Unit - 3

1. Classify polymer composites on the basis of reinforcement. Give three properties and two
applications of polymer composites.

Polymer composites are classified on the basis of reinforcement as follows:

1. Particulate Composites: These composites are reinforced with particles
dispersed in the polymer matrix. The particles can be spherical, irregular, or flaky,
and they contribute to the strength and stiffness of the composite.
2. Fibrous Composites: These include fibre-reinforced polymers (FRPs) where
fibres (e.g., glass, carbon, or aramid) are embedded in the polymer matrix. Fibres
can be continuous or discontinuous, oriented or random, depending on the
application requirements.
3. Laminate Composites: Made up of multiple layers (laminates) of different
materials, often with fibre reinforcement, these composites are known for their
high strength and rigidity in specific directions.

Properties of Polymer Composites:

1. High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: Polymer composites are strong yet lightweight,
making them ideal for applications where weight savings are crucial.
2. Corrosion Resistance: They resist corrosion and chemical reactions, making
them durable in harsh environments.
3. Enhanced Flexibility and Ductility: Polymer composites often exhibit good
flexibility and can endure deformation without breaking, depending on the type of
polymer and reinforcement.

Applications of Polymer Composites:

1. Aerospace Industry: Used for components like fuselages, wings, and tail
structures due to their high strength-to-weight ratio.
2. Automotive Industry: Employed in car bodies, dashboards, and other structural
components to reduce vehicle weight and improve fuel efficiency.
3. Electrical and Electronics: Polymer composites are used in insulators, circuit
boards, and enclosures due to their electrical insulation properties and resistance
to environmental damage.
4. Construction and Infrastructure: Used in bridges, pipes, panels, and
reinforcements, especially in places where corrosion resistance and reduced
maintenance costs are advantageous.
2. What are nanomaterials? Discuss two properties and applications of nanomaterials with
examples.

Nanomaterials are materials with structural features at the nanoscale (typically between
1 to 100 nanometers). At this scale, materials exhibit unique physical, chemical, and
mechanical properties that differ significantly from their bulk counterparts due to the
high surface area-to-volume ratio and quantum effects.

Properties of Nanomaterials
● High Surface Area: Nanomaterials have a large surface area relative to their
volume, which enhances properties like reactivity and adsorption. This makes
them highly effective for catalysis and adsorption applications.
● Enhanced Mechanical Properties: Nanomaterials can exhibit high strength,
toughness, and flexibility. For example, carbon nanotubes are known for their
exceptional tensile strength.
● Electrical and Optical Properties: Nanomaterials can show unique electrical
properties, like increased conductivity of insulating characteristics, and optical
properties, such as fluorescence or specific colour changes. For instance, gold
nanoparticles exhibit a red colour due to surface plasmon resonance.

Applications of Nanomaterials
● Electronics: Nanomaterials like silicon nanowires and graphene are used in
transistors, capacitors, and sensors due to their small size, high conductivity, and
low power consumption.
○ Example: Carbon nanotubes are used in flexible electronic displays for
their conductivity and durability.
● Medicine: Nanoparticles are used for targeted drug delivery, imaging, and
diagnostics, allowing for more effective and less invasive treatments.
○ Example: Silver nanoparticles are incorporated into wound dressings for
their antimicrobial properties.
● Environmental Applications: Nanomaterials are used in water purification and
air filtration systems because of their ability to adsorb contaminants effectively.
○ Example: Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles are used in photocatalytic
water treatment for breaking down pollutants.
● Energy: Nanomaterials are used in energy storage devices like batteries and
supercapacitors, as well as in solar cells to increase energy efficiency.
○ Example: Quantum dots enhance the efficiency of solar cells by
absorbing a broad spectrum of sunlight.
3. How are nanomaterials classified on the basis of dimensions? Give examples of each type.

