DCN ALA-3
DCN ALA-3
DCN ALA-3
Kiranbhai B.
E.No:240203010005
DCN ALA-3
LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small geographical area (e.g., a home
or office).
WAN (Wide Area Network): Spans large areas (e.g., the internet).
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers a city or campus.
1. Features:
2. Advantages:
o Enhanced Communication: Supports instant communication through
emails, chats, or video conferencing.
o Data Sharing: Simplifies sharing of information across devices or
networks.
o Cost Efficiency: Reduces expenses by enabling centralized resources
and remote working.
o Remote Access: Supports work from anywhere using secure
connections.
o Automation: Streamlines processes like data backups and software
updates.
3. Disadvantages:
o Security Vulnerabilities: Susceptible to hacking, phishing, and
malware attacks.
o Complexity: Setting up and managing networks require technical
expertise.
o Cost: Initial setup of infrastructure and ongoing maintenance can be
expensive.
o Dependence: Network failures or downtimes can halt operations
entirely.
o Performance Issues: Overloaded networks or poor hardware can lead
to latency and reduced efficiency.
3.Explain : Basics of cryptography .
4. Cryptographic Algorithms:
o Block Ciphers: Encrypt fixed-size blocks of data at a time. For
example, AES encrypts data in 128-bit blocks.
o Stream Ciphers: Encrypt data bit by bit or byte by byte. For example,
RC4 is a stream cipher that operates on continuous streams of data.
5. Hash Functions:
o Definition: A hash function takes an input (or 'message') and returns a
fixed-size string of bytes (hash value). Hash functions are used for data
integrity checks, digital signatures, and password storage.
o Properties:
6. Digital Signatures:
o Definition: A digital signature is used to verify the authenticity and
integrity of a message. It uses asymmetric encryption: the sender signs
the message with their private key, and the receiver verifies it using the
sender’s public key.
o Use Case: Ensures that a message hasn't been tampered with and
confirms the identity of the sender.
7. Public Key Infrastructure (PKI):
o Definition: A framework that manages public and private keys used in
asymmetric encryption. It includes certificate authorities (CAs) that
issue digital certificates, ensuring that public keys belong to their
claimed owners.
o Example: SSL/TLS protocols use PKI for secure communication over
the web.
Applications of Cryptography:
1. Secure Communication: Cryptography is used to protect communication
channels, such as emails, messaging apps, and VPNs.
2. Data Integrity: Ensures that the data has not been altered during
transmission.
3. Authentication: Verifies the identity of the sender or receiver, ensuring that
communication is with the intended party.
4. Digital Payments: Cryptographic protocols are essential in securing online
payment systems and transactions.
5. Password Protection: Hash functions are used to securely store and verify
user passwords without storing them in plaintext.
Advantages of Cryptography:
1. Confidentiality: Ensures that data is only accessible to authorized users.
2. Integrity: Guarantees that data has not been modified during transmission.
3. Authentication: Confirms the identity of users or devices involved in
communication.
4. Non-Repudiation: Prevents parties from denying the authenticity of their
messages or transactions.
Disadvantages of Cryptography:
1. Complexity: Advanced cryptographic techniques can be complex to
implement and manage.
2. Performance Overhead: Encryption and decryption can be computationally
intensive, potentially impacting performance.
3. Key Management: Securing and managing cryptographic keys, especially in
large systems, can be challenging.
Example:
In online banking, cryptography is used to protect transactions. When a user logs
into their bank account, their password is hashed and compared with the stored
hash. Once logged in, any financial transactions are encrypted using symmetric
encryption, and the transaction’s authenticity is verified with a digital signature.
4. What is Network ?with Example?
Examples:
1. Home Network: A Wi-Fi network in a household connecting devices like
smartphones, laptops, smart TVs, and IoT appliances. This allows internet
access and file sharing between devices.
2. Office Network (LAN): In an organization, computers, printers, and servers
are connected to share files, use shared printers, and access centralized
applications or databases.
3. Internet (WAN): The largest network in the world, connecting billions of
devices globally, enabling services like email, web browsing, and cloud
computing.
Such networks play a crucial role in modern life, driving efficiency and
collaboration across various fields.
.
5.Explain in brief about LAN,MAN,WAN and WLAN with
Example and Diagram.
2. Half-Duplex Mode:
o Definition: Data flows in both directions but only one direction at a
time.
o Features: Requires control to manage direction of communication.
o Example: Communication via walkie-talkies, where one user speaks,
and the other listens alternately.
3. Full-Duplex Mode:
o Definition: Data flows simultaneously in both directions, allowing
continuous communication.
o Features: Efficient but requires more bandwidth and sophisticated
systems.
o Example: Telephone calls or online video conferencing.
Comparison:
Medium
Half-Duplex Two-way Walkie-Talkies
Fast Telephones
Full-Duplex Two-way
7.Explain: Types of Connection Explain.
1. Point-to-Point Connection
Definition: A dedicated link between two devices, where data is transferred
directly without interference from other devices.
