WAVE MOTION

20.1 PROPAGATION OF A DISTURBANCE

All mechanical waves require
➢ Some source of disturbance,
➢ A medium containing elements that can be disturbed, and
➢ Some physical mechanism through which elements of the medium can influence each other.

➢ A traveling wave or pulse that causes the elements of the disturbed medium to move perpendicular to the direction of propagation
is called a transverse wave.
➢ A traveling wave or pulse that causes the elements of the medium to move parallel to the direction of propagation is called a
longitudinal wave.
Consider a pulse traveling to the right on a long string as shown in figures below.

Figure a represents the shape and position of the pulse at time t = 0. At this time, the shape of the pulse, whatever it may be, can be
represented by some mathematical function that we will write as 𝑦(𝑥, 0) = 𝑓(𝑥). This function describes the transverse position y of
the element of the string located at each value of x at time t = 0. Because the speed of the pulse is v, the pulse has traveled to the right
a distance 𝑣𝑡 at the time t (Figure b). We assume the shape of the pulse does not change with time. Therefore, at time t, the shape of
the pulse is the same as it was at time t = 0s as in Figure a. Consequently, an element of the string at x at this time has the same y
position as an element located at 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 had at time t = 0:
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡, 0)
In general, then, we can represent the transverse position y for all positions and times, measured in a stationary frame with the origin
at O, as
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑓 (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) − − − − − − − − − (1)

Similarly, if the pulse travels to the left, the transverse positions of elements of the string are described by

𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑣𝑡) − − − − − − − − − (2)

The function y, sometimes called the wave function, depends on the two variables x and t. For this reason, it is often written y(x, t),
which is read “y as a function of x and t”.

20.2 TRAVELING OR PROGRESSIVE WAVE

In this section, we introduce an important wave function whose shape is shown in the figure below.
The wave represented by this curve is called a sinusoidal wave because the curve is the same as that of the function sin 𝜃 plotted
against 𝜃.
In what follows, we will develop the principal features and mathematical representations of the analysis model of a traveling wave.
This model is used in situations in which a wave moves through space without interacting with other waves or particles.
Figure a shows a snapshot of a wave moving through a medium Figure b shows a graph of the position of one element of the medium
as a function of time.

➢ A point in figure a at which the displacement of the element from its normal position is highest is called the crest of the wave. The
lowest point is called the trough.
➢ The distance from one crest to the next is called the wavelength 𝝀 (Greek letter lambda). More generally, the wavelength is the
minimum distance between any two identical points on adjacent waves as shown in figure a.
➢ If you count the number of seconds between the arrivals of two adjacent crests at a given point in space, you measure the period T
of the waves. In general, the period is the time interval required for two identical points of adjacent waves to pass by a point as
shown in figure b. The period of the wave is the same as the period of the simple harmonic oscillation of one element of the
medium.
➢ The same information is more often given by the inverse of the period, which is called the frequency f. In general, the frequency
of a periodic wave is the number of crests (or troughs, or any other point on the wave) that pass a given point in a unit time interval.
The frequency of a sinusoidal wave is related to the period by the expression
1
𝑓=
𝑇
The frequency of the wave is the same as the frequency of the simple harmonic oscillation of one element of the medium. The
most common unit for frequency, 𝑠 −1 or hertz (Hz). The corresponding unit for T is seconds.
➢ The maximum position of an element of the medium relative to its equilibrium position is called the amplitude A of the wave as
indicated in figure b above.
Waves travel with a specific speed, and this speed depends on the properties of the medium being disturbed. For instance, sound waves
travel through room temperature air with a speed of about 343 m/s whereas they travel through most solids with a speed greater than
343 m/s.
Consider the sinusoidal wave in figure a, which shows the position of the wave at 𝑡 = 0. Because the wave is sinusoidal, we expect the
wave function at this instant to be expressed as

𝒚(𝒙, 𝟎) = 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒙 − − − − − − − − − (3)

Where A is the amplitude and a is a constant to be determined. At 𝑥 = 0, we see that
𝑦(0,0) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎(0) = 0
Consistent with figure a.
The next value of x for which y is zero is 𝑥 = 𝜆⁄2. Therefore,
𝜆 𝜆
𝑦 ( , 0) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 ( ) = 0
2 2
For this equation to be true, we must have 𝑎𝜆⁄2 = 𝜋, or 𝑎 = 2𝜋⁄𝜆. Therefore, the function describing the positions of the elements
of the medium through which the sinusoidal wave is traveling can be written as
2𝜋
𝑦(𝑥, 0) = 𝐴 sin ( 𝑥)
𝜆
Where the constant A represents the wave amplitude and the constant 𝜆 is the wavelength. Notice that the vertical position of an element
of the medium is the same whenever x is increased by an integral multiple of 𝜆. Based on our discussion of Equation (1), if the wave
moves to the right with a speed v, the wave function at some later time t is
2𝜋
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin [ (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)]
𝜆
By definition, the wave travels through a displacement ∆x equal to one wavelength 𝜆 in a time interval Δt of one period T. Therefore,
the wave speed, wavelength, and period are related by the expression
Δ𝑥 𝜆
𝑣= =
Δ𝑡 𝑇
Substituting this equation in to the equation above gives
𝑥 𝑡
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin [2𝜋 ( − )]
𝜆 𝑇
This form of the wave function shows the periodic nature of y. Note that we will often use y rather than y(x, t) as a shorthand notation.
At any given time t, y has the same value at the positions 𝑥, 𝑥 + 𝜆, 𝑥 + 2𝜆, and so on. Furthermore, at any given position x, the value
of y is the same at times 𝑡, 𝑡 + 𝑇, 𝑡 + 2𝑇, and so on.
We can express the wave function in a convenient form by defining two other quantities, the angular wave number k (usually called
simply the wave number) and the angular frequency 𝜔:
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑘= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔= = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜆 𝑇

𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin[(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)] − − − − − − − − − −(4)

If the wave were traveling to the left, the quantity (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) would be replaced by (𝑥 + 𝑣𝑡).
SOLVED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
A sinusoidal wave traveling in the positive x direction has an amplitude of 15.0cm, a wavelength of 40.0cm, and a frequency of 8.00Hz.
The vertical position of an element of the medium at 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑥 = 0 is also 15.0cm, as shown in the figure below.

a) Find the wave number k, period T, angular frequency 𝜔, and speed v of the wave.
b) Determine the phase constant ∅, and write a general expression for the wave function.
SOLUTION
a)
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑘= = = 0.157 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑐𝑚
𝜆 40.0cm
1 1
𝑇= = = 0.125𝑠
𝑓 8.00𝐻𝑧
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋(8.00𝐻𝑧) = 50.3 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 = 8.00𝐻𝑧 × 40𝑐𝑚 = 320 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠
b) Because 𝐴 = 15.0𝑐𝑚 and because 𝑦 = 15.0𝑐𝑚 at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑡 = 0, substitution into the equation
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
𝑦 ( , 0) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 ( ) , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ( ) = ∅
2 2 2
 We have
15𝑐𝑚 = 15𝑐𝑚 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
sin ∅ = 1
𝜋
⟹ ∅ = 90° 𝑜𝑟
2
Hence, the wave function is of the form
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin[(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)]
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(0.157𝑥 − 50.3𝑡)
EXAMPLE 2
A wave travelling along a string is described by the equation below
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 0.00327 sin[(72.1𝑥 − 2.72𝑡)]
a) What is the amplitude of this wave?
b) What are the wavelength, period, and frequency of this wave?
c) What is the velocity of this wave?
d) What is the displacement y at 𝑥 = 22.5𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 18.9𝑠?
SOLUTION
a) The equation above is of the same form as
(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin[(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)]
By comparing the two equations we see that the amplitude is
𝐴 = 0.00327𝑚
b) Still by comparing the two equations above, we see that
𝑘 = 72.1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 = 2.72 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑠
𝑤𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝜆 𝑡𝑜 𝑘 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝜆= = = 0.0871𝑚
𝑘 72.1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑚
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇 𝑡𝑜 𝜔 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 𝑇= = = 2.31𝑠
𝜔 2.72 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑠
1 1
𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝑓= = = 0.433𝐻𝑧
𝑇 2.31𝑠
c) The speed of the wave is given by
𝜔 2.72 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑠
𝑣= = = 0.0377 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑘 72.1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑚
The key idea here is that the equation 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin[(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)] gives the displacement as a function of position x and time t.
substituting the given values in to the equation yields
𝑦 = 0.00327 sin(72.1 × 0.225 − 2.72 × 18.9)
𝑦 = 0.00192𝑚

20.3 WAVE CHARACTERISTICS

Common wave-interaction phenomena include reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, and heterodyning

1. REFLECTION OF WAVES:
When a wave arrives at a barrier, it will bounce off. We say that it will be reflected. An example of a reflected wave is an echo, which
is formed when sound waves bounce off the wall of a building or distant cliff. A wave is only reflected when the size of the reflector
is larger than the wavelength of the wave.
2. REFRACTION OF WAVES:
Refraction is the bending of waves when it travels from one medium to another in which its speed changes. For refraction to
occur, the speed of the wave must change. If a wave travels from one medium to another in which there is no change in its speed, then
no refraction will occur.
3. DIFFRACTION OF WAVES:
Diffraction is the spreading of waves as they pass around small gaps or obstacles or apertures.
In a ripple tank, diffraction can be observed by placing two wooden pieces with a gap between then on the path of the wave travel. The
amount of diffraction observed depends on the relative size of the gap (d). If the size of the gap is about the same as the wavelength of
the wave, or less, diffraction will be observed. However, if the gap size is much larger than the wavelength of the wave, no diffraction
will be observed as the waves emerge from the opening.

4. SUPERPOSITION AND INTERFERENCE:

Interference is the effect of identical waves passing through the same region. When two identical waves pass through the same region
at the same instant, they superimpose on each other or interfere. At each point the amplitude of the resultant waves is the vector sum
of the amplitudes of the interfering waves.
Interference can be constructive or destructive.
➢ Constructive interference occurs when the interfering waves are exactly in phase and as such, they reinforce each other. At each
point, the amplitude of the resultant wave is greater than that of either or the interfering waves.
➢ Destructive interference occurs when interfering waves are out of phase and as such cancel out each other. The resultant wave has
amplitude less than that of either of the interfering waves.
For interference to occur, the interfering waves must have the same frequency and amplitude.

Interference

5. HETERODYNING:
No matter what the mode, and regardless of the medium, waves mix to produce other waves. When this happens with sound, the effect
is called beating; when it happens with radio signals, it is called heterodyning, or mixing. Two sound waves that are close to each
other in pitch will beat to form a new wave at a much lower frequency and another wave at a higher frequency.

20.4 SUPERPOSITION AND STANDING WAVES

WAVES IN INTERFERENCE
Many interesting wave phenomena in nature cannot be described by a single traveling wave. Instead, one must analyze these phenomena
in terms of a combination of traveling waves. As noted in the introduction, waves have a remarkable difference from particles in that
waves can be combined at the same location in space. To analyze such wave combinations, we make use of the superposition principle:
 Superposition principle states that if two or more traveling waves are moving through
a medium, the resultant value of the wave function at any point is the algebraic sum of
the values of the wave functions of the individual waves.

Waves that obey this principle are called linear waves. In the case of mechanical waves, linear waves are generally characterized by
having amplitudes much smaller than their wavelengths. Waves that violate the superposition principle are called nonlinear waves
and are often characterized by large amplitudes.
NB: One consequence of the superposition principle is that two traveling waves can pass through each other without being destroyed
or even altered.