1. Zero-Dimensional (0D) Nanomaterials

● Description: These are the materials having all the dimensions are measured
within the nanoscale i.e. no dimensions larger than 100nm.
● Examples:
○ Quantum Dots: Semiconductor nanocrystals used in solar cells and
bioimaging due to their size-dependent optical properties.
○ Nanoparticles: Gold and silver nanoparticles, which are used in catalysis,
electronics, and medical applications.
2. One-Dimensional (1D) Nanomaterials
● Description: In 1D nanomaterials, one dimension is outside the nanoscale
range, while the other two dimensions are within nanoscale i.e. no dimensions
are larger than 100nm. These materials often form fibres, rods, or tubes.
● Examples:
○ Nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes, used in electronics, reinforcement in
composite materials, and energy storage.
○ Nanorods: Zinc oxide nanorods, applied in sensors and optoelectronic
devices for their high aspect ratio and unique optical properties.
3. Two-Dimensional (2D) Nanomaterials
● Description: These are the materials having only one out of three dimensions
measured within the nanoscale i.e. no dimensions larger than 100nm.
● Examples:
○ Graphene: A single layer of carbon atoms in a hexagonal lattice, known
for its exceptional electrical conductivity and mechanical strength, used in
flexible electronics and batteries.
○ Nanofilms: Thin films of materials like molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂), used
in lubrication, solar cells, and transistors due to their high surface area and
conductivity.
4. Three-Dimensional (3D) Nanomaterials
● Description: In 3D nanomaterials, all three dimensions extend beyond the
nanoscale, but they contain nanostructured elements internally. These materials
are often bulk materials with a nanostructured framework.
● Examples:
○ Nanoporous Materials: Porous silica or zeolites with nanoscale pores,
used in catalysis, adsorption, and separation processes.
○ Nanocomposites: Materials like polymer nanocomposites reinforced with
nanoscale fillers (e.g., nanoclay), which improve mechanical strength,
thermal stability, and resistance to chemicals.
4. What are carbon nanotubes? Discuss the different types of carbon nanotubes with respect
to their structure. Give three applications of CNTs.

Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) are cylindrical nanostructures composed entirely of carbon

atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice. They are derived from graphene sheets, rolled
up to form tube-like structures. CNTs have unique properties, including high tensile
strength, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and chemical stability, which make
them useful in various applications.

Types of Carbon Nanotubes

1. Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNTs)
● Structure: Consist of a single layer of graphene rolled into a seamless cylinder
with a diameter typically between 0.4 and 2 nanometers.
● Properties: SWCNTs can behave as either metallic or semiconducting,
depending on their chirality (the way the graphene sheet is rolled). This versatility
makes them useful in electronic applications.
2. Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNTs)
● Structure: Composed of multiple layers of graphene rolled concentrically into a
tube, like layers in a coaxial cable. The diameter of MWCNTs can range from 2 to
100 nanometers.
● Properties: MWCNTs are generally stronger and more chemically stable than
SWCNTs, but they are typically metallic in nature and lack the same level of
electronic versatility.
3. Double-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (DWCNTs)
● Structure: A specific type of MWCNT consisting of only two layers. DWCNTs
combine some properties of both SWCNTs (flexibility and electronic properties)
and MWCNTs (mechanical strength).
● Properties: DWCNTs are often preferred for applications requiring a balance of
strength and electronic performance.

Applications of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)

● Electronics: Used in transistors, sensors, and capacitors due to their high
conductivity and ability to act as semiconductors.
● Reinforcement in Composite Materials: CNTs are used to reinforce materials
such as polymers, metals, and ceramics to enhance their strength, durability, and
flexibility.
● Energy Storage: Used in lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors to increase
energy density and charge/discharge rates due to their high surface area and
conductivity.
5. Classify SWCNT and give four applications of SWCNT.

Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNTs) can be classified based on their

structural configuration, or chirality—the specific way the graphene sheet is "rolled" to
form the tube. This chirality affects the electronic properties of SWCNTs, making them
either metallic or semiconducting. The three main types of SWCNTs based on chirality
are:

1. Armchair (n, n):

○ Structure: The graphene sheet is rolled so that the edges form an
“armchair” pattern.
○ Properties: Always metallic, providing excellent electrical conductivity,
which is useful in electronic applications.
2. Zigzag (n, 0):
○ Structure: The edges form a zigzag pattern.
○ Properties: Can be either metallic or semiconducting, depending on the
diameter and specific atomic structure.
3. Chiral (n, m):
○ Structure: The graphene sheet is rolled at an angle, resulting in a helical
or “chiral” structure.
○ Properties: Usually semiconducting, which makes them suitable for
applications requiring controlled conductivity.

Applications of SWCNTs
1. Field-Effect Transistors (FETs): SWCNTs are used as channels in FETs due to
their semiconducting properties, allowing for high-speed and low-power
electronic devices.
2. Drug Delivery Systems: SWCNTs can be functionalized to carry drugs and
deliver them to specific cells, improving targeting in medical treatments.
3. Transparent Conductive Films: Used in touchscreens, solar cells, and flexible
displays, SWCNT films provide transparency and conductivity, as well as
flexibility.
4. Chemical and Biological Sensors: SWCNTs' high sensitivity to changes in the
surrounding environment makes them suitable for detecting gases, biomolecules,
and even specific ions.
6. Define quantum dots. Give two properties, two types, and two applications of quantum
dots.
● Quantum dots: Quantum dots are semiconductor nanoparticles that glow a particular
colour after being illuminated by light.

