the citadel. The edifices by which the agora was
encircled, though in most cases, perhaps, far from magnificent,
when separately considered, presented a grand coup-d’œil. This will
be made evident if, placing ourselves near the central altar, we
enumerate and briefly describe them in the order in which they
followed each other in the great circle of the agora. First, beginning
on the right-hand corner of the street Aphetæ we behold the palace
of the Bidiæi, the five magistrates who watched over the education
of the youth; next succeeds that of the Nomophylaces, or guardians
of the laws; then that of the Ephori; and, lastly, the senate-house,
standing at the corner of the street leading to Therapne. Crossing
over to the south-eastern side of the Agora we behold a spacious
and stately portico called the Persian, because erected from the
spoils of the Persians. Its columns of white marble were adorned
with bassi relievi representing Persian warriors, among others
Mardonios and Artemisia daughter of Lygdamis queen of
Halicarnassos, who fought in person at the battle of Salamis. Beyond
the road to Amyclæ, we meet with a range of temples to Gaia, Zeus
Agoræos, Athena, Poseidon the Preserver, Apollo, and Hera; and
traversing the western street opening into the Theomelida, and
affording us a glimpse in passing of the tombs of the Agid kings we
arrive at the ancient halls of the Ephori, containing the monuments
of Epimenides and Aphareus. To this edifice succeed the statues of
Zeus Xenios and Athena Xenia. Next follows the temple of the Fates,
near which was the tomb of Orestes lying on the left hand of the
road leading to the sanctuary of Athena Chalciœcos. On the other
side stands the house of King Polydoros, which obtained in after
ages the name of Boonetos because purchased of his widowed
queen with a certain number of oxen. With this terminates the list of
the buildings by which the Agora was encompassed.
Quitting, now, this central point, we proceed northward through
the street called Aphetæ, and observe on the right hand at a short
distance from each other three temples of Athena Keleuthia,
together with the heroa of Iops, Lelex, and Amphiaraos. On the
opposite side apparently, stood the temenos of Tænarian Poseidon,
with a statue of Athena, erected by the Dorian colonists of Italy. We
next arrive at a place called the Hellenion, probably nothing more
than a large open space or square in which the deputies or
ambassadors of foreign states assembled on extraordinary
occasions. Close to this was erected the monument of Talthybios. A
little further on were the altar of Apollo Acreitas, the Gasepton, a
temple of earth, and another altar sacred to Apollo Maleates. At the
end of the street, near the walls of the late city, was a temple of
Dictynna, with the tombs of the kings called Eurypontidæ.
Returning to the Hellenion, and proceeding eastward up the great
public road leading to the bridge Babyx, you saw the temple of
Arsinoë, daughter of Leucippos, and sister to the wives of Castor and
Polydeukes. Further on, near the Phrouria or Barriers, stood a
temple of Artemis; and advancing a little you came to the monument
of the Eleian soothsayers called Iamidæ, and the temple of Maron
and Alpheios, who were among the bravest of those who fell with
Leonidas at Thermopylæ. Beyond this stood the fane of Zeus
Tropæos erected after the reduction of Amyclæ, when all the ancient
inhabitants of Laconia had been brought under the yoke of the
Dorians. Next followed the temple of the Great Mother and the
heroic monuments of Hippolytos and Aulon. On a spot commanding
the bridge stood the temple of Athena Alea.
Setting out once more from the Agora, and advancing up the
street leading towards the east the first building on the left-hand
was called Skias[301] contiguous to the senate-house: it was of a
circular form with a roof like an umbrella, and erected about seven
hundred and sixty years before Christ, by Theodoros of Samos,
inventor of the art of casting statues in iron. Here the Spartan
people held their assemblies even so late as the age of Pausanias,
who relates that the lyre of Timotheus[302] the Milesian, confiscated
as a punishment for his having added four strings to the seven
already in use, was suspended in this building as a warning to all
innovators. Near the Skias was another circular building erected by
Epimenides, containing statues of Olympian Zeus and Aphrodite. On
the other side apparently of the street, in front of the Skias, were
the tombs of Idas and Lynceus, the temple of Kora Soteira, said to
have been built by Orpheus, or Abaris the Hyperboræan, the tomb
of Cynortas and the temple of Castor. Near these were the statues of
Apollo Carneios, and Aphetæos, the latter of which marked the point
whence the suitors of Penelope started in their race for a wife,
running up the street Aphetæ, whence the name. Immediately
beyond this was a square surrounded with porticoes, where all kinds
of cheap wares were anciently sold. Further on stood altars of Zeus,
Athena, and the Dioscuri, all surnamed Amboulioi; opposite which
was the hill called Colona whereon was erected a temple of
Dionysos, and close at hand a temenos sacred to the hero who
conducted the god to Sparta. Not far from the Dionysion was a
temple of Zeus Euanemos, giver of gentle breezes; and immediately
to the right the heroon of Pleuron. On the summit of a hill at a little
distance stood a temple of the Argive Hera, together with the fane
erected in honour of Hera Hypercheiria, built by order of the oracle
after the subsiding of an inundation of the Eurotas. In this edifice
was a very ancient wooden statue of Aphrodite Hera. Close to the
road which passed to the right of the hill was a statue of Etymocles
many times victor in the Olympic games. In descending towards the
Eurotas you beheld a wooden statue of Athena Alea, and a little