Active Figure 1 and 2 below are pictorial representations of the superposition of two pulses.

The wave function for the pulse moving to the right is 𝑦1, and the wave function for the pulse moving to the left is 𝑦2. The pulses have
the same speed but different shapes, and the displacement of the elements of the medium is in the positive y direction for both pulses.
When the waves overlap (Active Fig 1b), the wave function for the resulting complex wave is given by 𝑦1 + 𝑦2. When the crests of the
pulses coincide (Active Fig 1c), the resulting wave given by 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 has a larger amplitude than that of the individual pulses. The two
pulses finally separate and continue moving in their original directions (Active Fig 1d). Notice that the pulse shapes remain unchanged
after the interaction, as if the two pulses had never met. The combination of separate waves in the same region of space to produce a
resultant wave is called interference. For the two pulses shown in Active Figure 1, the displacement of the elements of the medium is
in the positive y direction for both pulses, and the resultant pulse (created when the individual pulses overlap) exhibits an amplitude
greater than that of either individual pulse. Because the displacements caused by the two pulses are in the same direction, we refer to
their superposition as constructive interference.

Now consider two pulses traveling in opposite directions on a taut string where one pulse is inverted relative to the other as illustrated
in Active Figure 2. When these pulses begin to overlap, the resultant pulse is given by 𝑦1 + 𝑦2, but the values of the function 𝑦2 are
negative. Again, the two pulses pass through each other; because the displacements caused by the two pulses are in opposite directions,
however, we refer to their superposition as destructive interference.
The superposition principle is the centerpiece of the analysis model called waves in interference. In many situations, both in acoustics
and optics, waves combine according to this principle and exhibit interesting phenomena with practical applications.
20.5 SUPERPOSITION OF SINUSOIDAL WAVES
Let us now apply the principle of superposition to two sinusoidal waves traveling in the same direction in a linear medium. If the two
waves are traveling to the right and have the same frequency, wavelength, and amplitude but differ in phase, we can express their
individual wave functions as
𝑦1 = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡), 𝑦2 = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

Where
2𝜋
𝑘= , 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜙 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝜆
Hence, the resultant wave function y is
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝐴[sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)]
To simplify this expression, we use the trigonometric identity
𝑎+𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
sin 𝑎 + sin 𝑏 = 2 sin ( ) cos ( )
2 2
Letting 𝑎 = 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 and 𝑏 = 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙, we find that the resultant wave function y reduces to

𝜙 𝜙
𝑦 = 2𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + ) cos ( ) − − − − − − − −(5)
2 2

The above equation is the resultant of two travelling sinusoidal wave

This result has several important features
1. The resultant wave function y also is sinusoidal and has the same frequency and wavelength as the individual waves because the
sine function incorporates the same values of k and 𝜔 that appear in the original wave functions.
𝜙 𝜙
2. The amplitude of the resultant wave is 2𝐴 cos ( 2 ), and its phase is( 2 ).
𝜙
➢ If the phase constant 𝜙 equals 0, then cos ( 2 ) = cos(0) = 1 and the amplitude of the resultant wave is 2𝐴, twice the amplitude of
either individual wave (figure a below). In this case, the crests of the two waves are at the same locations in space and the waves
are said to be everywhere in phase and therefore interfere constructively.
𝜙 𝜋
➢ If the phase constant 𝜙 equals 𝜋, then cos ( 2 ) = cos ( 2 ) = 0 and the crests of one wave occur at the same positions as the troughs
of the second wave (figure b below). Therefore, as a consequence of destructive interference, the resultant wave has zero amplitude
everywhere
➢ In the more general case in which the waves have the same wavelength but different amplitudes, the results are similar with the
following exceptions. In the in phase case, the amplitude of the resultant wave is not twice that of a single wave, but rather is the
sum of the amplitudes of the two waves. When the waves are 𝜋rad out of phase, they do not completely cancel as in figure b. The
result is a wave whose amplitude is the difference in the amplitudes of the individual waves as shown in figure c below.
20.6 STANDING OR STATIONARY WAVES
A standing wave is an oscillation pattern with a stationary outline that results from
the superposition of two identical waves traveling in opposite directions.

We can analyze such a situation by considering wave functions for two transverse sinusoidal waves having the same amplitude,
frequency, and wavelength but traveling in opposite directions in the same medium:
𝑦1 = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡), 𝑦2 = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)
Where 𝑦1represents a wave traveling in the positive x direction and 𝑦2 represents one traveling in the negative x direction. Adding
these two functions gives the resultant wave function y:
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝐴[sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)]
When we use the trigonometric identity
sin(𝑎 ± 𝑏) = sin 𝑎 cos 𝑏 ± sin 𝑏 cos 𝑎
This expression reduces to

𝑦 = (2𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥) cos 𝜔𝑡 − − − − − − − − − − − (6)

Equation (6) represents the wave function of a standing wave.

