UNIT-III

ENERGY RESOURCES, ELECTRICITY BILL & SAFETY MEASURES

ENERGY RESOURCES:

Conventional sources of energy

Convection energy sources are naturally present and have been in use for years. The use of
conventional sources is done for heating, lighting, cooking, running machinery, and provision of
electricity. The examples for which include firewood, fossil fuels, and others. In addition, firewood has
been extensively used for cooking purposes in remote regions of India.

The fossil fuels are plants, and animal remains, which have been buried from millions of years ago within
the earth. These remains are decomposed and formed primary energy sources like coal, petroleum, natural
gas, etc.

The reserves for such energy sources are in limited quantities and soon will be depleted with a growth
rate of population. Since they are naturally occurring and take a considerable time, they cannot be
renewed manually or by applying scientific methods. It is essential for judicious use of non-renewable or
conventional energy sources.

Advantages for conventional energy sources are

 Easily Available

 Efficient and good electricity conversion

 Low exploration costs

Disadvantages for conventional sources of energy are also listed below

 Time-consuming collection process

 Pollutes the atmosphere

 Destroys natural ecosystems

 Displaces local communities

 Initial set-up could be costly

Non- Conventional energy of sources

Non- Conventional energy sources are the best alternatives to conventional sources while also non-
polluting. In 1973, the oil crisis encouraged a focus on non – conventional sources, which has increased
in recent times due to high environmental pollution.

Non-conventional sources could be obtained from sun, wind, hot springs, and others that support heat and
power generation. They are non-polluting and present in abundance within the earth’s atmosphere.

Solar Energy- The light from the sun is used to generate electricity by trapping the solar cells within the
panels. Solar energy is present in abundance although it can be only trapped during the daytime, during
the hours of intense rays. It is being used for lighting, heating, and others.

Wind-Wind energy has been used for many years for grinding grains in mills. Although, in recent years,
it has been used to generate electricity by harnessing the energy of winds by turbines attached to
substantial capacity generators. Usually, such wind farms are located near coastal areas or mountains with
the high wind flow. In India, my desert regions, like the outskirts of Gujarat and Rajasthan, have built
substantial wind farms.

Nuclear Power Plants- Nuclear energy is acquired from nuclei atoms that occur naturally in radioactive
sources like uranium, thorium, and others. Nuclear fuels emit power when undergone in nuclear reactors.
Globally, the USA and Europe are the largest nuclear power producers, although in India, uranium is
found in Jharkhand, and thorium is found in Kerala.

Geothermal Energy- The heat acquired from the earth is geothermal energy. In many areas, hot springs
are witnessed as part of geothermal energy. The heat from within the earth has been used for generating
power. New Zealand, Iceland, Central America, and the USA have the largest geothermal power plants.
India also has geothermal power plants located in Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh.

Tidal Energy- Tidal waves also generate energy harnessed by erecting dams. The narrow dams are built
near the end of tides, where the turbines help to capture the energy. India has vast tidal mill farms at the
Gulf of Kachchh, while other countries include Russia and France.

Benefits of the non- conventional source of energy

 They are non-polluting

 Available in abundant

 Freely available

 Low harnessing costs

 Low environmental damage

Disadvantages of non- conventional sources of energy

 Their acquisition can be sourced only in restricted time limits like in rainy seasons tidal waves
will generate more energy than others

 Not viable commercially

 Lower efficiency levels.

Differences amongst conventional and non conventional sources of energy

Conventional sources of energy Non-conventional ones

It is readily available by nature It requires mechanical devices for procuring

It has been used from centuries It is a recent development as alternative fuels

It is highly polluting It is non-polluting

It is more commercially viable and is widely It is majorly used domestically
used in industries

They are scarce resources They are available in abundance

 Hydroelectric power plant
Working principle

Hydroelectric power plant (Hydel plant) utilizes the potential energy of water stored in a dam built
across the river. The potential energy of the stored water is converted into kinetic energy by first passing
it through the penstock pipe. The kinetic energy of the water is then converted into mechanical energy in
a water turbine. The turbine is coupled to the electric generator. The mechanical energy available at the
shaft of the turbine is converted into electrical energy by means of the generator.
Because gravity provides the force which makes the waterfall, the energy stored in the water is called
gravitational potential energy.

Layout of Hydroelectric power plant

The main components are

Water reservoir
Dam
Spillway
Gate
Pressure tunnel
Surge tank
Penstock
Water turbine
Draft tube
Tail race level
Powerhouse

hydroelectric power plant diagram

Water reservoir:

In a reservoir the water collected from the catchment area during the rainy season is stored behind a dam.
Catchment area gets its water from rains and streams. Continuous availability of water is a basic necessity
for a hydroelectric power plant. The level of the water surface in the reservoir is called the Headwater
level. The water head available for power generation depends on the reservoir height.
Dam:

The purpose of the dam is to store the water and to regulate the out going flow of water. The dam helps to
store all the incoming water. It also helps to increase the head of the water. In order to generate a required
quantity of power, it is necessary that a sufficient head is available.

