MODULE 2

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA , LOGIC GATES AND

COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS

Important topics

1. Basic Theorems and Definitions.

2. SOP ,POS and canonical forms.
3.Basic gates and universal gates with figure and truth table.
4.Implement NOT,AND,OR using NOR, NAND gates.
5.Solve K map with examples
6.Design logic diagrams.

1.Axiomatic definitions of Boolean Algebra

In 1854, George Boole developed an algebraic system now called Boolean algebra.
For the formal definition of Boolean algebra, we shall employ the postulates formulated by
E. V. Huntington in 1904.
Definition
• Boolean Algebra is used to analyse and simplify the digital (logic) circuits. It uses only
the binary numbers i.e. 0 and 1.
• It is an algebraic structure defined on a set of at least two elements B = {0, 1}, together
with three binary operators denoted by ( “+”, “.”, “-” ) that satisfies the following
basic identities.

OR AND
operator operator

→NOT operator

In addition to above we have

Absorption law

OR of a variable with the AND of that variable and another variable is equal to
that variable itself

A+(A.B)=A

AND of a variable with the OR of that variable and another variable is equal to
that variable itself

A.(A+B)=A

Idempotence law

AND of a variable itself is equal to that variable only A.A=A

OR of a variable itself is equal to that variable only A +A=A

Redundant Literal Rule (RLR)

A+A’B=A+B →( OR of a variable with the AND of the compliment of that variable

with another variable , is equal to OR of two variables)

A(A’+B) =AB→ (AND of a variable with the OR of the compliment of that variable
with another variable , is equal to AND of two variables)

Consensus Theorem

AB + A’C + BC = AB + A’C
(A + B) + (A’ + C) + (B + C) = (A + B) + (A’ + C)

2.Two-valued Boolean Algebra

A two‐valued Boolean algebra is defined on a set of two elements, B = {0, 1}, with rules for
binary operators + , . , - (OR,AND &NOT), with truth table as below.
3.Basic Theorems and Definitions
4.Boolean Functions, Simplifications of Boolean functions using axioms and
theorems.
• Every Boolean expression must be simplified to a simple form as possible in order to
reduce hardware cost and complexity
Techniques for these reductions are
• Multiply all variables necessary to remove brackets
• Look for identical terms
• Look for a variable and its negation in the same term, this term can be dropped.

Boolean algebra Simplification Table

Examples:
1. Expression f(A,B)=A.(A+B) reduced to A
 2.Expression f(A,B,C)=(A+B)(A+C) reduced to A+B.C

3.Expression f(A,B,C)=AB(B’C+AC) reduced to ABC

5.Standard forms-POS, SOP and Canonical Form of Boolean Functions.

To implement a Boolean function with lesser number of gates we have to minimize

literals(variables)and the number of terms. Boolean variables are either in complimented form or
in uncomplimented form and the terms are arranged in one of the two standard forms of Boolean
functions
1. Sum of Product form (SOP)
2. Product of Sum form (POS)

Sum of Product (SOP) Form

• In this SOP form of Boolean function representation, the variables are operated by AND
(product) to form a product term and all these product terms are ORed (summed or added)
together to get the final function.

• A sum-of-products form can be formed by adding (or summing) two or more product terms
using a Boolean addition operation.

• Here the product terms are defined by using the AND operation and the sum term is
defined by using OR operation

SOP form can be obtained by

• Writing an AND term for each input combination, which produces HIGH output.

• Writing the input variables if the value is 1 , and write the complement of the variable if
its value is 0.

• OR the AND terms to obtain the output function.

• Ex: Boolean expression f(A,B,C)= A’BC + AB’C + ABC ‘ + ABC

By taking binary values expression can be written as →011+101+110+111
In truth table mark 1 corresponding to the terms in the expression.
Truth Table

A B C Y / OUTPUT
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
F=A’BC+AB'C+ABC’+ABC

Canonical SOP
If each term in SOP contains all the literals then these are known as canonical(standard) SOP
expression
Eg. 1:AB’ + A’B→ Canonical form
Eg 2:AB’+ABC→ Non Canonical since the literal C is missing in the first term.
 To convert an expression from non canonical SOP to Canonical SOP
• Multiply each SOP by ( X + X’) where X is the missing variable & expand
• Repeat above steps until all resulting product terms contains all the variable in
either complimented or normal form