When you observe a standing wave, there is no sense of motion in the direction of propagation of either original wave.
Equation (6) shows that the amplitude of the simple harmonic motion of an element of the medium has a minimum value of zero when
x satisfies the condition sin 𝑘𝑥 = 0, that is, when 𝑘𝑥 = 0, 2𝜋, 3𝜋, …
Because
2𝜋 𝜆 3𝜆 𝑛𝜆
𝑘= , 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑥 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑥 = 0, , 𝜆, , … = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
𝜆 2 2 2
These points of zero amplitude are called nodes.
The element of the medium with the greatest possible displacement from equilibrium has an amplitude of 2A, which we define as the
amplitude of the standing wave. The positions in the medium at which this maximum displacement occurs are called antinodes. The
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
antinodes are located at positions for which the coordinate x satisfies the condition sin 𝑘𝑥 = ±1, that is, when 𝑘𝑥 = 2 , 2 , 2 , …
Therefore, the positions of the antinodes are given by
𝜆 3𝜆 5𝜆 𝑛𝜆
𝑥 = , , ,… = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1, 3, 5,
4 4 4 4

20.7 SOUND WAVES

In this chapter, we investigate mechanical waves that move through three-dimensional bulk media. For example, seismic waves leaving
the focus of an earthquake travel through the three-dimensional interior of the Earth.
We will focus our attention on sound waves, which travel through any material, but are most commonly experienced as the mechanical
waves traveling through air that result in the human perception of hearing. As sound waves travel through air, elements of air are
disturbed from their equilibrium positions. Accompanying these movements are changes in density and pressure of the air along the
direction of wave motion. If the source of the sound waves vibrates sinusoidally, the density and pressure variations are also sinusoidal.

Sound waves are divided into three categories that cover different frequency ranges.
1) Audible waves lie within the range of sensitivity of the human ear. They can be generated in a variety of ways, such as by musical
instruments, human voices, or loudspeakers.
2) Infrasonic waves have frequencies below the audible range. Elephants can use infrasonic waves to communicate with one another,
even when separated by many kilometers.
3) Ultrasonic waves have frequencies above the audible range. You may have used a “silent” whistle to retrieve your dog. Dogs easily
hear the ultrasonic sound this whistle emits, although humans cannot detect it at all. Ultrasonic waves are also used in medical
imaging.

20.8 THE DOPPLER EFFECT

Perhaps you have noticed how the sound of a vehicle’s horn changes as the vehicle moves past you. The frequency of the sound you
hear as the vehicle approaches you is higher than the frequency you hear as it moves away from you. This experience is one example
of the Doppler Effect.

Doppler’s effect is the phenomenon whereby there is an apparent change in the frequency of a
wave produced by a source due to the relative motion between the source and the observer
To see what causes this apparent frequency change, imagine you are in a boat that is lying at anchor on a gentle sea where the waves
have a period of 𝑇 = 3.0𝑠. Hence, every 3.0s a crest hits your boat. Figure a below shows this situation, with the water waves moving
toward the left. If you set your watch to 𝑡 = 0𝑠 just as one crest hits, the watch reads 3.0s when the next crest hits, 6.0 s when the third
crest hits, and so on. From these observations, you conclude that the wave frequency is f = 1⁄T = 1⁄3.0s = 0.33Hz. Now suppose
you start your motor and head directly into the oncoming waves as in Figure b below. Again you set your watch to 𝑡 = 0𝑠 as a crest
hits the front (the bow) of your boat. Now, however, because you are moving toward the next wave crest as it moves toward you, it
hits you less than 3.0s after the first hit. In other words, the period you observe is shorter than the 3.0s period you observed when you
were stationary. Because f = 1/T, you observe a higher wave frequency than when you were at rest. If you turn around and move in
the same direction as the waves (Figure c), you observe the opposite effect.

You set your watch to 𝑡 = 0 as a crest hits the back (the stern) of the boat. Because you are now moving away from the next crest,
more than 3.0s has elapsed on your watch by the time that crest catches you. Therefore, you observe a lower frequency than when you
were at rest. These effects occur because the relatives speed between your boat and the waves depends on the direction of travel and
on the speed of your boat. When you are moving toward the right in Figure b, this relative speed is higher than that of the wave speed,
which leads to the observation of an increased frequency. When you turn around and move to the left, the relative speed is lower, as is
the observed frequency of the water waves. Let’s now examine an analogous situation with sound waves in which the water waves
become sound waves, the water becomes the air, and the person on the boat becomes an observer listening to the sound. In this case,
an observer O is moving and a sound source Sis stationary. For simplicity, we assume the air is also stationary and the observer moves
directly toward the source (look at the figure below). The observer moves with a speed 𝑣0 toward a stationary point source (𝑣𝑠 = 0),
where stationary means at rest with respect to the medium, air.

If a point source emits sound waves and the medium is uniform, the waves move at the same speed in all directions radially away from
the source; the result is a spherical wave. The distance between adjacent wave fronts equals the wavelength 𝜆. In the figure above, the
circles are the intersections of these three-dimensional wave fronts with the two-dimensional paper.
We take the frequency of the source in the figure above to be f, the wavelength to be 𝜆, and the speed of sound to be v. If the observer
were also stationary, he would detect wave fronts at a frequency f. (That is, when 𝑣0 = 0 and 𝑣𝑠 = 0, the observed frequency equals
the source frequency.)

1) When the observer moves toward the source, the speed of the waves relative to the observer is 𝑣 ′ = 𝑣 + 𝑣0, as in the case of the
boat, but the wavelength 𝜆 is unchanged. Hence, Using the Equation 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆, we can say that the frequency 𝒇′ heard by the
observer is increased and is given by
𝑣 ′ 𝑣 + 𝑣0 𝑣
𝑓′ = = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝜆 = , 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓 ′ 𝑎𝑠
𝜆 𝜆 𝑓
𝑣 + 𝑣0 𝑣 + 𝑣0
𝑓′ = 𝑣 = ( )𝑓
𝑣
𝑓
Hence for observer moving towards the source, the frequency is given by
 𝑣 + 𝑣0
𝑓′ = ( ) 𝑓 − − − − − − − − − − − (7)
𝑣

2) When the observer is moving away from the source, the speed of the wave relative to the observer is 𝑣 ′ = 𝑣 − 𝑣0 . The frequency
heard by the observer in this case is decreased and is given by
𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑓′ = ( ) 𝑓 − − − − − − − − − − − − − (8)
𝑣
Now suppose the source is in motion and the observer is at rest, the following cases will apply.
3) when the source moves directly toward observer A in as shown in figure a below, each new wave is emitted
From a position to the right of the origin of the previous wave. As a result, the wave fronts heard by the observer are closer together
than they would be if the source were not moving. (Figure b shows this effect for waves moving on the surface of water.)