Spillway:

Excess accumulation of water endangers the stability of dam construction. Also in order to avoid the
overflow of water out of the dam especially during rainy seasons spillways are provided. This prevents
the rise of the water level in the dam. Spillways are passages that allow the excess water to flow to a
different storage area away from the dam.

Gate:

A gate is used to regulate or control the flow of water from the dam.

Pressure tunnel:

It is a passage that carries water from the reservoir to the surge tank.

Surge tank:

A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank in which the water level rises or falls due to sudden changes in
pressure. There may a sudden increase of pressure in the penstock pipe due to sudden backflow of water,
as the load on the turbine is reduced. This sudden rise of pressure in the penstock pipe is known as water
hammer.

Penstock:

Penstock pipe is used to bring water from the dam to the hydraulic turbine. Penstock pipes are made up of
steel or reinforced concrete. The turbine is installed at a lower level from the dam. Penstock is provided
with a gate valve at the inlet to completely close the water supply.
It has a control valve to control the water flow rate into the turbine. Water turbine or hydraulic turbine
(Prime mover): The hydraulic turbine converts the energy of water into mechanical energy. The
mechanical energy (rotation) available on the turbine shaft is coupled to the shaft of an electric generator
and electricity is produced. The water after performing the work on the turbine blade is discharged
through the draft tube.

The prime movers which are in common use are Pelton wheel, Kaplan turbine, Francis turbine.

Draft tube:

Draft tube is connected to the outlet of the turbine. It converts the kinetic energy available in the water
into pressure energy in the diverging portion. Thus, it maintains a pressure of just above the atmospheric
at the end of the draft tube to move the water into a tailrace. Water from the tailrace is released for
irrigation purposes.

Tailrace level:

Tailrace is a water path to lead the water discharged from the turbine to the river or canal. The water held
in the tailrace is called the Tailrace water level.

Power House:
The powerhouse accommodates the water turbine, generator, transformer, and control room. As the water
rushes through the turbine, it spins the turbine shaft, which is coupled to the electric generator. The
generator has a rotating electromagnet called a rotor and a stationary part called a stator. The rotor creates
a magnetic field that produces an electric charge in the stator. The charge is transmitted as electricity. The
step-up transformer increases the voltage of the current coming from the stator. The electricity is
distributed through power lines.

Classification of Hydroelectric power plant

Hydroelectric power plants are usually classified according to the available of head of water
• High head power plants
• Medium head power plants
• Low head power plants

High head power plants: When the operating head of water exceeds 70 meters, the plant is known as High
head power plant. Pelton wheel turbine is the prime mover used.

Medium head power plants: When the water ranges from 15 to 70 meters, then the power plant is known
as a Medium head power plant. It uses Francis Turbine.

Low head power plants: When the head is less than 15 meters, the plant is named as Low head power
plant. It uses Francis or Kaplan turbine as the prime mover.

Advantages of hydroelectric power plant

1. The water source is perennially available. No fuel is required to be burnt to generate electricity. It is
aptly termed as ‘the white coal’. Water passes through turbines to produce work and downstream its
utility remains undiminished for irrigation of farms and quenching the thirst of people in the vicinity.
2. The running costs of hydropower installations are very low as compared to thermal or nuclear power
stations. In thermal stations, besides the cost of fuel, one has to take into account the transportation cost of
the fuel also.
3. There is no problem with regard to the disposal of ash as in a thermal station. The problem of emission
of polluting gases and particulates to the atmosphere also does not exist. Hydropower does not produce
any greenhouse effect, cause the pernicious acid rain and emit obnoxious NO.
4. The hydraulic turbine can be switched on and off in a very short time. In a thermal or nuclear power
plant the steam turbine is put on turning gear for about two days during start-up and shut-down.
5. The hydraulic power plant is relatively simple in concept and self-contained in operation. Its system
reliability is much greater than that of other power plants.
6. Modern hydropower equipment has a greater life expectancy and can easily last 50 years or more. This
can be compared with an effective life of about 30 years of a thermal or nuclear station.

7. Due to its great ease of taking up and throwing off the load, hydropower can be used as the ideal
spinning reserve in a system mix of thermal, hydro, and nuclear power stations.
8. Modern hydro-generators give high efficiency over a considerable range of load. This helps in
improving the system efficiency.
9. Hydro-plants provide ancillary benefits like irrigation, flood control, afforestation, navigation, and
aqua-culture.
10. Being simple in design and operation, the hydro-plants do not require highly skilled workers.
Manpower requirement is also low.
Disadvantages of Water Power

1. Hydro-power projects are capital-intensive with a low rate of return. The annual interest of this capital
cost is a large part of the annual cost of hydropower installations.
2. The gestation period of hydro projects is quite large. The gap between the foundation and completion
of a project may extend from ten to fifteen years.
3. Power generation is dependent on the quantity of water available, which may vary from season to
season and year to year. If the rainfall is in time and adequate, then only the satisfactory operation of the
plant can be expected.
4. Such plants are often far away from the load center and require long transmission lines to deliver
power. Thus the cost of transmission lines and losses in them are more.
5. Large hydro-plants disturb the ecology of the area, by way of deforestation, destroying vegetation and
uprooting people. Strong public opinion against. The erection of such plants is a deterrent factor. The
emphasis is now more on small, mini and micro hydel stations.