● Properties of quantum dots (semiconductor nanoparticles)

● Quantum dots have properties intermediate between bulk semiconductors and discrete
atoms or molecules.
○ The properties of a quantum dot are determined by size, shape, composition and
structure.
○ Their optoelectronic properties change as a function of both size and shape. Many
semiconductor substances can be used as quantum dots. Nanoparticles of any
semiconductor substance have the properties of a quantum dot.
○ Commonly used semiconductor materials for preparing quantum dots are silicon,
cadmium sulphide, cadmium selenide and indium arsenide. These materials
behave differently as quantum dots, giving rise to very high tunability and a wide
variety of applications.
○ Quantum dots have unique properties i.e. they exhibit interesting phenomena. Le.
size dependent emission wavelength narrow emission peak and broad excitation
range. The gap between the valence band and the conduction band, which is
present for all semiconductor materials, causes quantum dots to fluoresce. The
main property of quantum dots is they show a colour glow when illuminated by UV
light.

Types of Quantum dots

There are three main types of Quantum dots:
1. III - V - Semiconductor Quantum dots: They are made up of elements from Gr. III
of the periodic table of elements (boron, aluminium, gallium, indium) and from Gr. V
(nitrogen phosphorous, arsenic, antimony, bismuth)
Example: gallium arsenide (GaAs). It is used as a light source in optical data
processing and used as an amplification medium in lasers.

2. II - VI - Semiconductor Quantum dots: They are made up of elements from Gr. II

Le. transition metals (Zinc, cadmium) and from group VI (oxygen, sulphur, selerium,
tellurium).
Example: cadmium selenide (CdSe), cadmium telluride (CdTe) and Zinc oxide
(ZnO). They show outstanding fluorescence properties and are widely used in
electronics, photonics. photovoltaics and biomedicine..
 3. Silicon (Si) Quantum dots: They are made up of element silicon, which is the
standard material of semiconductor and chip industry.
Example: Silicon quantum dots have great potential to be used as a component of
optical chips, optical sensors etc.

7. Explain the structure of graphene with a diagram. Mention its properties and four
applications of graphene.
Structure of graphene:
1. It is a single layer of carbon packed in a hexagonal (honey comb) lattice with a
carbon-carbon distance of 0.142 nm. It is the first truly two-dimensional
crystalline material and it is representative of a whole class of 2D materials. In
graphene every carbon in the hexagonal lattice undergoes SP hybridization.
2. A pencil contains graphite and when it is moved on a piece of paper, the graphite
is cleaved into thin layers on the paper and make up the text or drawing that we
are trying to produce, is nothing but graphase,
3. A small fraction of these thin layers will contain only a few layers or even a single
layer of graphite, i.e. graphene. Thus, the difficulty was not to fabricate the
graphene structures but to isolate sufficiently large individual sheets in order to
identify and characterise the graphene and to verify its unique two-dimensional
(2D) properties.

Important Properties:
● It is about 200 times stronger than the strongest steel and light since it is only
one atom thick.
● It efficiently conducts heat and electricity and is nearly transparent.
● Graphene shows a large and nonlinear diamagnetism, greater than graphite and
can be levitated (made to rise and float in the air without any physical support) by
neodymium magnets,
● It is the only form of carbon in which every atom is available for chemical reaction
from two sides (due to 2D structure).

Applications:
● Being a transparent and flexible conductor, it can be used for solar panels,
LEDs, touchpanels, and smartphones.
● Its powder can be used in making polymer composites.
● Capacitors, batteries, 3D printer materials.
● As transistors for integrated circuits.
● As a sensor for gas detection.
● As a filtration material.
8. Give the structure of polycarbonate. Mention three properties and three applications of
polycarbonate.

Polycarbonate is a type of thermoplastic polymer known for its toughness,

transparency, and resistance to impact. Its structure is based on repeating carbonate
groups in the polymer backbone.

Structure of Polycarbonate
Polycarbonate’s molecular structure consists of repeating units with the following
general formula:

This structure contains carbonate linkages between phenyl rings, which contribute to
its strength and transparency.

Properties of Polycarbonate
1. High Impact Resistance: Polycarbonate is highly resistant to impact and
mechanical stress, making it durable and suitable for applications requiring
toughness.
2. Transparency: It has excellent optical clarity, allowing light transmission similar
to that of glass.
3. Thermal Stability: Polycarbonate maintains its properties over a wide
temperature range, making it suitable for high-temperature applications.