As a result, the wavelength 𝜆′ measured by observer A is shorter than the wavelength 𝜆 of the source. During each vibration,
which lasts for a time interval T (the period), the source moves a distance 𝑣𝑠 𝑇 = 𝑣𝑠 ⁄𝑓and the wavelength is shortened by this
amount. Therefore, the observed wavelength 𝜆′ is
𝑣𝑠 𝑣
𝜆′ = 𝜆 − Δ𝜆 = 𝜆 − 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝜆 = , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓 ′ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐴 𝑖𝑠
𝑓 𝑓
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑓′ = ′ = 𝑣 =𝑣 𝑣
𝜆 𝜆− 𝑠 − 𝑠
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓

𝑣
𝑓′ = ( ) 𝑓 − − − − − − − − − − − − − (9)
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠

That is, the observed frequency is increased whenever the source is moving toward the observer.

4) When the source moves away from a stationary observer, as is the case for observer B in figure a above, the observer measures
a wavelength 𝜆′ that is greater than 𝜆 and hears a decreased frequency:

𝑣
𝑓′ = ( ) 𝑓 − − − − − − − − − − − −(10)
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑠

Finally, a general relationship for the observed frequency that includes all four conditions described by the equations above
is

𝑣 ± 𝑣0
𝑓′ = ( ) 𝑓 − − − − − − − − − −(11)
𝑣 ± 𝑣𝑠
 NB:
• When the motion of the observer or source is toward the other, the sign on its speed must give an upward shift in frequency. When
the motion of the observer or source is away from the other, the sign on its speed must give a downward shift in frequency
• In this expression, the signs for the values substituted for 𝑣0 and 𝑣𝑠 depend on the direction of the velocity.
• In all the above expressions, the quantity 𝑣 is the speed of sound in the respective media (either solid, liquid or air)

➢ If the observer moves towards the source, use the plus sign in the numerator to get a shift up. if it moves away use the minus sign
in the numerator to get a shift down. If it is stationary, substitute 0 for 𝑣0
➢ If the source moves towards the observer, use the minus sign in the denominator to get a shift up in the frequency. If it moves away,
use a plus sign in the denominator to get a shift down. If the source is stationary, substitute 0 for 𝑣𝑠
Although the Doppler Effect is most typically experienced with sound waves, it is a phenomenon common to all waves. For
example, the relative motion of source and observer produces a frequency shift in light waves. Doppler Effect is used in police
radar systems to measure the speeds of motor vehicles. Likewise, astronomers use the effect to determine the speeds of stars,
galaxies, and other celestial objects relative to the Earth.

SOLVED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
A train is moving parallel to a highway with a constant speed of 20.0m/s. A car is traveling in the same direction as the train with a
speed of 40.0m/s. The car horn sounds at a frequency of 510Hz, and the train whistle sounds at a frequency of 320Hz. Take speed of
sound in air to be 343m/s
(a) When the car is behind the train, what frequency does an occupant of the car observe for the train whistle?
(b) After the car passes and is in front of the train, what frequency does a train passenger observe for the car horn?
SOLUTION
Since both the car and the train are moving in the same direction, we use a plus sign.
a)
𝑣 + 𝑣0
𝑓′ = ( )𝑓
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑠
343 + 40
𝑓′ = ( ) × 320𝐻𝑧 = 338𝐻𝑧
343 + 20
b)
343 + 20
𝑓′ = ( ) × 510𝐻𝑧 = 483.4𝐻𝑧
343 + 40
EXAMPLE 2
A submarine (sub A) travels through water at a speed of 8.00m/s, emitting a sonar wave at a frequency of 1400Hz. The speed of sound
in the water is 1533m/s. A second submarine (sub B) is located such that both submarines are traveling directly toward one another.
The second submarine is moving at 9.00m/s
a) What frequency is detected by an observer riding on sub B as the subs approach each other?
b) The subs barely miss each other and pass. What frequency is detected by an observer riding on sub B as the subs recede from each
other?
SOLUTION
a) Since the source and the observer are moving towards each other, we use a + sign in the numerator and a minus sign in the
denominator. Hence,
𝑣 + 𝑣0
𝑓′ = ( )𝑓
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠
1533.0 + 9.0
𝑓′ = ( ) 1400𝐻𝑧 = 1416𝐻𝑧
1533.0 − 8.0
b) Since the source and the observer are moving away from each other, we use a – sign in the numerator and a + sign in the
denominator. Hence,
𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑓′ = ( )𝑓
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑠
1533.0 − 9.0
𝑓′ = ( ) 1400𝐻𝑧 = 1385𝐻𝑧
1533.0 + 8.0
EXAMPLE 3
Standing at a crosswalk, you hear a frequency of 560Hz from the siren of an approaching ambulance. After the ambulance passes, the
observed frequency of the siren is 480Hz. Determine the ambulance’s speed from these observations take speed of sound in air to be
343m/s
SOLUTION
For approaching ambulance motion 𝑓 ′ = 560𝐻𝑧
𝑣
𝑓′ = ( )𝑓
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠 ′
⟹𝑓=( )𝑓
𝑣
 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠 ′
⟹𝑓=( )𝑓
𝑣
For departing ambulance motion 𝑓 ′′ = 480𝐻𝑧
𝑣
𝑓 ′′ = ( )𝑓
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑠
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑠 ′′
⟹𝑓=( )𝑓
𝑣
Since 𝑓 = 𝑓
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑠 ′′ 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠 ′
( )𝑓 = ( )𝑓
𝑣 𝑣
′ ′′ )
𝑣(𝑓 − 𝑓
𝑣𝑠 =
(𝑓 ′ + 𝑓 ′′ )
343(560 − 480)
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑚⁄𝑠
(560 + 480)
𝑣𝑠 = 26.4 𝑚⁄𝑠

EXERCISES
1. A siren mounted on the roof of a firehouse emits sound at a frequency of 900Hz. A steady wind is blowing with a speed of 15.0m/s.
taking the speed of sound in calm air to be 343m/s, find the wavelength of the sound
(a) Upwind of the siren
(b) Downwind of the siren. Firefighters are approaching the siren from various directions at 15.0m/s.
What frequency does a firefighter hear?
(c) If he or she is approaching from an upwind position, so that he or she is moving in the direction in
which the wind is blowing?
(d) If he or she is approaching from a downwind position and moving against the wind?