Above Eg.2 Expression can be covert to canonical form by multiplying (C+C’) to first term

ie. AB’.(C+C’)+ABC → AB’C+AB’C’+ABC

Product of Sums (POS) Form

In this POS form, all the variables are ORed, i.e. written as sums to form sum terms.All these sum
terms are ANDed (multiplied) together to get the product-of-sum form. This form is exactly
opposite to the SOP form. So this can also be said as “Dual of SOP form”.POS form can be obtained
by
• Writing an OR term for each input combination, which produces LOW output.
• Writing the input variables if the value is 0, and write the complement of the variable if
its value is 1.
• AND the OR terms to obtain the output function.
Ex: Boolean expression for function F = (A + B + C) (A + B + C ‘) (A + B’ + C) (A’ + B + C)
By taking binary values expression can be written as → (0+0+0)(0+0+1)(0+1+0)(1+0+0)
In truth table mark 1 corresponding to the terms in the expression.
Truth Table

A B C Y / OUTPUT
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
F= (A + B + C) (A + B + C ‘) (A + B’ + C) (A’ + B + C)

Converting POS to canonical POS form

ADD by ( X X’) where X is the missing variable
Apply rule → A + BC = ( A + B) ( A + C)
Repeat above steps until all resulting sum terms contains all the variable in either
complimented or normal form
Eg. 1:(A+B’).(A’+B)→ Canonical form
Eg 2:(A+B’).(A+B+C)→ Non Canonical since the literal C is missing in the first term.

Above Eg.2 Expression can be covert to canonical form by multiplying (CC’) to first term

ie. :(A+B’)+(C.C’).(A+B+C)→ (A+B’+C)(A+B’+C’)(A+B+C)

Example 2:
Max term and Min Term

Min term(m) or( ∑ ) • MAXTERM( M ) or ( П )

• Each individual product term in SOP • Each individual sum term in POS is
is called minterm( m0,m1,m2..) called maxterm(M1,M2,M3….)
0→A’ 0→A
1→A 1→A’

• A binary variable may appear in its • These are the sum terms which
normal form and compliment form contains all the variables in either
• Consider 2 binary variables , A & B normal form or compliment form
combined with an AND operation • 2^n different maxterm can be
• Since each variable may appear in obtained by writing the binary
either form, there are four possible equivalent of numbers
combinations; A’B’ , A’B , AB’ &
AB
• Each of these four AND terms is
called a minterm or standard product
• 2^n different minterm can be
obtained by writing the binary
equivalent of numbers
KARNAUGH MAP (K MAP)

• A Karnaugh map or a K-map refers to a pictorial method that is utilized to minimize various
Boolean expressions without using the Boolean algebra theorems along with the equation
manipulations.
• A Karnaugh map can be a special version of the truth table.
• We can easily minimize various expressions that have 2 to 4 variables using a K-map.
• K-map can easily take two forms, namely, Sum of Product or SOP and Product of Sum or POS
• In K-map, if the number of variables is three, the number of cells is 23=8, and if the number of
variables is four, the number of cells is 24=16.
• The K-map takes the SOP and POS forms. The K-map grid is filled using 0's(for POS) and
1's(SOP). The K-map is solved by making group.
• CELL: Smallest unit of a K map. Input variables are cell coordinates and the output variable is
cell content
• PAIR : A group of two adjacent cells in K map . A pair cancel 1 variable in a K map simplification
• QUAD :A group of four adjacent cells in K map . A quad cancel 2 variables in a K map
simplification
• OCTET: A group of eight adjacent cells in K map . A quad cancel 3 variable in a K map
simplification

Solving an Expression Using K-Map

1. Select a K-map according to the total number of variables.
2. Identify maxterms or minterms as given in the problem.
3. For SOP, put the 1’s in the blocks of the K-map with respect to the minterms (elsewhere
0’s).
4. For POS, putting 0’s in the blocks of the K-map with respect to the maxterms (elsewhere
1’s)
5. Making rectangular groups that contain the total terms in the power of two, such as 2,4,8 ..
and trying to cover as many numbers of elements as we can in a single group.
6. From the groups that have been created in step 5, find the product terms and then sum them
up for the SOP form. Or find the sum terms and multiply them for POS form

2-Variable K MAP
 • Number of variables n is 2 and hence 22=4 cells are needed to form 2 variable K map
• Coordinates of each cell corresponds to a unique combination of two input variables A, B

3Variable K MAP
• Number of variables n is 3 and hence 23=8 cells are needed to form 3 variable K map
• Coordinates of each cell corresponds to a unique combination of three input variables A, B

Simplification rules through K map

• Group 0’s with 0’s and 1’s with 1’s
• Group can overlap each other
• Group can contains 2n number of cells
• Group can have only be horizontal or vertical
• Each group should be as large as possible
• Opposite grouping or corner grouping is allowed
• There should be a few groups as possible

F(A,B)= Σ 1,2,3 or π 0)
 Example 3: F(P,Q,R,S)= Σ 0,2,5,7,8,10,13,15
Ans: SOP→QS+Q’S’