above the banks a temple of Zeus Plousios. On the further side of
the river were temples of Ares and Asclepios.
Once more retracing our steps to the Agora, and quitting it by a
street leading towards the west, the first remarkable object that
struck the eye was the cenotaph of Brasidas, and a little beyond it a
spacious and beautiful theatre of white marble.[303] Directly opposite
were the tombs of Leonidas and Pausanias, and near these a cippus,
on which were engraved the names of the heroes who fell at
Thermopylæ, together with those of their fathers. At this spot games
were annually celebrated, in which none but Spartans were allowed
to contend for the prizes. Discourses were likewise here pronounced
in honour of the dead. The multitudes at these games required a
large clear space in which to congregate, and this I suppose to have
been the place called Theomelida, opening on both sides of the
road, and extending as far as the tombs of the Agid Kings, and the
Lesche of the Crotoniatæ. Near this edifice stood the temple of
Asclepios, the tomb of Tænaros, and temples of Poseidon
Hippocourios, and Artemis Ægeinea. Turning back towards the
Lesche, probably round the foot of the Hill of the Issorion,[304] you
observed on the slope of the eminence towards the Tiasa the temple
of Artemis Limnæa the Britomartis of the Cretans, somewhere in the
vicinity of which were temples of Thetis, Chthonian Demeter, and
Olympian Zeus.
Starting from the crossroad at the north-west foot of the Issorion,
on the way to the Dromos, the first edifice which presented itself on
the left was the monument of Eumedes, one of the sons of
Hippocoon. A little further on was a statue of Heracles, and close at
hand, near the entrance to the Dromos, stood the ancient palace of
Menelaos, inhabited in Pausanias’ time by a private individual. Within
the Dromos itself were two gymnasia. This was the most remarkable
building in the western part of the city, from whence branched off
many streets, while numerous public structures clustered round it; to
the north, for example, the temples of the Dioscuri, of the Graces, of
Eileithyia, of Apollo Carneios, and Artemis Hegemona: on the east
the temple of Asclepios Agnitas, and a trophy erected by Polydeukes
after his victory over Lynceus. On the west towards the Platanistas
were statues of the Dioscuri Apheterii, and a little further was the
heroon of Alcon, near which stood the temple of Poseidon
Domatites, near the bridge leading over to the island covered with
plane trees. On the other hand apparently of the road a statue was
erected to Cynisca, daughter of Archidamos, the first lady who ran
horses at Olympia.
 Along the banks of the Tiasa from the Dromos to a line extending
westward from the temple of Dictynna to the upper bridge leading to
the Platanistas, lay a road adorned with numerous public buildings,
among others a portico, behind which were two remarkable
monuments, the heroa of Alcimos and Enaræphoros. Immediately
beyond were the heroa of Dorceus and Sebros, and the fountain
Dorcea flowing between them. The whole of this little quarter
obtained from the latter hero the name of Sebrion. To the right of
the last mentioned heroon was the monument of the poet Alcman;
[305]
beyond which lay the temple of Helen, and near it that of
Heracles close to the modern wall.
Hard by a narrow pathway, striking into the fields from the road
leading eastward from the Dromos, was the temple of Athena
Axiopænos, said to have been erected by Heracles.
Leaving the Dromos by another road running in a south-easterly
direction through the midst of the quarter of the Ægidæ, we behold,
on one hand, the temples of Athena and Hipposthenes, and directly
opposite the latter, a statue of Ares in chains. At a short distance
beyond these was the Lesche Pœcile, and in front of it, the heroon
of Cadmos son of Agenor, those of two of his descendants, Œolycos
and his son Ægeus, and that of Amphilocos. Farther on lay the
temples of Hera Ægophagos, so called because she-goats were
sacrificed to her, and at the foot of the Acropolis, near the theatre,
the temples of Poseidon Genethlios, on either side of which probably
stood an heroon, the one sacred to Cleodæos son of Hyllos, and the
other to Œbalos.
We must now return to the Lesche Pœcile, and following a road
skirting round the hill of the Acropolis, towards the east-south-east,
pass by the monument of Teleclos, and the most celebrated of all
the temples of Asclepios at Sparta, situated close to the Boonetos.
Traversing the street Aphetæ and proceeding along the road leading
to the Limnæ, the first temple on the left was that of Aphrodite, on a
hill, celebrated by Pausanias for having two stories. The statue of
the goddess was here seated, veiled and fettered. A little beyond
was the temple of Hilaeira and Phœbe wherein were statues of the
two goddesses, the countenance of one of which was painted and
adorned by one of the priestesses according to the later rules of art,
but warned by a dream she suffered the other to remain in its
archaic simplicity. Here was preserved an egg adorned with fillets
and suspended from the roof, said to have been brought forth by
Leda. In a building near at hand, certain women wove annually a
tunic for the Apollo of Amyclæ, from which circumstance the edifice
itself obtained the name of Chiton. Next followed the house of the
Tyndaridæ, the heroa of Chilon and Athenæus, and the temple of
Lycurgus, with the tomb of Eucosmos behind it. Near them was the
altar of Lathria and Anaxandra, and directly opposite the monuments
of Theopompos and Eurybiades and Astrabacos. In an island in the
marshes were the temple and altar of Artemis Orthia, and the fane
of Eileithyia.
On the road leading from the Agora to Amyclæ[306] there were few
remarkable monuments. One only, the temple of the Graces, is