Hydroelectric power plant in India

 Srisailam Hydel power plant – AP – 770 MW

 Upper sileru Hydor electric project – AP – 120

 Kodayar hydro electric power plant – TN – 100 MW

 Iddiki hydel project – Kerala – 800 MW

Nuclear Power Plant Definition

A nuclear power plant is a facility that converts atomic energy into usable power. The heat produced by a
reactor is generally used to drive a turbine which in turn drives an electric generator.

Nuclear Plant Working Operations

 A nuclear power plant is a type of power station that generates electricity using heat from
nuclear reactions.
 These reactions take place within a reactor.
  The plant also has machines that remove heat from the reactor to operate a steam turbine and
generator to make electricity.
 The electricity made by nuclear power plants is also called nuclear power.
 Nuclear power plants are usually near water to remove the heat the reactor makes.
 Some nuclear power plants use cooling towers to do this.
 Nuclear power plants use uranium as fuel.
 When the reactor is on, uranium atoms inside the reactor split into two smaller atoms.
 When uranium atoms split, they give off a large amount of heat. This splitting of atoms is called
fission.
 The most popular atoms to fission are uranium and plutonium.
 Those atoms are slightly radioactive. The atoms produced when fuel atoms break apart are
strongly radioactive.
 Today, fission only happens in nuclear reactors.
 In nuclear reactors, fission only happens when the reactor’s parts are arranged properly.
 Nuclear power plants turn their reactors off when replacing old nuclear fuel with new fuel.

Nuclear Power Plant Layout

The figure shown is the general layout of the Nuclear Power plant.

In simple terms, a nuclear power plant generates electricity by using uranium atoms to produce heat in a
concrete shield. This heat is then transferred to water, which turns into steam, and the steam is directed to
a turbine that spins blades in a generator to produce electricity. Any leftover steam that isn’t used is
cooled down in a condenser before being sent back to the heat exchanger to repeat the process. This
ensures a steady and reliable source of energy for communities that use nuclear power plants.

Nuclear Power Plant Main Parts Or Component

The Nuclear Power Plant consists of 7 Main Parts which are as follows

 Nuclear Reactor
 Coolant circulating pump
 Heat Exchanger
 Feed pump
 Condenser
 Turbine
 Generator
Nuclear Reactor

Nuclear reactors are used at nuclear power plants for the generation of electricity and in nuclear marine
propulsion. The Heat generated from nuclear fission is passed to a working fluid which is (water or gas),
which in turn runs through steam turbines. These either drive a ship’s propellers or turn electrical
generators’ shafts. Nuclear-generated steam can be used for industrial process heat and some reactors are
used to produce isotopes for medical and industrial use or the production of weapons-grade plutonium.

Coolant Circulating Pump

Coolant circulating pump circulates the water which is further going to be heated and used for turbine
blade rotating.
Heat Exchanger
The name itself indicates the Heat exchanger which works to exchange heat from lower to higher.
Feed Pump
Send the water from the condenser to the heat exchanger and from there by the use of a circulating pump
it sends to the concrete shield system.
Condenser
The condenser is the component that is used for extracting the heat from the working fluid or simple you
can say it cools the working fluid because it is having a low temperature.
Turbine
The turbine is a device that is used for power generation. Here The fluid strikes to turbine blade which is
further converted Kinetic energy into mechanical energy and the generator converts that mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
Generator
The generator is further used for converting into Electrical energy and the output we got is Power.
The working of a Nuclear Plant: Nuclear Plant consists of the Nuclear Reactor, Coolant circulating
pump, Heat Exchanger, Feed Pump, Condenser, Turbine, and Generator. The Heat is generated in a
reactor by the fission reaction. The coolant in the primary circuit gets heated by observing the heat and
enters the Heat Exchanger.
Here, In the Heat Exchanger, the feed water is heated and converted into steam by the hot coolant using
heat transfer. The steam from the Heat Exchanger will enter the turbine to rotate the turbine blades and
generates power.
The steam after doing the work enters the condenser and is converted into water which is pumped again
to the Heat Exchanger by the feed pump. The hot coolant gets cold in the Heat Exchanger and is
recirculated into the reactor by the coolant circulating pump. The cycle is repeated continuously for the
generation of power.

Nuclear Power Plant Advantages

 Nuclear Power Plant requires less space as compared to other Power plants.
 Well suited for large demands.
 It gives better performance at high load factor 80 to 90%.
 Less fuel consumption and no fuel handling.
 The transportation cost of fuel is very less.
 Increased reliability of operation.
 Power plants not affected by adverse weather conditions.
 Water required is less.
 The high capacity of the plant can be installed.
 Compact and simple in maintenance.
Nuclear Power Plant Disadvantages

 Nuclear Power Plant has a High initial cost.

 The danger of radioactivity hazards is always persisting.
  Not suitable for varying load conditions.
 The disposal of fission products is a big problem.
 The maintenance cost is always higher.
 Working condition is always detrimental to the health of the workers.
Nuclear Power Plant Application

 The nuclear Power plant for generating a good amount of electricity-

 Nuclear energy now provides about 11% of the world’s electricity from about 450 power reactors.
 The main use of nuclear energy is the production of electric energy. Nuclear power plants are
responsible for generating electricity.
 The energy Thermal is obtained which will be transformed into mechanical energy and then later
into electrical energy.