Applications of Polycarbonate
1. Optical Discs: Used in manufacturing CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs due to its
clarity and durability.
2. Eyewear Lenses: Ideal for making lenses in glasses and protective goggles due
to its transparency, lightweight nature, and impact resistance.
3. Automotive Components: Used in headlight lenses, dashboards, and other
parts where strength and heat resistance are essential.
4. Construction Materials: Polycarbonate sheets are used in glazing, skylights,
and greenhouses due to their UV resistance, impact resistance, and clarity.
9. Give the structure, properties, and applications of polyphenylene vinylene (PPV) as an
electroluminescent polymer.

Polyphenylene Vinylene (PPV) is an organic polymer and one of the most studied
electroluminescent polymers, known for its ability to emit light upon electrical excitation.
This unique property makes it suitable for various optoelectronic applications, such as in
organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs).

Structure of Polyphenylene Vinylene (PPV)

The structure of PPV consists of alternating phenylene and vinylene (ethene) units:

[−C6​H4​−CH=CH−]n​

This conjugated structure, with alternating single and double bonds along the backbone,
allows for electron delocalization, which is essential for the polymer’s
electroluminescent properties.

Properties of Polyphenylene Vinylene (PPV)

1. Electroluminescence: PPV emits light when an electric current passes through
it, making it valuable in light-emitting devices.
2. Good Electrical Conductivity: Due to its conjugated structure, PPV can
conduct electricity, especially when doped or excited.
3. Photostability and Chemical Stability: Although PPV has good stability under
certain conditions, it can degrade in the presence of oxygen or moisture, so
protective measures are often necessary in device applications.

Applications of Polyphenylene Vinylene (PPV)

1. Organic Light-Emitting Diodes (OLEDs): PPV is used as the emissive layer in
OLED displays and lighting because of its ability to emit light efficiently and in
various colours based on its structural modifications.
2. Photovoltaic Cells: Employed in organic solar cells as an active layer to absorb
light and facilitate charge transport, contributing to renewable energy technology.
3. Sensors: PPV-based sensors can detect chemical and biological substances
due to the polymer’s conductive and luminescent properties.
10. What are biodegradable polymers? Explain three factors responsible for biodegradation.
Give two properties and two applications of biodegradable polymers.

Biodegradable Polymers are polymers that can be broken down into natural
byproducts, such as water, carbon dioxide, and biomass, by the action of
microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, and algae. This process reduces environmental
pollution and offers an eco-friendly alternative to traditional plastics.

Factors Responsible for Biodegradation

The biodegradability of polymers is influenced by several factors:
1. Chemical Structure: Polymers with hydrolyzable bonds (e.g., ester, amide, or
ether linkages) are more easily broken down by microbial enzymes, making them
more biodegradable.
2. Molecular Weight: Lower molecular weight polymers are generally more
accessible for microbial attack, as they can penetrate the microbial cell
membranes more easily.
3. Environmental Conditions: Factors like temperature, humidity, oxygen levels,
and pH affect the rate of degradation. Warm, moist, and aerobic conditions
typically accelerate biodegradation.
4. Microbial Population: The type and concentration of microorganisms present
determine the rate and extent of biodegradation. Certain bacteria and fungi are
particularly effective at breaking down specific biodegradable polymers.

Properties of Biodegradable Polymers

1. Biocompatibility: Many biodegradable polymers are compatible with biological
systems, making them suitable for medical applications.
2. Controlled Degradation Rate: They can be designed to degrade over specific
timeframes, useful for temporary applications.
3. Low Toxicity: Biodegradable polymers often decompose into non-toxic or less
harmful byproducts, which minimises environmental impact.

Applications of Biodegradable Polymers

1. Medical Field: Used in sutures, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering
scaffolds, where they naturally degrade in the body without the need for removal.
2. Agriculture: Applied in controlled-release fertilisers, mulch films, and plant pots,
where they decompose and contribute nutrients to the soil.
3. Packaging: Used in disposable bags, food containers, and packaging films to
reduce plastic waste and environmental pollution.
4. Consumer Goods: Biodegradable cutlery, plates, and other single-use items are
increasingly popular in an effort to minimise waste.
11. Draw the structure of PHBV and give its two applications.

1. Biomedical Applications:
Sutures and Wound Dressings: PHBV is used to create sutures that are
biodegradable and reduce the need for surgical removal, as well as wound
dressings that promote healing.
Drug Delivery Systems: PHBV can be used to encapsulate drugs for controlled
release, targeting specific areas within the body.

2. Packaging Materials:
Food Packaging: PHBV is employed in biodegradable food packaging, including
films and containers, to minimise environmental impact and reduce plastic waste.

3. Agricultural Films:
Mulch Films: PHBV can be used as biodegradable mulch films in agriculture to
suppress weeds, retain soil moisture, and decompose after the growing season,
enriching the soil.