20.10 SPEED OF WAVES ON STRINGS

In this section, we determine the speed of a transverse pulse traveling on a taut string. Let’s first conceptually predict the parameters
that determine the speed.
If a string under tension is pulled sideways and then released, the force of tension is responsible for accelerating a particular element
of the string back toward its equilibrium position. According to Newton’s second law of motion, the acceleration of the element
increases with increasing tension. If the element returns to equilibrium more rapidly due to this increased acceleration, we would
intuitively argue that the wave speed is greater. Therefore, we expect the wave speed to increase with increasing tension. Likewise,
because it is more difficult to accelerate an element of a massive string than that of a light string, the wave speed should decrease as
the mass per unit length of the string increases. If the tension in the string is T and its mass per unit length is 𝜇 (Greek letter mu), the
wave speed is
𝑇
𝑣=√
𝜇

20.11 WAVES UNDER BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Consider a string of length L fixed at both ends as shown in figure below.

We will use this system as a model for a guitar string or piano string. Waves can travel in both directions on the string. Therefore,
standing waves can be set up in the string by a continuous superposition of waves incident on and reflected from the ends. Notice that
there is a boundary condition for the waves on the string. Because the ends of the string are fixed, they must necessarily have zero
displacement and are therefore nodes by definition. This boundary condition results in the string having a number of discrete natural
patterns of oscillation, called normal modes, each of which has a characteristic frequency that is easily calculated. This situation in
which only certain frequencies of oscillation are allowed is called quantization. Quantization is a common occurrence when waves
are subject to boundary conditions. Notice in the figures below that there are no boundary conditions, so standing waves of any
frequency can be established; there is no quantization without boundary conditions.

Because boundary conditions occur so often for waves, we identify an analysis model called waves under boundary conditions for the
discussion that follows.
The normal modes of oscillation for the string in the figure below can be described by imposing the boundary conditions that the ends
be nodes and that the nodes and antinodes be separated by one-fourth of a wavelength.

The first normal mode that is consistent with these requirements, shown in figure a below, has nodes at its ends and one antinode in
the middle. This normal mode is the longest wavelength mode that is consistent with our boundary conditions. The first normal mode
occurs when the wavelength 𝜆1 is equal to twice the length of the string, or 𝜆1 = 2𝐿 . The section of a standing wave from one node to
the next node is called a loop. In the first normal mode, the string is vibrating in one loop. In the second normal mode figure b, the
string vibrates in two loops. In this case, the wavelength 𝜆2 is equal to the length of the string, as expressed by 𝜆2 = 𝐿 . The third
normal mode in figure c corresponds to the case in which 𝜆3 = 2𝐿⁄3, and our string vibrates in three loops. In general, the wavelengths
of the various normal modes for a string of length L fixed at both ends are
2𝐿
𝜆𝑛 = , 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … − − − − − − − − − −(1)
𝑛
Where the index n refers to the nth normal mode of oscillation. These nodes are the possible modes of oscillation for the string. The
actual modes that are excited on a string are discussed shortly.

The natural frequencies associated with the modes of oscillation are obtained from the relationship 𝑓 = 𝑣⁄𝜆, where the wave speed v
is the same for all frequencies. Using equation (1), we find that the natural frequencies 𝑓𝑛 of the normal modes are
𝑣 𝑣
𝑓𝑛 = =𝑛 , 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … − − − − − − − −(2)
𝜆𝑛 2𝐿

These natural frequencies are also called the quantized frequencies associated with the vibrating string fixed at both ends. Because
𝑣 = √𝑇⁄𝜇
For waves on a string, where T is the tension in the string and 𝜇 is its linear mass density, we can also express the natural frequencies
of a taut string as
√𝑇⁄𝜇 √𝑇⁄𝜇
𝑓𝑛 = =𝑛 ,
𝜆𝑛 2𝐿
 𝑛 𝑇
𝑓𝑛 = √ , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … − − − − − − − −(3)
2𝐿 𝜇

The lowest frequency 𝑓1 , which corresponds to 𝑛 = 1, is called either the fundamental or the fundamental frequency and is given by