Solar plants
Solar plants, also known as solar power plants or solar farms, refer to large-scale installations designed to
harness solar energy and convert it into electricity. They are built to generate electricity on a significant
scale using solar panels or mirrors to capture sunlight. These plants utilize photovoltaic (PV) technology
or concentrated solar power (CSP) systems to convert solar energy into usable electrical energy.

Solar PV farms consist of arrays of solar panels comprising numerous photovoltaic cells. These cells
absorb sunlight and convert it directly into electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The generated
electricity can be fed into the electrical grid or power-specific applications.

Concentrated solar power plants use mirrors or lenses to focus sunlight onto a receiver, which then heats a
fluid to produce steam. The steam drives a turbine, which generates electricity. CSP systems can also
store thermal energy, allowing for electricity production even when the sun is not shining.

Solar PV plants are typically situated in locations with ample sunlight and large open areas. They can be
found in various forms, such as ground-mounted installations or rooftop systems. These plants are vital in
promoting renewable energy generation, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and diversifying the energy
mix, contributing to a more sustainable and environmentally friendly power generation infrastructure.

How do solar plants work?

Solar PV farms harness the energy from the sun to generate electricity on a large scale. These plants
utilize photovoltaic (PV) technology or concentrated solar power (CSP) systems to convert sunlight into
usable electrical energy. Here’s an overview of how each type of solar plant works.
Photovoltaic (PV) solar plants
Solar PV plants use arrays of solar panels, which consist of numerous interconnected solar cells made of
semiconductor materials like silicon. The process involves the following steps:

1. Solar panels capture sunlight. When sunlight falls on the solar panels, the photons (particles of light)
transfer their energy to the electrons in the solar cells.

2. Generation of electricity. This energy causes the electrons to become energized, creating direct
current (DC) electricity flow. The panels are typically arranged in large arrays to generate substantial
power.

3. Inverter conversion. The DC electricity generated by the solar panels is converted into alternating
current (AC) electricity using inverters. AC electricity is the standard form of electricity used in most
homes and businesses.
4. Transmission and distribution. The AC electricity is then sent to a transformer, where it is stepped up
to a higher voltage for efficient transmission through power lines. It is then distributed to consumers
through the electrical grid for use.

Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) plants

CSP plants use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a central receiver, which generates heat. The
heat is then produced through a steam turbine or other heat transfer mechanisms. Here’s a simplified
explanation of how CSP plants work.

1. Solar concentration. Mirrors or lenses track the sun’s movement and concentrate sunlight onto a focal
point or receiver. This concentration of sunlight increases the temperature at the receiver.

2. Heat transfer and storage. The receiver absorbs the concentrated sunlight and transfers the heat to a
heat-transfer fluid or material, such as molten salt or oil. This fluid can store the heat for later use,
allowing for power generation even when the sun is not shining.

3. Steam generation. The heated fluid is used to produce high-pressure steam, which drives a turbine
connected to a generator. The generator converts the mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical
energy.

4. Power generation and distribution. The generated electricity is then transmitted, transformed, and
distributed through the electrical grid to meet the energy needs of consumers.

PV solar plants and CSP plants contribute to renewable energy generation, reducing reliance on fossil
fuels and decreasing greenhouse gas emissions. The choice between the two depends on location,
available resources, and project requirements.

Types of solar PV plants

There are primarily two types of solar plants: photovoltaic (PV) solar plants and concentrated solar power
(CSP) plants. Let’s explore each type in more detail.

Photovoltaic (PV) solar plants

Solar PV plants generate electricity directly from sunlight using solar panels composed of interconnected
solar cells. The two main types of PV solar plants are:

– Ground-Mounted PV solar plants. These solar plants consist of large-scale arrays of solar panels
mounted on the ground. To maximize solar energy capture, they can cover vast areas, such as open fields
or deserts. Ground-mounted PV solar plants are commonly used for utility-scale solar power generation.

– Rooftop PV solar plants. These solar plants are installed on the rooftops of buildings, including
residential, commercial, and industrial structures. Rooftop PV systems can generate electricity for on-site
consumption, reducing dependence on the grid and providing energy self-sufficiency. Excess electricity
can be fed back into the grid through net metering programs.

– Agrivoltaics. Agrivoltaics, a form of solar sharing or dual land use, is a concept that combines
agriculture and photovoltaic (PV) systems, allowing for the simultaneous use of land for crop cultivation
and solar energy production. It involves the installation of solar panels above or alongside agricultural
fields or grazing land, creating a synergy between food or crop production and renewable energy
generation.
Concentrated solar power (CSP) plants
CSP plants use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a central receiver, which converts the
sunlight into heat energy. The heat energy is then used to generate electricity through various
mechanisms. The main types of CSP plants include:

– Parabolic trough systems. These CSP plants use long, curved mirrors (parabolic troughs) that track the
sun’s movement to concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube at the focal line. The receiver tube contains a
heat transfer fluid heated to high temperatures. The heated fluid generates steam, which drives a turbine
connected to a generator.