mentioned north of the Tiasa, and beyond it the Hippodrome;
towards the west the temple of the Tyndaridæ near the road, and
that of Poseidon Gaiouchos towards the river.[307]
Let us now consider the proofs on which the above description is
based. Pausanias informs us that the citadel was the highest of the
hills of Sparta. Colonel Leake observes that the eminence found in
the quarter which I have assigned to the Cynosuræ is equal in
height to that immediately behind the theatre; but the former is
pointed and appears to have retained its natural shape, while the
summit of the latter has been levelled for building. Now if its height
be still equal, it must have been considerably greater before the
levelling process took place. Therefore the hill behind the theatre
was the Acropolis. Admitting this, the spacious flat or hollow
immediately at its foot on the south-east side must have been the
Agora,[308] for that the Agora was close to the citadel is clear from
history, which represents Lycurgus and king Charilaos escaping
thither from the market-place.[309] Again we know from Pausanias
that it lay a little to the east of the theatre, having nothing between
them but the cenotaph of Brasidas. The position of the Agora being
thus fixed beyond dispute, we arrive with certainty at the direction of
the four great streets that diverge from it; for, first, we know that
the road to the Issorion lay towards the west; the road to Amyclæ
towards the south. The street called Skias terminated at the
extremity of the city between two small hills. These two hills are still
there on the brink of the high ground overlooking the valley of the
Eurotas on the east. This therefore was the direction of the Skias. As
an additional proof, it may be mentioned that the temple of Hera
Hypercheiria was erected in commemoration of the subsiding of an
inundation of the Eurotas, which shows it must have been
somewhere nearly within reach of the waters of that stream. For the
street Aphetæ no direction is left but that towards the north-west or
the north-east; but the latter led to the temple of Artemis Orthia in
the Limnæ, the former to the temple of Dictynna. The street Aphetæ
led therefore to the north-west, no other road being mentioned but
that leading from Mount Thornax over the bridge Babyx, which was
not the street called Aphetæ. Thus we have the direction of every
one of the great streets of Sparta incontrovertibly determined.
Proceed we now to establish the position, with respect to the citadel,
of each of the five tribes who occupied as many quarters of the city.
First we learn from Pausanias that the Pitanatæ inhabited the
quarter round the Issorion:[310] from Pindar[311] and his scholiast that
they dwelt likewise near the banks of the Eurotas. They possessed
therefore the whole southern quarter of the city.[312] As the Limnatæ
obtained their name from the marshes near which they lived, the
position of the Limnæ determined by the chain of reasoning given
above, proves them to have occupied the eastern quarter of the city
directly opposite the temple of Artemis Orthia. That the tribe of the
Ægidæ inhabited all that part extending in one direction from the
Issorion to the Dromos, and in the other from the banks of the Tiasa
to the Boonetos, may almost with certainty be inferred from the
circumstance that the tomb of Ægeus, their founder, was situated in
this quarter, close to the Lesche Pœcile. The quarter of the Mesoatæ
lay in the north-west, between the Dromos and the temple of
Dictynna; for here was found the tomb of Alcman who belonged to
that tribe. All the rest of the site being thus occupied, there remains
only for the tribe of the Cynosuræ that part lying between the road
to Thornax and the temple of Dictynna, where accordingly we must
suppose them to have lived.
With respect to the bridge Babyx, if bridge it really was, it appears
very difficult[313] to believe that it spanned the Tiasa, though we still
find massive ruins of arches in the channel of that stream. There
seems to be much stronger reason for supposing it to have been
thrown over the Eurotas, where the road from the Isthmus traversed
it.[314] We should then understand by the oracle which commanded
Lycurgus to assemble his people between Babyx and Cnacion,[315]
that he was to gather them together anywhere within the precincts
of the city. Accordingly we find in the time of Lycurgus, that the
Agora in the centre of Sparta was the place were the Apellæ[316]
were held. This, too, is evident, by the sense in which the matter
was understood by Plutarch, who, speaking of the victory of the
Bœotians over the Spartans at Tegyra, observes, that by this event it
was made manifest that not the Eurotas, or the space between
Babyx and Cnacion alone produced brave and warlike men.[317] Now
it appears to me, that a few meadows without the city on which
assemblies of the people were occasionally convened could never be
said to produce these people. I have therefore supposed that Babyx
was the bridge by which travellers coming from the Isthmus entered
Sparta.
281. The plan which accompanies the present chapter, based on
the description of Pausanias, agrees in many of the main
points with that given by Mr. Müller in his map of the
Peloponnesos. M. Barbie du Bocage’s Essay on the
Topography of Sparta, upon the whole faulty, is,
nevertheless, in my opinion, right with respect to the
portion of the bridge Babyx which Mr. Müller throws over
the Tiasa, contrary to all the reasonable inferences to be
derived from history. Colonel Leake’s plan, given in his
travels in the Morea, conveys a different idea of Spartan
topography; but I am unable to reconcile his views with the
account of the city in Pausanias, though I very much regret
that the plan I have adopted should not be recommended
by the support of a writer so learned and so ingenious.