1 𝑇
𝑓1 = √ − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(4)
2𝐿 𝜇

The frequencies of the remaining normal modes are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. Frequencies of normal modes that
exhibit such an integer- multiple relationship form a harmonic series, and the normal modes are called harmonics. The fundamental
frequency 𝑓1 is the frequency of the first harmonic, the frequency 𝑓2 = 2𝑓1 is the frequency of the second harmonic, and the frequency
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1 is the frequency of the nth harmonic. Other oscillating systems, such as a drumhead, exhibit normal modes, but the frequencies
are not related as integer multiples of a fundamental. Therefore, we do not use the term harmonic in association with those types of
systems.
Let us examine further how the various harmonics are created in a string. To excite only a single harmonic, the string must be distorted
into a shape that corresponds to that of the desired harmonic. After being released, the string vibrates at the frequency of that harmonic.
This maneuver is difficult to perform, however, and is not how a string of a musical instrument is excited. If the string is distorted such
that its shape is not that of just one harmonic, the resulting vibration includes a combination of various harmonics. Such a distortion
occurs in musical instruments when the string is plucked (as in a guitar), bowed (as in a cello), or struck (as in a piano). When the string
is distorted into a nonsinusoidal shape, only waves that satisfy the boundary conditions can persist on the string. These waves are the
harmonics.
The frequency of a string that defines the musical note that it plays is that of the fundamental. The string’s frequency can be varied by
changing either the string’s tension or its length. For example, the tension in guitar and violin strings is varied by a screw adjustment
mechanism or by tuning pegs located on the neck of the instrument. As the tension is increased, the frequency of the normal modes
increases in accordance with Equation (3). Once the instrument is “tuned,” players vary the frequency by moving their fingers along
the neck, thereby changing the length of the oscillating portion of the string. As the length is shortened, the frequency increases because,
as Equation (3) specifies, the normal-mode frequencies are inversely proportional to string length.
SOLVED EXAMPLE
The middle C string on a piano has a fundamental frequency of 262 Hz, and the string for the first A above middle C has a fundamental
frequency of 440 Hz.
a) Calculate the frequencies of the next two harmonics of the C string.
b) If the A and C strings have the same linear mass density 𝜇 and length L, determine the ratio of tensions in the two strings.
SOLUTION
a) Knowing that the fundamental frequency is 𝑓1 = 262 𝐻𝑧, find the frequencies of the next harmonics by multiplying by integers 𝑛 =
1, 2, 3, …
𝑓2 = 2 × 𝑓1 = 2 × 262𝐻𝑧 = 524𝐻𝑧
𝑓3 = 3 × 𝑓1 = 3 × 262𝐻𝑧 = 786𝐻𝑧
b) Use Equation 4 above to write expressions for the fundamental frequencies of the two strings:
1 𝑇
𝑓1 = √
2𝐿 𝜇

1 𝑇𝐴 1 𝑇𝐶
𝑓1𝐴 = √ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓1𝐶 = √
2𝐿 𝜇 2𝐿 𝜇
Divide the first equation by the second and solve for the ratio of tensions:
1 𝑇𝐴
𝑓1𝐴 2𝐿 √ 𝜇
=
𝑓1𝐶 1 𝑇𝐶
√
2𝐿 𝜇
𝑓1𝐴 𝑇𝐴
⟹ =√
𝑓1𝐶 𝑇𝐶
 𝑇𝐴 𝑓1𝐴 2 440 2
⟹ =( ) =( ) = 2.82
𝑇𝐶 𝑓1𝐶 262

20.12 RESONANCE
We have seen that a system such as a taut string is capable of oscillating in one or more normal modes of oscillation. Suppose we drive
such a string with a vibrating blade as in the figure below.

We find that if a periodic force is applied to such a system, the amplitude of the resulting motion of the string is greatest when the
frequency of the applied force is equal to one of the natural frequencies of the system. This phenomenon is known as resonance.
Although a block-spring system or a simple pendulum has only one natural frequency, standing-wave systems have a whole set of
natural frequencies, such as that given by equation (3) above for a string. Because an oscillating system exhibits a large amplitude
when driven at any of its natural frequencies, these frequencies are often referred to as resonance frequencies.
Consider the string in the figure above again. The fixed end is a node, and the end connected to the blade is very nearly a node because
the amplitude of the blade’s motion is small compared with that of the elements of the string. As the blade oscillates, transverse waves
sent down the string are reflected from the fixed end. As we learned, the string has natural frequencies that are determined by its length,
tension, and linear mass density. When the frequency of the blade equals one of the natural frequencies of the string, standing waves
are produced and the string oscillates with a large amplitude. In this resonance case, the wave generated by the oscillating blade is in
phase with the reflected wave and the string absorbs energy from the blade. If the string is driven at a frequency that is not one of its
natural frequencies, the oscillations are of low amplitude and exhibit no stable pattern. Resonance is very important in the excitation
of musical instruments based on air columns.

20.13 STANDING WAVES IN AIR COLUMNS

The waves under boundary conditions model can also be applied to sound waves in a column of air such as that inside an organ pipe
or a clarinet. Standing waves are the result of interference between longitudinal sound waves traveling in opposite directions.
In a pipe closed at one end, the closed end is a displacement node because the rigid barrier at this end does not allow longitudinal
motion of the air. Because the pressure wave is 90° out of phase with the displacement wave, the closed end of an air column
corresponds to a pressure antinode (that is, a point of maximum pressure variation). The open end of an air column is approximately
a displacement antinode and a pressure node. We can understand why no pressure variation occurs at an open end by noting that the
end of the air column is open to the atmosphere; therefore, the pressure at this end must remain constant at atmospheric pressure.
You may wonder how a sound wave can reflect from an open end because there may not appear to be a change in the medium at this
point: the medium through which the sound wave moves is air both inside and outside the pipe. Sound can be represented as a pressure
wave, however, and a compression region of the sound wave is constrained by the sides of the pipe as long as the region is inside the
pipe.
As the compression region exits at the open end of the pipe, the constraint of the pipe is removed and the compressed air is free to
expand into the atmosphere.
Therefore, there is a change in the character of the medium between the inside of the pipe and the outside even though there is no
change in the material of the medium. This change in character is sufficient to allow some reflection.
With the boundary conditions of nodes or antinodes at the ends of the air column, we have a set of normal modes of oscillation as is
the case for the string fixed at both ends. Therefore, the air column has quantized frequencies.

20.13.1 PIPES OPENED AT BOTH ENDS

The first three normal modes of oscillation of a pipe open at both ends are shown in figure a below. Notice that both ends are
displacement antinodes (approximately). In the first normal mode, the standing wave extends between two adjacent antinodes, which
is a distance of half a wavelength. Therefore, the wavelength is twice the length of the pipe, and the fundamental frequency is 𝑓1 =
𝑣⁄2𝐿. As Figure a shows, the frequencies of the higher harmonics are 2𝑓1 , 3𝑓1 , . . . .