4. 3D Printing:
Filaments for Additive Manufacturing: PHBV is used as a filament material for
3D printing applications, offering an eco-friendly alternative for producing various
objects.

5. Consumer Products:
Biodegradable Cutlery and Plates: PHBV is used to manufacture single-use
cutlery and plates that decompose after use, providing a sustainable option for
food service.

6. Textiles:
Biodegradable Fibres: PHBV fibres can be used in textile applications for
clothing and other fabrics, contributing to sustainability in the fashion industry.
12. What are conducting polymers? State the structural requirements for a polymer to be
conductive and explain intrinsically and extrinsically conducting polymers with examples.

Conducting polymers are a class of organic polymers that exhibit the ability to conduct
electricity. Unlike conventional polymers, which are usually insulators, conducting
polymers have unique structures that allow for electrical conductivity. They are used in
applications such as batteries, sensors, and organic solar cells due to their ability to
combine the flexibility and processability of polymers with the electrical properties of
metals or semiconductors.

Structural Requirements for Conductivity in Polymers

For a polymer to be conductive, it needs certain structural characteristics:
1. Conjugated Double Bonds: The polymer must have alternating single and
double bonds in its backbone. This creates a system of pi-electrons
(π-electrons) that are delocalized over the entire chain, allowing electrons to
move through the polymer.
2. Doping: The conductivity of a polymer can be enhanced by adding or removing
electrons through a process called doping. Doping introduces charge carriers
(either by oxidation or reduction) that increase the polymer's conductivity.
3. Molecular Alignment: Conductivity is often improved when the polymer chains
are aligned in an orderly fashion, allowing better electron transport.
4. Charge Carrier Mobility: The polymer must allow the movement of charge
carriers (electrons or holes) efficiently throughout its structure.

Types of Conducting Polymers

1. Intrinsically Conducting Polymers (ICP)

These polymers have inherent conductivity due to their molecular structure. The
conjugated system of alternating double and single bonds enables the movement of
electrons within the polymer chain. ICPs can be further enhanced through doping.

● Examples of Intrinsically Conducting Polymers:

○ Polyaniline (PANI): Conductivity can be tuned through protonation or doping.
○ Polypyrrole (PPy): It becomes conductive when oxidized.
○ Polythiophene (PT): Conductive in its doped form and used in electronics.
○ Polyacetylene: One of the earliest conducting polymers, which conducts when
doped with iodine.

● How ICPs work: Intrinsically conducting polymers have extended π-conjugation

systems. In the undoped state, they may behave as semiconductors or insulators.
 However, upon doping, they gain free electrons (or holes) that enable electrical
conductivity. For example, polyaniline becomes conductive when it is doped by
protonation with an acid.

2. Extrinsically Conducting Polymers

These polymers are typically insulating but can become conductive when combined with
external conductive materials (fillers) such as metallic particles or carbon-based
materials.

● Examples of Extrinsically Conducting Polymers:

○ Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or Polyethylene (PE) mixed with carbon black or
metal powders: These materials are conductive due to the conductive fillers
dispersed in the insulating polymer matrix.
○ Polymers with embedded silver or copper particles: The conductivity arises
from the conductive filler rather than the polymer itself.

● How they work: The conductivity is not due to the polymer chain but the conductive
particles or fillers dispersed within the polymer. The electrons move through the
conductive pathways formed by these particles.

Differences -

● Intrinsic Conductivity: Comes from the polymer's molecular structure

(alternating single and double bonds with doping).

● Extrinsic Conductivity: Arises from the presence of conductive materials or

fillers embedded in the polymer, rather than the polymer itself.

13. Explain doping with reactions and give two applications of conducting polymers.

14. How can the conductivity of trans-polyacetylene be improved? Give three applications of
conducting polymers.
 Unit - 4

1. Numericals…
2. What is biodiesel? Write the chemical reaction for the production of biodiesel. State four
advantages and two limitations of biodiesel.

Biodiesel is a renewable, biodegradable fuel derived from vegetable oils, animal fats,
or recycled greases. It can be used in diesel engines with little or no modification and is
produced through a chemical process called transesterification, where triglycerides in
fats or oils react with an alcohol (typically methanol) to produce biodiesel (methyl esters)
and glycerol as a byproduct.

Chemical Reaction

Advantages of Biodiesel
1. Renewable and Sustainable: Biodiesel is derived from biological sources,
making it renewable and sustainable.
2. Lower Emissions: Reduces greenhouse gas emissions (e.g., CO2_22​),
particulate matter, and sulfur compounds compared to petroleum diesel.
3. Biodegradable: Safe and less toxic, making it environmentally friendly and
easier to handle in case of spills.
Limitations of Biodiesel
1. Higher Production Costs: Biodiesel production costs are currently higher than
those of conventional diesel due to raw material and processing costs.
2. Cold Flow Issues: Biodiesel can gel or solidify at low temperatures, requiring
additives or blending for use in colder climates.
3. Limited Feedstock Availability: Large-scale production requires significant
feedstock, which could impact food supply and land use.