– Solar power tower systems. In this type of CSP plant, an array of mirrors called heliostats tracks and
reflects sunlight onto a central receiver mounted atop a tower. The receiver absorbs the concentrated
sunlight and heats a heat transfer fluid, such as molten salt or oil. The heated fluid then produces steam
and generates electricity through a turbine.

– Dish stirling systems. These CSP plants use large, dish-shaped mirrors that concentrate sunlight onto a
receiver at the focal point. The receiver contains a Stirling engine, which operates on the temperature
difference between the hot side (exposed to concentrated sunlight) and the cold side. The Stirling engine
converts heat energy into mechanical energy, which is then used to generate electricity.

Each type of solar plant has advantages and suitability for specific applications based on location,
available resources, efficiency, and desired power output.

Wind Power Plant

Wind energy is a natural form of energy that is capable of producing electrical or mechanical forces.
Windmills or wind turbines are devices that are capable of converting the kinetic energy of wind into
mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is further converted into electrical energy.
Importance of Wind Energy
The following are the important features of Wind Energy:

1. Wind energy is environment-friendly.

2. The cheapest source of electrical energy.
3. A project of wind energy is the fastest payback period.
4. Operation and maintenance costs are low.
5. A wind energy project is no investment in manpower.
6. A wind energy project is a fast-track power project with a lower gestation (reproductive cycle)
period and a modular concept.
7. The cost per kWh reduces over a period of time as against rising conventional power projects.
8. Wind energy is plentiful throughout the world.
9. During the production of this energy, no pollution of air or water occurs.
 10. Necessary machines for harnessing this power are available economically.
Parts of Wind Turbine

Following are the different parts of the wind turbine:

1. Blades
2. The rotor
3. Nacelle
4. A gearbox and coupling (transmission system)
5. Aero turbine
6. Controller
7. Electrical generator
8. Supporting structure.

1 Blade
Lifting-style wind turbine blades. These are designed most efficiently, especially to capture the energy of
strong, fast winds. Some European companies actually manufacture single-blade turbines.
2 The Rotor
The rotor is aerodynamically designed to occupy the maximum surface area of the wind to spin the most
ergonomically. The blades are lightweight, durable, and corrosion-resistant material. The best materials
are composites of fiber glass and reinforced plastic.

3 Nacelle

A housing that contains all the components which are essential to operate the turbine efficiently is called a
nacelle. It is mounted on top of a tower and includes gearboxes, generators, low and high-speed shafts,
controllers, and brakes.

The nacelle is fitted with a wind speed anemometer and a wind vane. Nacelle provides housing for:

1. Low-speed shaft
2. Brake
3. Gearbox
4. High-speed shaft
5. Generator
6. Anemometer
7. Wind vane.
4 A Gearbox and Coupling (Transmission System)

A gearbox magnifies or amplifies the energy output of the rotor. The gearbox is located directly between
the rotor and the generator. A rotor rotates the generator as directed by the tail vane.

5 Aeroturbine
Aeroturbine converts wind energy into rotary mechanical energy.
6 Controller
The controller realizes the wind direction wind speed output of the generator rotor and other required
performance quantities of the system and initiates appropriate control signals to take appropriate
corrective action.
7 Electrical Generator
This unit produces electricity from the rotation of the rotor. The generator comes in various sizes with
respect to the output. This generator converts mechanical energy into electrical power. The output of the
generator is coupled to the load or system grid.
8 Supporting Structure
This is the heavy structure set up with a proper foundation and carries all the components of the windmill.
It should be properly designed with a proper factor of safety to withstand a dead load of all components
and wind force.

Working of Wind Power Plant

The wind turbines or wind generators use the power of the wind which they turn into electricity. The
speed of the wind turns the blades of a rotor (between 10 and 25 turns per minute), a source of mechanical
energy. The rotor then turns on a generator that converts mechanical energy into electricity.
As the wind blows, a wind turbine converts the kinetic energy of the wind’s motion into mechanical
energy by the rotation of the rotor, and this mechanical energy is transmitted by the shaft to the generator
through the gear train. The generator converts this mechanical energy into electrical energy, thereby
generating electricity.
An electric motor orientates the nacelle so that its rotor is placed facing the wind. Each turbine is made up
of a mast between 20 m and 100 m according to the power of the machines. The mast supports the rotor
usually equipped with three blades, and the nacelle which contains the generator with electrical and
mechanical backup.
Wind turbines are designed for wind speeds of between 14 and 90 km/hour. Above that, the braking
mechanism automatically stops the turbine for the safety of the equipment and to minimize wear and tear.
Modern wind turbines supply their normal power at around 50 km/h.

Unit
To measure this electrical consumption there are electric meters. These meters measure the electrical
consumption in kWh or in “units.”
The unit of the measurement taken was Joule (J) or watt-seconds (Ws). This is the unit if the power
consumption is less, in case the power consumption is more that is in the case of commercial uses in the
house or industries, the unit that is taken is kWh or “units.”
For the small unit of electrical energy
1.0 joule = 1.0 watt × 1.0 second
For larger unit of electrical energy,
1.0 kilowatt-hour = 1.0 kilowatt × 1.0 hour
or
1.0 kWh = 1.0 kW × 1.0 h
kWh is the commercial unit of energy. It is also known as “unit.”