282. III. 11–20. Cf. Polyb. v. 22. Liv. xxxiv. 26. seq.

283. In the precincts of this temple, evidently the strongest

place in the city, the Ætolian mercenaries took refuge after
the assassination of Nabis.—Liv. xxxv. 36.

284. Plut. Instit. Lacon. § 10. Chateaubriand, Itin. xi. 110.

Poucqueville’s description of the stream is striking and
picturesque: “The banks,” he says, “are bordered with
never-fading laurels, which, inclining towards each other,
form an arch over its waters, and seem still consecrated to
the deities of whom its purity is a just emblem; while
swans, even of a more dazzling whiteness than the snows
that cover the mountain-tops above, are constantly sailing
up and down the stream.”—Travels, p. 84. The Viscount
Chateaubriand, however, sought in vain for these poetical
birds, and, therefore, evidently considers them fabulous.

285. Strabo’s brief description of the site deserves to be

mentioned: ἔστι μὲν οὖν ἐν κοιλοτέρῳ χωρίῳ τὸ τῆς
 πόλεως ἔδαφος, καίπερ ἀπολαμβάνον ὄρη μεταξύ. viii. 5. t.
ii. p. 185.

286. Xen. Hellen. v. 5. 2.

287. At this ancient city Castor and Polydeukes were worshipped

not as heroes but as divinities. Isoc. Encom. Helen. § 27.
Cf. Pind. Pyth. xi. 60, sqq. Nem. x. 56. Dissen supposes
these tombs to have been vaults under ground in the
Phœbaion.—Comm. p. 508.

288. Steph. de Urb. v. Μενέλαος, p. 551, a. Berkel.—Polyb. v.

22.

289. Xen. Hellen. vi. 5. 27.

290. Thucyd. i. 10.

291. See Müller, Dor. ii. 48.

292. Paus. Olymp. vi. 27. Diss. ἡ Πιτάνη φυλή. Hesych. Cf.
Herod. iii. 55. ix. 53. Eurip. Troad. 1101. Thucyd. I. 20. et
schol. Plut. de Exil. § 6. Apophth. Lacon. Miscell. 48. Plin.
H. N. iv. 8. Athen. i. 57. Near this κώμη were the villages of
Œnos, Onoglæ and Stathmæ, celebrated for their wines.

293. Athen. iv. 74.

294. Strab. viii. 4. p. 184. 5. p. 187. The marshes existing in this

quarter anciently had been drained by the age of Strabo:—
ἀλλ᾽ οὐδέν γε μέρος αὐτοῦ λιμνάζει· τὸ δὲ παλαιὸν ἐλίμαζε
τὸ προάστειον, καὶ ἐκάλουν αὐτὸ Λίμνας· καὶ τὸ τοῦ
Διονύσου ἱερὸν ἐν Λίμναις ἐφ᾽ ὑγροῦ βεβήκος ἐτύγχανε·
νῦν δ᾽ ἐπὶ ξηροῦ τὴν ἵδρυσιν ἔχει. 5. p. 185. seq.

295. Hesych. in v. Berkel. ad Steph. Byzant. p. 490. Schol. ad

Callim. in Dian. 94. Spanh. Observ. in loc. p. 196.
296. Steph de Urb. in v. p. 554. b. who refers to Strabo (viii. 6.
p. 187). The words of the geographer are Μεσόαν δ᾽ οὐ τὴς
χώρας εἶναι μέρος, τῆς Σπάρτης δὲ καθάπερ καὶ τὸ
Λιμναῖον. Paus. vii. 20. 8.