Example 4:
F(A,B,C)=π(0,3,6,7)
Reduced to (A' + B’) (B’ + C’) (A + B + C)

Example 5:
F(A,B,C,D)=π(3,5,7,8,10,11,12,13) → (C+D’+B’).(C’+D’+A).(A’+C+D).(A’+B+C’)
 Don’t Care Conditions

The “Don’t Care” conditions allow us to replace the empty cell of a K map to form a grouping
of the variables which is larger than that of forming groups without don’t care. While forming
groups of cells, we can consider a “Don’t Care” cell as 1 or 0 or we can also ignore that cell.
Therefore, the “Don’t Care” condition can help us to form a larger group of cells. A Don’t Care
cell can be represented by a cross(X)
SOP including don’t care POS including don’t care

f = m(1, 5, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14) + d(4) F(A, B, C, D) = M(6, 7, 8, 9) + d(12, 13, 14, 15)

Reduced to f = BC' + BD' + A'C'D + AB'CD Reduced to F = (A'+ C)(B' + C')

 Refer more examples done in classroom.
Basic and universal gates-Representation, truth table,

Logic Gates
• Logic gate is an electronic circuit which makes logic decisions
• It have only one output and two or more inputs except for the not gate, which has only one input
• Output signals appears only for certain combinations of input signals
• Gates do the manipulation of binary information
• 3 basic logic gates: are OR gate , NOT gate, AND gate
• Logic gates are the building blocks and are available in the form of various IC families
• Input and output relationship can be represented in a tabular form in a truth table
BASIC GATES

NOT GATE /

UNIVERSAL GATES,EX-OR, and EX-NOR

NAND and NOR gates are called UNIVERSAL GATES, because all other gates can be realised using
the NAND and NOR gates.
3 INPUT NOR &NAND

NOT GATE AND GATE

• Output of an AND gate attains state 1 if and only if all the
NOT gate has only one input and one inputs are in state 1.
output • The Boolean expression of AND gate is Y = A.B
It performs inversion or complementation • It performs logical multiplication
• HIGH input produce LOW output • When any of the inputs are LOW, the output is LOW
• LOW input produce HIGH output • AND gate is composed of two or more inputs and only one
Hence output is the compliment of its input output

OR GATE ExOR-GATE
• Output of an OR gate attains state 1 if one or more XOR or Ex-OR gate is a special type of gate.
inputs attain state 1.
• The Boolean expression of the OR gate is Y = A + B, It can be used in the half adder, full adder and
read as Y equals A ‘OR’ B. subtractor.
• It performs logical addition
• OR gate has two or ,more inputs and one output The exclusive-OR gate is abbreviated as EX-OR
• HIGH on the output is produced when any of the gate or sometime as X-OR gate.
inputs are HIGH Boolean Expression X=A’B+AB’
 Ex-NOR GATE
• XNOR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full adder and subtractor.

• The exclusive-NOR gate is abbreviated as EX-NOR gate or sometime as X-NOR gate

NAND GATE NOR GATE

• NAND gate is actually a combination of two • NOR gate is actually a combination of two logic
logic gates: AND gate followed by NOT gate. gates: OR gate followed by NOT gate.
• So its output is complement of the output of an • So its output is complement of the output of an
AND gate. OR gate.
• This gate can have minimum two inputs, output • This gate can have minimum two inputs, output
is always one. is always one.
• By using only NAND gates, we can realize all • By using only NOR gates, we can realize all logic
logic functions: AND, OR, NOT, X-OR, X- functions: AND, OR, NOT, X-OR, X-NOR, NAND.
NOR, NOR. So this gate is also called universal So this gate is also called universal gate.
gate
 Implement NOT,AND,OR ,Ex-OR, Ex-NOR NAND gates

NOT USING NAND OR USING NAND AND USING NAND

Ex-OR USING NAND Ex-NOR USING NAND

Implement NOT,AND,OR ,Ex-OR, Ex-NOR NOR gates

NOT USING NOR OR USING NOR AND USING NOR

Design logic diagrams

Logic gates are used for implementing any Boolean expression

Boolean expressions indicates the types of gate networks, which can be systematically
progressing from input to output on the gates
Example: Design a circuit for (A+B).C’

Example :2 A’+B.(C+D)

Example 3:AB+BCD

Example:4 AB’C+DE’FG

Questions:
Reduce Boolean expression using K map and prepare circuit.
1.F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(0, 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 15)
2.F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15) + Σd(0, 2, 14)
3. F(A,B,C,D) = ∏(0,1,2,4,5,7,10,15) +d(3,8,9)
4. F(A,B,C,D)=π(3,5,7,8,10,11,12,13)