Relation between 1 kWh and Joules:

One kilowatt-hour is equivalent to the energy of 1,000 joules used for 3,600 seconds or 3.6 million
Joules.
1 kWh = 1 kW × 1 h
= 1000 W × (60 × 60) s
= 1000 W × 3600 s
= 3600000 Ws
= 3.6 × 106 J

TWO-Part Tariff
Two Part Tariff – When the rate of electrical energy consumption is charged on the basis of
maximum demand of the consumer and the units consumed, is known as two part tariff. In case of two-
part tariff, the total charges are spilt into two components viz. fixed charges and running charges. The
fixed charges depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer whereas the running charges depend
upon number of units consumed.
Characteristics of Tariff

A tariff must have following desirable characteristics −

 Simplicity – The tariff should be simple so that an ordinary consumer can easily understand it.
 Fairness – The tariff should be fair so that the different types of consumers are satisfied with the
rate of charge of electricity.
 Attractive – The tariff should be attractive so that large number of consumers are encouraged to
use electricity.
 Proper Return – The tariff should be such that it ensures the proper return from each consumer,
i.e. the total receipt from the consumers must be equal to the cost of production and distribution
with reasonable profit.

Electric Fuse

An Electric Fuse is an Electric device which interrupts the flow of current in an Electric circuit. It is
installed in a circuit to stop the flow of excessive current. A Fuse is usually a short piece of wire. The
Fuse is made up of a material which has high resistivity and low melting point, so that it melts down due
to overheating of the wire during high current flow.

The thickness of the Fuse wire is determined based on the amount of current flow in the circuit. Normally
an alloy of tin and lead is used as the Fuse

Electric Fuse- Working Principle

The Electric Fuse works on the basis of the heating effect of the Electric Current. It is composed of a non-
flammable thin metallic wire with a low melting point.

If a high amount of Electricity is passed from the Electric Fuse, there is a production of heat which causes
the Fuse to melt which leads to the opening of the Circuit and the blockage of Current.

Once a Fuse melts, it can be changed or replaced with a new Fuse.

A Fuse is normally made up of elements like zinc, copper, aluminum and silver.

A Fuse acts as a circuit breaker and breaks the circuit in case any fault occurs in the circuit. It acts as a
protector of Electric appliances and also as a safety measure for humans. The figure below represents a
Fuse operation, Fuse barrel and Fuse link.

Characteristics of an Electric Fuse

Here are some important characteristics of a Fuse wire.
  Current Rating: It is defined as the continuous conduction of maximum current holded by the
Fuse without melting. It is the capacity of current, and is measured in Amperes. Current
(Cin)=75% current (rating)
 Voltage Rating: If voltage is connected in series with the Fuse, it does not increase voltage rating.
Hence,
V (Fuse) >V (open circuit)
 I2t Rating: It is the total energy which is carried by the Fuse element in case of a short circuit. It
measures the heat energy of the Fuse, and is generated when the Fuse breaks out.
 Interrupting or Breaking Capacity: The maximum rating of current without harming the
interruption by the Fuse is known as interrupting capacity of the Fuse.
Breaking capacity > maximum rated voltage
Breaking capacity < short circuit current
 Voltage Drop: The Fuse element melts whenever there is an excessive current in the circuit, and
opens the circuit. Due to this, voltage drop and resistance change reduces.
 Temperature: The Fuse melts when the operating temperature is higher and the current rating is
lower.
Functions of Electric Fuse
Electric Fuses have to give up their lives in order to safeguard the Circuits. Some other important
functions of Electric Fuses are listed below-
1. Restricting the flow of Current- An Electric Fuse acts as a barrier between an Electric circuit
and the human body.
2. Preventing the wires from catching fires or breakdowns- It prevents any damage to the
Electric device by restricting excess current flow.
3. Terminating the Current from the Circuit if a short- Circuit or overloading happens- When
too many appliances are connected in a single circuit, it leads to overload which requires a Fuse to
terminate the circuit connection.
4. Prevention from blackouts- if any dis-function occurs in the components of the circuit, the
nearest circuit breaks.
5. Prevention from damage occurred due to mismatched loads.

MCB( miniature circuit breaker)