297. Herod. iv. 149.

298. Leake, Trav. in Morea, v. i. p. 154.

299. Cf. Chateaub. Itin. i. 112. Similar, also, is the testimony of

Mr. Douglas. “The mixture of the romantic with the rich,
which still diversifies its aspect, and the singularly
picturesque form of all its mountains, do not allow us to
wonder that even Virgil should generally desert his native
Italy for the landscape of Greece; whoever has viewed it in
the tints of a Mediterranean spring, will agree with me in
attributing much of the Grecian genius to the influence of
scenery and climate.” Essay, &c. p. 52.

300. Plut. Apophtheg. Lacon. Archid. 6. Lycurg. 7.

301. Σκιὰς, τὸ ᾠδεῖον ἐκαλεῖτο τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων κατὰ τὴν

ἀρχαίαν φωνήν. κ. τ. λ.—Etym. Mag. 717. 36. seq.

302. Cf. Plut. Agis, § 10.

303. This theatre, as Mr. Douglas has observed, is the only

remaining fragment of ancient Sparta, the other ruins still
visible on its site, belonging all to Roman times.—Essay on
certain Points of Resemblance between the Ancient and
Modern Greeks, p. 23.

304. Ἰσσώριον, ὄρος τῆς Λακωνικῆς ἀφ’ οὗ ἡ Ἄρτεμις Ἰσσωρία.

—Steph. Byz. in v. 426. d. with the note of Berkel. Cf.
Hesych. in v. Polyæn. Strat. ii. 1. 14. Plut. Agesil. § 32.
305. Ἀλκμάν, Λάκων ἀπὸ Μεσσόας.—He was an erotic poet said
to have been descended from servile parents.—Suid. i. p.
178. ed. Port.

306. Οὗ τὸ τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος ἱερόν. Strab. viii. 5. t. ii. p. 185.

307. Xen. Hellen. vi. 5. 30.

308. Plut. Lycurg. § 11. Lacon. Apoph. Lycurg. 7.

309. Plut. Lycurg. § 5.

310. Polyæn. Stratag. ii. 1. 14. with the notes of Casaub. and
Maasvic.

311. Olymp. vi. 28. Cf. Spanheim, ad Callim. in Dian. 172.

312. Cf. Athen. i. 57.

313. This, however, is the opinion of Mr. Müller, Dor. ii. 456.

314. See the passage in which Xenophon (v. 5. 27), describes

the advance of the Thebans upon Sparta.

315. Plut. Lycurg. § 6.

316. Gœttl. ad Aristot. Pol. Excurs. i. p. 464.

317. Pelop. § 17.

 BOOK II.
EDUCATION.
 CHAPTER I.
THEORY OF EDUCATION.—BIRTH OF CHILDREN.—
INFANTICIDE.