In a pipe opened at both ends, the natural frequencies of oscillation form a harmonic
series that includes all integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.
Because all
harmonics are present and because the fundamental frequency is given by the same expression as that for a string (see equation (2)
above), we can express the natural frequencies of oscillation as

𝑣
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛 , 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … − − − − − − − − − −(5)
2𝐿

Despite the similarity between equations (2) and (5), you must remember that v in equation (2) is the speed of waves on the string,
whereas v in equation (5) is the speed of sound in air.

20.13.2 PIPES CLOSED AT ONE END

If a pipe is closed at one end and opened at the other, the closed end is a displacement node (see figure b above).
In this case, the standing wave for the fundamental mode extends from an antinode to the adjacent node, which is one-fourth of a
wavelength. Hence, the wavelength for the first normal mode is 4L, and the fundamental frequency is
𝑣
𝑓1 = − − − − − − − −(6)
4𝐿
As Figure b above shows, the higher-frequency waves that satisfy our conditions are those that have a node at the closed end and an
antinode at the open end; hence, the higher harmonics have frequencies 3𝑓1 , 5𝑓1 . . . We express this result mathematically as

𝑣
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛 , 𝑛 = 1, 3, 5, … − − − − − − − − − (7)
4𝐿

In a pipe closed at one end, the natural frequencies of oscillation form a harmonic series
that includes only odd integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.

It is interesting to investigate what happens to the frequencies of instruments based on air columns and strings during a concert as the
temperature rises. The sound emitted by a flute, for example, becomes sharp (increases in frequency) as the flute warms up because
the speed of sound increases in the increasingly warmer air inside the flute (consider equation (7)). The sound produced by a violin
becomes flat (decreases in frequency) as the strings thermally expand because the expansion causes their tension to decrease (see
equation (3)).
Musical instruments based on air columns are generally excited by resonance. The air column is presented with a sound wave that is
rich in many frequencies.
The air column then responds with a large amplitude oscillation to the frequencies that match the quantized frequencies in its set of
harmonics. In many woodwind instruments, the initial rich sound is provided by a vibrating reed. In brass instruments, this excitation
is provided by the sound coming from the vibration of the player’s lips. In a flute, the initial excitation comes from blowing over an
edge at the mouthpiece of the instrument in a manner similar to blowing across the opening of a bottle with a narrow neck. The sound
of the air rushing across the bottle opening has many frequencies, including one that sets the air cavity in the bottle into resonance.

SOLVED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
A section of drainage culvert 1.23𝑚 in length makes a howling noise when the wind blows across its open ends.
a) Determine the frequencies of the first three harmonics of the culvert if it is cylindrical in shape and open at both ends. Take 𝑣 =
343 𝑚/𝑠 as the speed of sound in air.
b) What are the three lowest natural frequencies of the culvert if it is blocked at one end?
SOLUTION
a) Find the frequency of the first harmonic of the culvert, modeling it as an air column open at both ends:
𝑣 343𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑓1 = = = 139𝐻𝑧
2𝐿 2(1.23 𝑚)
Find the next harmonics by multiplying by integers:
𝑓2 = 2𝑓1 = 2(139𝐻𝑧) = 279𝐻𝑧
𝑓3 = 3𝑓1 = 3(139𝐻𝑧) = 418𝐻𝑧
b) Find the frequency of the first harmonic of the culvert, modeling it as an air column closed at one end:
𝑣 343𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑓1 = = = 69.7𝐻𝑧
4𝐿 4(1.23 𝑚)
Find the next two harmonics by multiplying by odd integers:
𝑓3 = 3𝑓1 = 3(69.7𝐻𝑧) = 209𝐻𝑧
𝑓5 = 5𝑓1 = 5(69.7𝐻𝑧) = 349𝐻𝑧
EXAMPLE 2
A simple apparatus for demonstrating resonance in an air column is depicted in the figure below.
Figure (a) is the Apparatus for demonstrating the resonance of sound waves in a pipe closed at one end. The length L of the air column
is varied by moving the pipe vertically while it is partially submerged in water. Figure (b) shows the first three normal modes of the
system shown in figure (a).
A vertical pipe open at both ends is partially submerged in water, and a tuning fork vibrating at an unknown frequency is placed near
the top of the pipe. The length L of the air column can be adjusted by moving the pipe vertically. The sound waves generated by the
fork are reinforced when L corresponds to one of the resonance frequencies of the pipe. For a certain pipe, the smallest value of L for
which a peak occurs in the sound intensity is 9.00cm.
a) What is the frequency of the tuning fork?
b) What are the values of L for the next two resonance conditions?
SOLUTION
a) Use Equation the equation 𝑓1 = 𝑣⁄4𝐿 to find the fundamental frequency for 𝐿 = 0.0900 𝑚:
𝑣 343𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑓1 = = = 953𝐻𝑧
4𝐿 4(0.0900 𝑚)
Because the tuning fork causes the air column to resonate at this frequency, this frequency must also be that of the tuning fork.
b) Use Equation 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 to find the wavelength of the sound wave from the tuning fork:
𝑣 343𝑚𝑠 −1
𝜆= = = 0.360𝑚
𝑓 953𝐻𝑧
Notice from Figure b above that the length of the air column for the second resonance is 3𝜆/4:
3𝜆 3(0.360𝑚)
𝐿= = = 0.270𝑚
4 4
Again, Notice from Figure b that the length of the air column for the third resonance is 5𝜆/4:
5𝜆 5(0.360𝑚)
𝐿= = = 0.450𝑚
4 4