A miniature circuit breaker (MCB) is an Electrical Switch that automatically switches off the electrical
circuit during an abnormal condition of the network means an overload condition as well as a faulty
condition.
Nowadays we use an MCB in a low-voltage electrical network instead of a fuse. The fuse may not sense
it but the miniature circuit breaker does it in a more reliable way. MCB is much more sensitive to over
current than a fuse.
.
Inside Miniature Circuit Breaker
A Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) typically consists of the following components:
MCB components
1. Incoming Terminal
2. Outgoing Terminal
3. Din Rail Holder
4. Arc Chutes Holder
5. Arc Chutes
6. Fixed Contact
7. Dynamic Contact
8. Bi-metallic Strip Carrier
9. Bi-metallic Strip
10. Latch
11. Plunger
12. Solenoid
13. Switch
Main contacts: These are the contacts that carry the load current and are connected to the incoming and
outgoing wires of the circuit.
Trip Unit: This is the core component of an MCB, which monitors the current flowing through the
circuit and trips the breaker in case of an over-current or short-circuit. The trip unit consists of a
bimetallic strip, a magnetic actuator, and an operating mechanism.
Terminal: These are the connections for the incoming and outgoing wires.
Housing: The housing is the protective casing that houses the MCB components and provides insulation
between live parts and other electrical components.
Trip Indicator: An MCB typically has a visual indicator that shows whether the breaker is in the “on” or
“off” position.
Auxiliary contacts: Some MCBs have additional contacts that can be used to switch auxiliary loads or
provide signaling functions.
Trip spring: This is the spring mechanism that holds the MCB contacts in the “on” position. When the
trip unit operates, the trip spring releases, allowing the contacts to separate and break the circuit.
Working Principle of MCB

MCB Working

Whenever continuous overcurrent flows through MCB, the bimetallic strip is heated and deflects by
bending. This deflection of the bi-metallic strip releases a mechanical latch.
As this mechanical latch is attached to the operating mechanism, it causes to open the miniature circuit
breaker contacts, and the MCB turns off thereby stopping the current to flow in the circuit. To restart the
flow of current the MCB must be manually turned ON.
This mechanism protects from faults arising due to overcurrent or overload and short circuits.
But during short circuit conditions, the current rises suddenly, causing electromechanical displacement of
the plunger associated with a tripping coil or solenoid. The plunger strikes the trip lever causing the
immediate release of the latch mechanism consequently opening the circuit breaker contacts. This was a
simple explanation of a miniature circuit breaker’s working principle.
An MCB is very simple, easy to use, and is not generally repaired. It is just easier to replace. The trip unit
is the main part, responsible for its proper working. There are two main types of trip mechanisms.
A bi-metal provides protection against overload current and an electromagnet provides protection against
electric short-circuit current.
Miniature Circuit Breaker – Operation
If the circuit is overloaded for a long time, the bi-metallic strip becomes overheated and deformed. This
deformation of the Bi-metallic strip causes displacement of the latch point.
The moving contact of the MCB is arranged by means of spring pressure, with this latch point, a little
displacement of the latch causes, the release of spring and makes the moving contact move for opening
the MCB.
The current coil or trip coil is placed so that during a short circuit fault the magneto-motive force
(mmf) of the coil causes its plunger to hit the same latch point and make the latch to be displaced.
Again, when the operating lever of the miniature circuit breaker is operated by hand, that means when
MCB goes off position manually, the same latch point is displaced as a result of moving contact separated
from fixed contact in the same manner.
It may be due to the deformation of a bi-metallic strip, increased mmf of a trip coil, or maybe a manual
operation, the same latch point is displaced and the same deformed spring is released, which is ultimately
responsible for the movement of the moving contact. When the moving contact is separated from fixed
contact, there may be a high chance of arc.
This arc then goes up through the arc runner and enters arc splitters and is finally quenched. When we
switch it on, we reset the displaced operating latch to its previous on position and the MCB is ready for
another switch off or trip operation.

Personal safety measures

Dos and don'ts to avoid electric shocks at home

 Never use a damaged extension cord.
 Never use a defective electrical device.
 Pull on the plug and not on the cable to unplug an electrical device.
 Unplug the toaster before trying to dislodge stuck toast.
 Before changing a light bulb, switch the light off or unplug the lamp.

Safety tips around the home to reduce the risk of electric shock

You can reduce the risk of electric shock in your home by taking a few precautions:
 Don’t be tempted to do your own electrical work. Although you may think it looks easy to do jobs
yourself, such as changing power points or switches, always hire a licensed electrician.
Check Energy Safe Victoria for a list of registered tradespeople.
 Do not use extension leads or appliances if the cords are damaged or frayed. Throw them away if
they are damaged in any way.
 Do not remove a plug from a power point by pulling on the cord – pull the plug instead.
 Keep electrical appliances away from wet areas. Electricity and water don’t mix.
 Wear rubber or plastic soled shoes when using electrical appliances, especially in wet areas, on
concrete or outdoors.
 Have safety switches installed by an electrician.
 Buy portable power boards with built-in safety switches.
 Insert safety plugs into unused power points to stop children from inserting objects into them.
 If you have children, turn off and unplug electric appliances and keep them out of reach (this
includes electrical cords).
 Get household wiring checked by a registered electrician, especially if your house is more than 30
years old.
 When buying electrical appliances, check they meet Australian safety standards. Be extra
cautious when shopping online.
 If you plan to buy second-hand appliances, check they meet Australian standards and are not
damaged. It is a good idea to have them checked by someone who is qualified in electrical repairs
such as a licensed electrician.
 If you use a metal ladder, make sure it has rubber feet. When metal contacts the ground it can
increase the risk of electric shock.
Electrical Earthing

Definition: The process of transferring the immediate discharge of the electrical energy directly to the
earth by the help of the low resistance wire is known as the electrical earthing. The electrical earthing is
done by connecting the non-current carrying part of the equipment or neutral of supply system to the
ground.
Mostly, the galvanised iron is used for the earthing. The earthing provides the simple path to the
leakage current. The shortcircuit current of the equipment passes to the earth which has zero potential.
Thus, protects the system and equipment from damage.