Whether on education the Greeks thought more wisely than we do

or not,[318] they certainly contemplated the subject from a more
elevated point of view. They regarded it as the matrix in which
future generations are fashioned, and receive that peculiar
temperament and character belonging to the institutions that
presided at their birth. Their theories were so large as to
comprehend the whole developement of individual existence, from
the moment when the human germ is quickened into life until the
grave closes the scene, and in many cases looked still further; for
the rites of initiation and a great part of their ethics had reference to
another world. On this account we find their legislators possessed by
extreme solicitude respecting the character of those teachers into
whose hands the souls of the people were to be placed, to receive
the first principles of good or evil, to be invigorated, raised, and
purified by the former, or by the latter to be perverted, or
precipitated down the slopes of vice and effeminacy, by which
nations sink from freedom to servitude. Among them, moreover, it
was never matter of doubt, whether the light of knowledge should
be allowed to stream upon the summits of society only, or be
suffered to descend into its lower depths and visit the cottages of
the poor. Whatever education had to impart was, in most states,
imparted to all the citizens, as far as their leisure or their capacity
would permit them to receive it. The whole object, indeed, of
education among the Greeks was to create good citizens, from which
it has by some been inferred that they confined their views to the
delivering of secular instruction. But this is to take a narrow and
ignorant view of the subject, since religion was not only an element
of education but regarded as of more importance than all its other
elements taken together. For it had not escaped the Hellenic
legislators, that in many circumstances of life man is placed beyond
the reach and scrutiny of laws and public opinion, where he must be
free to act according to the dictates of conscience, which, if not
rightly trained, purified, and rendered clearsighted by religion, will
often dictate amiss. It is of the utmost moment, therefore, that in
these retired situations man should not consider himself placed
beyond the range of every eye, and so be tempted to lay the
foundation of habits which, begun in secrecy, may soon acquire
boldness to endure the light and set the laws themselves at
defiance. Accordingly over those retired moments in which man at
first sight appears to commune with himself alone, religion was
called in to teach that there were invisible inspectors, who
registered, not only the evil deeds and evil words they witnessed,
but even the evil thoughts and emotions of the heart, the first
impulses to crime in the lowest abysses of the mind. Consistently
with this view of the subject, we discover everywhere in Greek
history and literature traces of an almost puritanical scrupulousness
in whatever appeared to belong to religion, so that in addressing the
Athenians St. Paul himself was induced to reproach them with the
excesses of their devotional spirit, which degenerated too frequently
into superstition. But the original design with which this spirit was
cultivated was wise and good, its intention being to rescue men from
the sway of their inferior passions,—from envy, from avarice, from
selfishness, and to inspire them with faith in their own natural
dignity by representing their actions as of sufficient importance to
excite the notice, provoke the anger, or conciliate the favour of the
immortal gods. This religion, which base and sordid minds regard as
humiliating to humanity, was by Grecian lawgivers and founders of
states contemplated as a kind of holy leaven designed by God
himself, to pervade, quicken, and expand society to its utmost
dimensions.
The question which commands so much attention in modern
states, viz. whether education should be national and uniform,
likewise much occupied the thoughts of ancient statesmen, and it is
known that in most cases they decided in the affirmative. It may
however be laid down as an axiom, that among a phlegmatic and
passive-minded people, where the government has not yet acquired
its proper form and developement, the establishment of a national
system of education, complete in all its parts and extending to the
whole body of the citizens, must be infallibly pernicious. For such as
the government is at the commencement such very nearly will it
continue, as was proved by the example of Crete and Sparta. For the
Cretan legislators, arresting the progress of society at a certain point
by the establishment of an iron system of education, before the
popular mind had acquired its full growth and expansion, dwarfed
the Cretan people completely, and by preventing their keeping pace
with their countrymen rendered them in historical times inferior to all
their neighbours. In Sparta, again, the form of polity given to the
state by Lycurgus, wonderful for the age in which it was framed,
obtained perpetuity solely by the operation of his pædonomical
institutions. The imperfection, however, of the system arose from
this circumstance, that the Spartan government was framed too
early in the career of civilisation. Had its lawgiver lived a century or
two later, he would have established his institutions on a broader
and more elevated basis, so that they would have remained longer
nearly on a level with the progressive institutions of neighbouring
states. But he fixed the form of the Spartan commonwealth when
the general mind of Greece had scarcely emerged from barbarism;
and as the rigid and unyielding nature of his laws forbade any great
improvement, Sparta continued to bear about her in the most
refined ages of Greece innumerable marks of the rude period in
which she had risen. From this circumstance flowed many of her
crimes and misfortunes. Forbidden to keep pace with her neighbours
in knowledge and refinement, which by rendering them inventive,
enterprising, and experienced, elevated them to power, she was
compelled, in order to maintain her ground, to have recourse to
astuteness, stratagem, and often to perfidy.
The Spartan system, it is well known, made at first, and for some
ages, little or no use of books. But this, at certain stages of society,
was scarcely an evil;[319] for knowledge can be imparted, virtues
implanted and cherished, and great minds ripened to maturity
without their aid. The teacher, in this case, rendered wise by
meditation and experience, takes the place of a book, and by oral
communication, by precept, and by example, instructs, and
disciplines, and moulds his pupil into what he would have him be. By