3. Explain the process of fractional distillation of crude petroleum with a diagram. Give the
composition, boiling range, and uses of any two fractions obtained.

4. Explain the production of hydrogen by steam reforming of methane and coke with reaction
conditions. Describe the process of CO₂ removal.
5. Define gross and net calorific value. Justify the relationship between GCV and NCV of the
fuel if the fuel contains hydrogen.

6. What is power alcohol? Explain the procedure for the preparation of ethanol with reactions.
Mention three merits and three demerits of power alcohol.

7. What is the proximate analysis of coal? Explain the procedure and give the formula for
determining each constituent.

8. Explain the construction and working of a Bomb calorimeter with a diagram to determine
the GCV of fuel. State the corrected formula to find the gross calorific value using a Bomb
calorimeter.
 Unit - 5

1. Give the principle, instrumentation, and five applications of UV-visible spectroscopy.

2. Explain the different types of electronic transitions with a diagram that occur in an organic
molecule after absorbing UV-visible radiation. State the forbidden transitions.
3. State and give the mathematical expression of Beer's and Lambert's law.
4. What are the conditions for absorption of IR radiation by molecules? Explain the principle of
IR spectroscopy and the fundamental modes of vibrations (stretching and bending).
5. Draw a block diagram of an IR spectrophotometer. Explain its four components and give
their functions. Applications of IR spectroscopy.
6. Define the following terms:
a. Chromophore c. Bathochromic shift (Red shift)
b. Auxochrome d. Hypochromic shift (Blue shift)
e. Beer’s law
7. Explain the modes of vibration with stretching and bending vibrations observed in IR
spectroscopy.
8. Calculate the fundamental modes of vibrations for the following molecules:
a. NO c. NH₃
b. CH₄ d. CO₂
 Unit - 6

1. Define oxidation corrosion. Explain the general mechanism of oxidative corrosion.

Oxidation Corrosion is a type of corrosion that occurs when metals react with oxygen
in the presence of moisture, leading to the formation of oxides or other corrosion
products. This process generally results in the deterioration of the metal surface,
weakening its structural integrity over time. Oxidation corrosion is particularly prevalent
in metals like iron, aluminium, and copper.

General Mechanism of Oxidative Corrosion

The mechanism of oxidative corrosion can be explained through several steps:

1. Anodic Reaction:
○ The metal surface undergoes oxidation, losing electrons. For example, in
the case of iron, the reaction can be represented as:
Reaction
○ This step leads to the formation of metal cations in solution.

2. Cathodic Reaction:
○ The electrons released during the anodic reaction are consumed in a
reduction reaction. In the presence of oxygen and water, this reaction
often involves the reduction of oxygen:
Reaction
○ This produces hydroxide ions.

Key Factors Influencing Oxidative Corrosion

● Moisture: Water acts as a medium for ion transport, facilitating the
electrochemical reactions.
● Temperature: Higher temperatures can increase the rate of chemical reactions,
accelerating corrosion.
● Presence of Electrolytes: Salts and other ionic compounds in water can
enhance conductivity and promote corrosion.
● pH Level: Acidic or alkaline conditions can influence the rates of anodic and
cathodic reactions.
2. What is galvanization? Explain the process with a diagram to protect iron from corrosion.
Mention two applications of galvanization.

Galvanization is a corrosion protection process in which a layer of zinc is applied to the

surface of iron or steel to prevent rusting. The zinc acts as a sacrificial anode, meaning
it corroded preferentially over the underlying iron or steel, thereby protecting it from
oxidation and corrosion.

Process of Galvanization
1. Surface Preparation: The iron or steel surface is cleaned to remove any
contaminants, rust, or oils. This may involve mechanical cleaning, acid pickling,
or other methods to ensure a good bond with the zinc coating.
2. Zinc Coating: The cleaned metal is immersed in molten zinc (hot-dip
galvanising) or coated with zinc using other methods like electroplating or
spraying.
○ Hot-Dip Galvanizing: In this method, the iron or steel is dipped into a
bath of molten zinc, which coats the surface and forms a metallurgical
bond.
3. Cooling and Solidification: After immersion, the coated metal is removed and
allowed to cool, solidifying the zinc layer.
4. Formation of Protective Layer: Upon exposure to air, the zinc surface develops
a layer of zinc oxide, which further protects the underlying metal from moisture
and corrosive elements.