Types of Electrical Earthing

The electrical equipment mainly consists of two non-current carrying parts. These parts are neutral of the
system or frame of the electrical equipment. From the earthing of these two non-current carrying parts of
the electrical system earthing can be classified into two types.
 Neutral Earthing
 Equipment Earthing.

Neutral Earthing

In neutral earthing, the neutral of the system is directly connected to earth by the help of the GI wire. The
neutral earthing is also called the system earthing. Such type of earthing is mostly provided to the system
which has star winding. For example, the neutral earthing is provided in the generator, transformer, motor
etc.

Equipment Earthing

Such type of earthing is provided to the electrical equipment. The non-current carrying part of the
equipment like their metallic frame is connected to the earth by the help of the conducting wire. If any
fault occurs in the apparatus, the short-circuit current to pass the earth by the help of wire. Thus, protect
the system from damage.
Importance of Earthing
The earthing is essential because of the following reasons
 The earthing protects the personnel from the shortcircuit current.
 The earthing provides the easiest path to the flow of shortcircuit current even after the failure of
the insulation.
 The earthing protects the apparatus and personnel from the high voltage surges and lightning
discharge.
Earthing can be done by electrically connecting the respective parts in the installation to some system of
electrical conductors or electrodes placed near the soil or below the ground level. The earthing mat or
electrode under the ground level have flat iron riser through which all the non-current-carrying metallic
parts of the equipment are connected.

When the fault occurs the fault current from the equipment flows through the earthing system to the earth
and thereby protect the equipment from the fault current. At the time of the fault, the earth mat conductors
rise to the voltage which is equal to the resistance of the earth mat multiplied by a ground fault.
The contacting assembly is called earthing. The metallic conductors connecting the parts of the
installation with the earthing are called electrical connection. The earthing and the earthing connection
together called the earthing system.

Earthing Procedure

Earthing is done to ensure safety by connecting the electrical appliance to the grounding/earthing
system or electrodes placed near the soil or below ground level.
The flat iron riser-equipped electrode or earthing mat is installed underneath the ground's surface. It aids
in the connection of all non-current-carrying metallic parts of the equipment.
The fault current from the equipment passes via the earthing system whenever an overload current is
transmitted through the equipment or when a system fault arises due to the current. The earth mat
conductors help raise the voltage by an amount equal to the earth mat's resistance multiplied by a ground
fault. This protects the equipment from overload or fault currents.
A building has 3 different wire types: live, neutral, and earth. The ground is linked to the buried
metal plate and live and neutral conduct electric current from the power plant. When in use, electric
equipment like TVs, iron boxes, and refrigerators are all linked to the ground wire. As a result, these
gadgets are shielded from shocks or poor electrical supplies. Local earthing is carried out close to the
home's electrical meter.
Types of Earthing
Earthing, or electrical grounding, is done in housing, wiring, and electrical devices. The various types of
electric earthing systems are:
1. Pipe Earthing

Pipe earthing is a common method of connecting to the earth's electrical conductors by using a steel
pipe. Galvanized steel pipe with a diameter of 38 mm and a length of 2 meters is used as an earth
electrode in pipe earthing by being laid vertically in the ground.
The amount of moisture in the soil and the strength of the current influence the size of the iron pipe that
needs to be used. The soil's moisture will determine the maximum depth at which the steel pipe may be
installed.
The finest and most effective method of earthing is pipe earthing, which is also easily affordable.
2. Plate Earthing

For this form of earthing, a plate composed of copper or galvanized iron is placed vertically in the
ground pit less than three meters above the ground. For a more effective electrical grounding system, one
must maintain the earth's moisture condition surrounding the plate earthing system.
This plate is attached to electrical wires to redirect the electric charge within the earth.
3. Strip or Wire Earthing
 In this form of earthing, strip electrodes with a minimum cross-sectional area of 6.0 mm2 and a
minimum depth of 0.5 m are buried in horizontal trenches. If the electrodes are made of galvanized iron
or steel, their cross-sectional area shall not be less than 25 mm x 1.6 mm.
When buried in the ground, a conductor with a minimum length of 15 m would provide enough earth
resistance.
4. Rod Earthing

In this method of earthing, a copper rod with a galvanized steel pipe is placed vertically into the
ground manually or with a hammer to the desired value; the lengths of the implanted electrodes reduce
the earth's resistance.
The rod used for this purpose is buried in the dirt at a certain depth, securely diverting the short-circuit
electricity to the ground.
This earthing technique is suitable for sandy areas and is also very budget-friendly.
Advantages of Earthing
1. The safest and most effective way to provide safety for a building from electrocution is through
earthing.
2. The earth has no potential and is considered neutral. Balancing is accomplished because low
resistance cable links low equipment to the ground.
3. Metal may be utilized in electrical systems without considering its conductivity since it won't
transmit current if properly earthed.
4. If sufficient earthing precautions are taken, a rapid increase in voltage or overload has no negative
effects on the object or the user.
5. It reduces the possibility of fire hazards that the current leakage may otherwise bring about.