this process both are benefited. The preceptor’s mind, kept in
constant activity, acquires daily new force and expansion; and the
pupil’s in like manner. In a state, therefore, like that of Sparta, in the
age of Lycurgus, it was possible to acquire all necessary knowledge
without books, of which indeed very few existed. But afterwards,
when the Ionian republics began to be refined and elevated by
philosophy and literature, Sparta, unable to accompany them, fell
into the background: still preserving, however, her warlike habits she
was enabled on many occasions to overawe and subdue them.
Among the Athenians,[320] though knowledge was universally
diffused, there existed, properly speaking, no system of national
education. The people, like their state, were in perpetual progress,
aiming at perfection, and sometimes approaching it; but precipitated
by the excess of their intellectual and physical energies into
numerous and constantly recurring errors. While Sparta, as we have
seen, remained content with the wisdom indigenous to her soil,
scanty and imperfect as it was, Athens converted herself into one
vast mart, whither every man who had anything new to
communicate hastened eagerly, and found the sure reward of his
ingenuity. Philosophers, sophists, geometricians, astronomers,
artists, musicians, actors, from all parts of Greece and her most
distant colonies, flocked to Athens to obtain from its quick-sighted,
versatile, impartial, and most generous people that approbation
which in the ancient world constituted fame. Therefore, although the
laws regulated the material circumstances of the schools and
gymnasia, prescribed the hours at which they should be opened and
closed, and watched earnestly over the morals both of preceptors
and pupils, there was a constant indraught of fresh science, a
perpetually increasing experience and knowledge of the world, and,
consequent thereupon, a deep-rooted conviction of their superiority
over their neighbours, an impatience of antiquated forms, and an
audacious reliance on their own powers and resources which
betrayed them into the most hazardous schemes of ambition.
But, by pushing too far their literary and philosophical studies, the
Athenians were induced at length to neglect the cultivation of the
arts of war, which they appeared to regard as a low and servile
drudgery. And this capital error, in spite of all their acquirements and
achievements in eloquence and philosophy,—in spite of their lofty
speculation and “style of gods,” brought their state to a premature
dissolution; while Sparta, with inferior institutions, and ignorance
which even the children at Athens would have laughed at, was
enabled much longer to preserve its existence, from its impassioned
application to the use of arms, aided, perhaps, by a stronger and
more secluded position. From this it appears that of all sciences that
of war is the chiefest, since, where this is cultivated, a nation may
maintain its independence without the aid of any other; whereas the
most knowing, refined, and cultivated men, if they neglect the use of
arms, will not be able to stand their ground against a handful even
of barbarians. They mistake, too, who look upon literature and the
sciences as a kind of palladium against barbarism,[321] for a whole
nation may read and write, like the inhabitants of the Birman
empire, without being either civilised or wise; and may possess the
best books and the power to read them, without being able to profit
by the lessons of wisdom they contain, as is proved by the example
of the Greeks and Romans, who perished rather from a surfeit of
knowledge than from any lack of instruction. But it is time, perhaps,
to quit these general speculations, and proceed to develope, as far
as existing monuments will enable us, the several systems of
education which prevailed in the different parts of Greece.
Among Hellenic legislators the care of children commenced before
their birth. Their mothers were subject while pregnant to the
operation of certain rules; their food and exercises were regulated,
and in most cases the laws, or at least the manners, required them
to lead a sedentary, inactive, and above all a tranquil life.[322]
Physicians, guided by experience, prescribed a somewhat
abstemious diet; and wine was prohibited, or only permitted to be
taken with water, which, where reason is consulted, we find to be
the practice at the present day. But Lycurgus, in the article of
exercise, gave birth to, or, at least, sanctioned, customs wholly
different.[323] Even while enceinte his women were required to be
abroad, engaged in their usual athletic recreations, eating as before
and drinking as before.
On this occasion, too, as on all others, the deep-rooted piety of
the nation displayed itself. Prayers and sacrifices were habitually
offered up by all married persons for children, as afterwards by
Christian ladies to the saints;[324] and these of course were not
discontinued, when it appeared by unequivocal signs that their
desires had begun to receive their fulfilment. What the divinities
were whom on these occasions the Athenian matrons invoked under
the name of Tritopatores, it seems difficult to determine. Demon in
Suidas[325] supposes them to be the winds; but Philochoros, the most
learned of ancient writers on the antiquities of Attica, imagined them
to be the first three sons of Helios and Gaia. According to some they
were called Cottos or Coros, Gyges or Gyes, and Briareus; according
to others Amalcides, Protocles, and Protocleon, the watchers and
guardians of the wind. There are authors, moreover, by whom they
have been confounded with the Dii Kabyri of Samothrace.
During the period of their confinement women were supposed to
be under the protection of Eileithyia. This goddess, who by Olen the
Lycian was considered older than Kronos,[326] had the honour as
certain mythical legends relate, of being the mother of love,[327]
though several ancient authors appear to have confounded her with
Pepromene or Fate, others with Hera, and others again with Artemis
or the moon. The traditions of the mythology respecting this divinity
were various. Her worship seems to have made its first appearance
among the Greeks in the island of Delos, whither she is said to have
come from the country of the Hyperboreans, to lend her aid to Leto,
when beneath the palm tree, which Zeus caused to spring up over
her,[328] she gave birth to the gods of night and day. From that time
forward she was held in veneration by the Delians, who in her
honour offered up sacrifices, chaunting the hymns of Olen, whence
we may infer she was a Pelasgian deity.
 From thence her name and worship were diffused through the
other islands and states of Hellas; though the Cretans pretended