Diagram

Applications of Galvanization
1. Construction: Used for steel structures, beams, and reinforcements in buildings
to enhance longevity and reduce maintenance costs.
2. Automotive Industry: Applied to car bodies and components to prevent rust and
corrosion, improving vehicle durability and lifespan.
3. Electrical Equipment: Used for electrical poles, transmission towers, and
conduits to protect against environmental corrosion.
4. Home Appliances: Found in appliances like washing machines and refrigerators
where moisture exposure is common.
3. Define electroplating. Explain the process with a diagram, reactions, and give four
applications of electroplating.

Electroplating is an electrochemical process used to deposit a layer of metal onto a

substrate (usually a metal) by passing an electric current through an electrolyte solution
containing metal ions. This technique is employed to enhance the appearance, prevent
corrosion, and improve the wear resistance of the substrate.

Process of Electroplating
1. Preparation of Substrate: The object to be electroplated (the substrate) is
cleaned to remove any dirt, grease, or oxides that could interfere with the plating
process. Cleaning methods may include ultrasonic cleaning, acid cleaning, or
abrasive methods.
2. Electrolyte Solution: An electrolyte solution containing metal salts (e.g., a
solution of nickel sulphate for nickel plating) is prepared. The metal ions in the
solution will be reduced and deposited onto the substrate during the
electroplating process.
3. Electroplating Setup: The substrate is connected to the negative terminal
(cathode) of a power supply, while a metal anode (the same metal that is to be
deposited) is connected to the positive terminal (anode).
4. Electroplating Reaction: When the electric current is applied, metal cations
from the electrolyte solution migrate toward the cathode (the substrate) and are
reduced, forming a metallic layer.

Diagram

Applications of Electroplating
1. Corrosion Protection: Electroplating is widely used to coat metals with a
protective layer to prevent rust and corrosion. For example, zinc plating is
common for steel products.
2. Decorative Finishes: Gold, silver, and chrome plating are used to provide a
decorative finish on jewellery, cutlery, and automotive parts.
3. Improved Wear Resistance: Electroplating can enhance the hardness and wear
resistance of mechanical components, such as gears and bearings, by
depositing metals like nickel or chromium.
4. Electrical Conductivity: Electroplating can be used to improve the conductivity
of electronic components. For instance, copper plating is applied to circuit boards
and connectors to ensure good electrical connections.
4. What is the principle of cathodic protection? Explain one method of cathodic protection,
such as the sacrificial anode method, with a diagram.

Cathodic Protection is a technique used to prevent the corrosion of metal surfaces by

making them the cathode of an electrochemical cell. The principle relies on the use of a
more easily corroded metal (sacrificial anode) or an impressed current to protect the
metal structure from corrosion.

Principle of Cathodic Protection

The basic principle of cathodic protection involves altering the electrochemical
conditions at the metal surface to prevent oxidation (corrosion). This is achieved by:
1. Reducing the potential of the metal: By providing electrons to the metal
surface, the electrochemical reaction that leads to corrosion is suppressed.
2. Using a sacrificial anode: A more reactive metal (the sacrificial anode) is
attached to the structure being protected. This anode corrodes preferentially,
sacrificing itself while protecting the underlying metal.

Applications of Cathodic Protection

● Underground Pipelines: Used extensively to protect pipelines transporting oil,
gas, and water.
● Marine Structures: Employed in ship hulls and offshore structures to prevent
corrosion in saltwater environments.
● Storage Tanks: Applied to above-ground and underground storage tanks to
extend their lifespan.

Diagram

Sacrificial Anode Method

The sacrificial anode method is one of the most common forms of cathodic protection.
In this method, a less noble (more active) metal is electrically connected to the metal
structure that needs protection. The sacrificial anode corrodes in place of the protected
metal, thereby preserving it.

Steps in the Sacrificial Anode Method:

1. Installation: The sacrificial anode, typically made from zinc, magnesium, or
aluminium, is installed and connected to the metal structure (e.g., a pipeline or a
ship hull).
2. Corrosion Reaction: The sacrificial anode begins to corrode, releasing
electrons. The metal structure now receives these electrons, and its oxidation
potential is lowered, reducing the rate of corrosion.
 3. Protection: The anode continues to corrode until it is consumed, at which point it
must be replaced to maintain protection.

5. Define corrosion. State the conditions under which wet corrosion occurs. Explain both the
hydrogen evolution and oxygen absorption mechanisms of wet corrosion with diagrams and
reactions.