Features:
Example:
2. Multipoint Connection
Definition: A shared link where multiple devices are connected to a single
communication channel.
Features:
Use Cases: Ideal for networks where devices don't require constant,
dedicated communication.
Comparison Table:
Advantages:
1. Data Centralization: Ensures all important files are stored in one place,
simplifying management and access.
2. Improved Collaboration: Multiple users can work on the same documents
or resources simultaneously.
3. Access Control: File access can be controlled through user authentication
and permission settings, ensuring data security.
Disadvantages:
1. Single Point of Failure: If the file server goes down, all files may become
inaccessible until the server is restored.
2. Performance Bottleneck: Multiple users accessing large files at the same
time can strain server resources and reduce performance.
3. Security Risks: Without proper security measures, a file server can become a
target for data breaches or unauthorized access.
Example: In an office environment, a file server might host shared documents like
contracts, reports, and presentations that employees need to access regularly.
The file server may also be equipped with automated backups to ensure data
recovery in case of hardware failure.
9. Explain: Application Server.
Advantages:
1. Centralized Management: Easier to manage and maintain applications
when hosted on a single server.
2. Scalability: Application servers can be scaled horizontally to handle more
users or transactions, especially in cloud environments.
3. Security: Built-in features for securing applications, like user authentication,
data encryption, and access control.
4. Efficiency: Reduces the need for users to have powerful local machines since
the server performs much of the processing.
5. Multi-Tier Architecture: Supports a multi-tier architecture, separating
presentation, logic, and data layers for more modular and maintainable
applications.
Disadvantages:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is one of the core protocols in the Internet
Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) and plays a vital role in ensuring reliable communication
over the internet. It is widely used in applications where data transmission must
be accurate and ordered, such as web browsing, email, and file transfer.
3. Error Detection:
o TCP uses checksums to detect errors in the transmitted data. If the
checksum does not match the data upon arrival, the packet is
considered corrupt, and the receiver requests retransmission.
o TCP ensures data integrity by checking the entire data segment for
errors, which includes both the header and payload.
4. Flow Control:
o TCP uses a sliding window protocol for flow control. This allows the
sender to send multiple packets before receiving an acknowledgment,
but the number of unacknowledged packets is limited to a predefined
window size.
o This mechanism ensures that the sender does not overwhelm the
receiver with too much data at once, and the receiver can process the
data at its own pace.
5. Congestion Control:
o TCP employs several algorithms to prevent network congestion and
control the rate at which data is sent, such as Slow Start, Congestion
Avoidance, Fast Retransmit, and Fast Recovery.
o If the network is congested (i.e., packet loss occurs due to buffer
overflow), TCP will slow down the transmission rate until the
congestion is resolved.
6. Connection Termination:
o After the data transfer is complete, the connection must be properly
closed using a four-way handshake:
1. The sender sends a FIN (finish) packet to the receiver, indicating
that it has finished sending data.
2. The receiver acknowledges the FIN packet with an ACK.
3. The receiver then sends a FIN packet to the sender, indicating it is
finished.
4. The sender acknowledges the receiver’s FIN packet with an ACK,
and the connection is closed.
TCP Header:
A TCP packet consists of a header and data. The header contains several fields,
including:
Source and Destination Ports: Identifies the sending and receiving
applications.
Sequence Number: Used to reorder packets and detect missing ones.
Acknowledgment Number: Indicates the next byte expected by the
receiver.
Flags: Used to control the flow of the connection (e.g., SYN, ACK, FIN).
Window Size: Indicates the size of the receiver's buffer and helps with flow
control.
Checksum: Used for error detection.
Applications of TCP:
1. Web Browsing (HTTP/HTTPS): When you access a website, TCP ensures
that the data (HTML, images, etc.) is reliably transmitted from the web
server to your browser.
2. Email (SMTP, IMAP, POP3): Ensures that emails are reliably sent and
received.
3. File Transfer (FTP): TCP is used to ensure reliable transmission of files,
ensuring they are received without errors or corruption.
4. Remote Login (SSH, Telnet): Guarantees that remote login sessions are
stable and that commands are reliably transmitted.
Advantages of TCP:
1. Reliability: Guarantees that data is delivered correctly and in order.
2. Flow and Congestion Control: Prevents network congestion and ensures
data is sent at a rate that can be handled by the receiver.
3. Error Detection and Correction: Ensures data integrity by detecting and
correcting errors.
4. Ordered Data Transmission: Ensures that data is received in the same order
in which it was sent.
Disadvantages of TCP:
1. Overhead: The reliability mechanisms (handshakes, acknowledgments,
retransmissions) introduce overhead, making TCP slower than other
protocols like UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
2. Complexity: TCP’s features, such as flow control, congestion control, and
error handling, add complexity to both its implementation and operation.
3. Latency: The process of establishing connections (handshakes) and waiting
for acknowledgments can introduce latency.
Example: A user accessing a website over HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
uses TCP to ensure that web pages are loaded correctly, that no data is lost during
transmission, and that the entire web page is displayed in the correct order.