that she was born at Amnisos in the Knossian territory, and was a
daughter of Hera. The Athenians, who erected a temple to Eileithyia
appeared to favour both traditions, since of the two statues which
were found in her fane the more ancient was said to have been
brought from Delos by Erisicthon, while the second, dedicated by
Phædra, came from Crete. Among the Athenians, alone, as an
indication of the national modesty, the wooden images of this
mysterious divinity were significantly veiled to the toes.[329]
The simple delicacy of remoter ages required women to be
attended, while becoming mothers, by individuals of their own sex.
But the contrary practice, now general among civilised nations,
prevailed early at Athens, where the study of medicine, in which the
accoucheur’s[330] art is included, was prohibited to women and
slaves. The consequences bear stronger testimony to the refined
taste and truly feminine feelings of the Athenian ladies than a
thousand panegyrics. Numbers, rather than submit to the immodest
injunctions of fashion, declined all aid, and perished in their harems:
observing which, and moved strongly by the desire to preserve the
lives of her noble-minded countrywomen, a female citizen named
Agnodice, disguised as a man, acquired a competent knowledge of
the theory and practice of physic in the medical school of
Herophilos; she then confided her secret to the women who
universally determined to avail themselves of her services, and in
consequence her practice became so extensive that the jealousy of
the other practitioners was violently excited. In revenge, therefore,
as she still maintained her disguise, they preferred an accusation
against her in the court of Areiopagos as a general seducer. To clear
herself Agnodice made known her sex, upon which the envious
Æsculapians prosecuted her under the provisions of the old law. In
behalf of their benefactress the principal gentlewomen appeared in
court, and mingling the highest testimony in favour of Agnodice with
many bitter reproaches, they not only obtained her acquittal, but the
repeal of the obnoxious law, and permission for any free woman to
become an accoucheuse.[331]
 Mention is made by ancient writers of several rude and hardy
tribes, whose women, like those of Hindùstân at the present day,
stood in very little need of the midwife’s aid. Thus Varro,[332]
speaking of the rough shepherdesses of Italy, observes that among
the countrywomen of Illyria, bringing forth children was regarded as
a slight matter; for that, stepping aside from their work in the fields,
they would return presently with an infant in their arms, having first
bathed it in some fountain or running stream, appearing rather to
have found, than given birth to, a child. Nor are the manners of
these uncultivated people at all altered in modern times, as appears
from an anecdote related to Pietro Vittore,[333] by Francesco
Sardonati, professor of Latin at Ragusa, who said that he saw a
woman go out empty-handed to a forest for wood, and return
shortly afterwards with a bundle on her head and a new-born infant
in her arms. At Athens, however, where the women were peculiarly
tender and delicate, the young mother remained within doors full six
weeks,[334] when the festival of the fortieth day was celebrated, after
which she went forth, as our ladies do to be churched, to offer up
sacrifices and return thanks in the temple of Artemis or some other
divinity.
New-born infants, when designed to be reared, were at Athens
and in the rest of Greece bathed in cold water: at Sparta in wine,
with the view of producing convulsions and death should the child
be feeble, whereas, were its constitution strong and vigorous, it
would thus they imagined, “acquire a greater degree of firmness,
and get a temper in proportion, as Potter[335] expresses it, like steel
in the quenching.” Swaddling-bands[336] also, in use throughout the
rest of Greece, were banished from Sparta, which led the way
therefore to that improved system of infant management advocated
by Rousseau, Lacépède and others,[337] and now generally adopted
in this country, though but partially in France. The ceremonies and
customs of the Greeks were a kind of symbolical language, many
times containing important meaning, and always perhaps indicative
of the character and familiar feelings of the race. Much stress was
laid on the thing wherein the infant was placed upon its entrance
into the world. This, among the Athenians, consisted of a wrapper
adorned with an embroidered figure of the Gorgon’s head, the
device represented on the shield of Athena, tutelar divinity of the
state. From the beginning every citizen seemed thus to be placed
under the immediate shelter of that goddess’s ægis which should be
extended over him in peace and in war. In other parts of Greece the
child’s first bed, and too frequently his last, was a shield.[338] In
accordance with this custom we find Alcmena cradling her twin boys
Heracles and Iphicles in Amphytrion’s buckler; and the same practice
prevailed, as might have been expected, at Sparta, where war
constituted to men the sole object of life.[339] Elsewhere other
symbols spoke to the future sense rather than the present of the
new citizen. In agricultural countries the military symbol was
replaced by a winnowing van, not unfrequently of gold or other
costly materials;[340] though it may be doubted whether the word so
rendered meant not rather a cradle in the form of that rustic
implement.
In another custom, long on these occasions observed, we discern
traces of that serpent-worship which at different epochs diffused
itself so widely over the world. Among opulent and noble families at
Athens new-born children were laid on golden amulets in the form of
dragons by which they were supposed to commemorate Athena’s
delivery of Erichthonios to the care of two guardians of that
description.[341]
But under certain circumstances, instead of the joy and gladness
by which the noble and the great are greeted on their entrance into
the world, the birth of a child was, as in Thrace,[342] an event fraught
with sorrow and misery. It announced in fact the approach of an
enemy, of one who, if he survived, must snatch from them a portion
of what already would scarcely sustain life. Together with the
announcement of his birth, therefore, came the awful consciousness
that war must be made on him—that he must in short be cast forth,
a scape-goat for the sins of society, not for his own—that his parents
who should have cherished him, whose best solace he should have
been, must steel their hearts and close fast their ears against the
voice of nature, and become his executioners. The poor-laws of
Greece, or rather their substitutes for poor-laws, were exceedingly