Corrosion is the gradual deterioration of materials, usually metals, due to chemical

reactions with their environment. It typically results in the formation of oxides,
hydroxides, or other compounds, which can lead to structural failure. Corrosion can
occur in various forms, including uniform corrosion, pitting, crevice corrosion, and
galvanic corrosion.

Conditions Under Which Wet Corrosion Occurs

Wet corrosion occurs under specific conditions:
1. Presence of Moisture: Water or humidity is essential for the electrochemical
reactions involved in wet corrosion.
2. Electrolyte Presence: The presence of dissolved salts or other ionic substances
in water can enhance conductivity and facilitate corrosion processes.
3. Oxygen Supply: Oxygen is usually necessary to support the reduction reactions
occurring during corrosion.
4. Metal Surface: A conductive metal surface is required for the corrosion process
to occur, as it provides a pathway for electron flow.

Mechanisms of Wet Corrosion

Wet corrosion primarily occurs through two electrochemical mechanisms: Hydrogen
Evolution and Oxygen Absorption. Both processes involve anodic and cathodic
reactions.
1. Hydrogen Evolution Mechanism
In this mechanism, the metal surface (anode) undergoes oxidation, resulting in
the release of electrons. The electrons are consumed in a cathodic reaction
involving hydrogen ions from the electrolyte.
Reactions
Diagram
2. Oxygen Absorption Mechanism
In this mechanism, oxygen dissolved in water acts as the cathodic reactant. The
metal surface again oxidises, while oxygen is reduced.
Reactions
Diagram
6. State the Pilling-Bedworth ratio and give its significance. Explain the different types of oxide
films formed during oxidation corrosion of metals, such as Na, Al, Fe, Ag, and Mo, with
reactions.

7. Define anodic and cathodic coatings. Distinguish between the two types and explain which
is better and why.

Definitions
● Anodic Coatings: Anodic coatings are protective layers formed on a metal by
applying an electrochemical oxidation process. The coating material acts as the
anode, which corrodes preferentially to protect the base metal. Anodic coatings
are typically created by adding a less noble metal as a coating layer on a more
noble base metal. For example, zinc is coated onto steel in galvanization,
providing sacrificial protection as the zinc corrodes first.
● Cathodic Coatings: Cathodic coatings are layers of a more noble (less reactive)
metal applied to a substrate. This noble metal coating acts as a cathode and
does not corrode easily, thus protecting the base metal from oxidation. The base
metal remains passively protected as long as the coating layer remains intact.
Common examples include coating steel with chromium or nickel.

Difference between Anodic and Cathodic Coatings

Feature Anodic Coating Cathodic Coatings

Corrosion Mechanism Sacrificial protection (anode Barrier protection (prevents

corrodes) oxidation)

Material Used More reactive (e.g., zinc on Less reactive (e.g., nickel on
steel) steel)

Primary Protection Protects even if coating is Protects as long as coating

damaged, as it corrodes first remains intact

Application Method Commonly applied via hot-dip Commonly applied by

galvanising or electroplating electroplating or vapour
deposition

Durability Limited by the amount of Durable if coating remains

sacrificial metal available undamaged

Examples Galvanised steel (zinc on Nickel or chromium coating

steel) on steel
 Which is Better and Why?
The choice between anodic and cathodic coatings depends on the intended application
and the environment:
● Anodic Coatings are more effective for corrosion protection in conditions where
the coating may be damaged, as the sacrificial layer will continue to protect the
underlying metal by corroding preferentially. This makes anodic coatings ideal for
harsh environments (e.g., marine environments) where physical damage may
occur, such as in pipelines or metal structures.
● Cathodic Coatings are better when a high-resistance, aesthetic finish is desired,
provided that the coating remains intact. Cathodic coatings, like chromium or
nickel, are often used in applications where appearance and durability are
priorities, such as in automotive or consumer electronics.

Anodic coatings are preferred when sacrificial protection is essential, while Cathodic
coatings are better suited for applications requiring durable, aesthetic protection.

8. Explain any five factors affecting the rate of corrosion with respect to the nature of the
metal.

The rate of corrosion in metals depends on several intrinsic factors:

1. Electrode Potential: Metals with lower (more negative) electrode potentials, like
zinc, corrode faster than those with higher potentials, like gold.
2. Impurity: Impurities create localised electrochemical cells on metal surfaces,
accelerating corrosion. Pure metals typically corrode more slowly.
3. Position in Electrochemical Series: Metals higher in the series (e.g.,
magnesium) are more reactive and corrode faster than those lower in the series
(e.g., copper).
4. Surface Area and Condition: Larger or rougher surface areas increase
corrosion rates as they provide more exposure to corrosive agents.
5. Passive Oxide Layers: Metals like aluminium form protective oxide layers that
prevent further oxidation and reduce corrosion rates.