Chapter 2 The Grammar Translation Method

1. Write briefly about the Grammar Translation Method.

It was called the classical method since it was used to teach classical
languages Latin and Greek. It was used to help students read and appreciate
foreign language literature. It was believed that studying the grammar of the
foreign/target language would help learners with the grammar in their native
language and help them speak and write their native language better. It was
also thought that learning a foreign language would help them grow
intellectually.

2. What happens in a class that follows the GT Method

The teacher takes a passage from a book. She asks each student to read a few
lines from the passage and translate those lines into their native language. Then
the teacher asks in the native language if they have any questions. Students ask
in the target language and the teacher explains in the native language. Next, the
students write answers to comprehension questions at the end of the excerpt.
The teacher then gives a list of words both new and familiar to the students
from the passage. Students give the native word for each of them. The class
does it together. If they do not know it, the teacher gives it. The teacher gives
some English words and directs the students to find their equivalent from the
passage. Grammar is taught deductively by teaching them the grammar rules.
Students memorize the grammar rules.
Chapter 3 The Direct Method

1. Write briefly about the Direct Method.

Since the GTM was not very effective in preparing students to communicate in
the target language effectively, the DM became more popular. The one basic
rule of this method is that ‘No translation is allowed’. It was called the Direct
Method because meaning is to be conveyed directly in the target language
through demonstration and visual aids, with no recourse to the students’
native language.

2. Write briefly what happens in a direct method classroom.

The students read aloud a passage in the target language, and the teacher
uses realia or pictures present in the immediate classroom environment to
help students understand the meaning. For instance, in the demo class, the
teacher points to a part of the map after each sentence is read. The teacher
uses the target language to ask students if they have a question. The
students use the target language to ask their questions. The teacher
answers the students’ questions by drawing on the whiteboard or giving
examples. The teacher asks questions about the map in the target
language. This is followed by the students reply in the target language and
also asking questions about the map. Teacher corrects a grammar error,
and also makes the students self-correct by asking the students to make a
choice. The grammar is taught inductively.
The teacher then begins asking questions and making statements about the
students in the classroom containing some grammatical elements. The
teacher then makes students do a textbook exercise. The teacher then
gives them a dictation exercise about something related to the lesson.
The follow up classes will review the content of the text, follow the
teacher’s instructions and fill in blank maps with the features, practice
pronunciation of certain words, write a paragraph related to the content
taught, discuss a proverb and talk about the target language culture.
Chpt 4 The Audio-Lingual Method

1. Write briefly about the Audio-lingual method.

The Audiolingual method was developed by Charles Fries (1945) of the
University of Michigan. It is also called the Michigan Method Similar to the
Direct Method the AL method also has an oral-based approach. The
difference is that there is a lot of focus on grammatical sentence patterns
through drills and not much stress on vocabulary acquisition. The AL
method was influenced by principles of behavioral psychology (Skinner
1957).
2. Describe the features of an AL classroom.

Students listen to the teacher presenting a new dialogue knowing that they will be
expected to memorize the dialogue the teacher is introducing. The teacher uses only
the target language and actions to convey meaning. She also uses pictures and
realia. The native language is not used. The teacher models a dialogue between two
people and then repeats the dialogue delivery. The teacher makes students repeat
after her several times. Uses a backward build-up drill when students are stuck. The
teacher makes them stop and provides a model if they are straying from the model.
The teacher initiates a chain drill with lines from the dialogue where the teacher
does a part of the dialogue with all the students one by one. The teacher selects
students in pairs to perform the entire dialogue for the rest of the class. The teacher
does a single-slot substitution drill where she gives them a cue word and the
students replace a word in the sentence from the dialogue e.g., I am going to the
post office (bank). The Teacher then does a multiple-slot substitution drill. She gives
them a cue phrase e.g. the park and more cues follow. Each cue is accompanied by a
picture. She keeps increasing the complexity of the task. She encourages the
students when they say it correctly. The substitution drill is followed by a
transformation drill e.g. changing an affirmative sentence into a negative one or
interrogative etc. The question-and-answer drill follows with the teacher holding up
pictures. “Are you going to the park?” “Yes, I’m going to the park” or “No, I am going
to the supermarket.”. She corrects errors if any by restating. In later classes, the
teacher will do a revision to anticipate where the students will have trouble. The
Teacher writes on the board and limited writing activity is given, information about
the culture of the language is presented and so on.
The Silent Way Method

The Silent Way did not emerge directly from the cognitive code approach, but it shares certain principles
with it. The silent way is a methodology of teaching language based on the idea that teachers should be
as silent as possible during a class but learners should be encouraged to speak as much as possible.
There are three basic principles:

- The learner needs to discover or create

- Learning is made easier by the use of physical objects such as Cuisenaire rods
- Learning is made easier by problem-solving using the target language

Example
The teacher shows the learners a small red Cuisenaire rod and a bigger blue one and says ‘The blue one is
bigger than the red one'. The learners repeat this. The teacher then substitutes the rods to produce other
models, and finally encourages the learners to produce their own comparisons.

In the classroom
Areas of target language where Cuisenaire rods can be useful include word boundaries, contracted forms,
prepositions, word order and word stress. Learners can use the rods to first represent and then to
manipulate language.

The three basic tenets of the approach

 That learning is facilitated if the learner discovers rather than remember or repeats

 The learning is aided by physical objects

 That problem-solving is central to learning

The Silent Way position

The Silent Way belongs to a tradition that views learning as a problem solving, creative, discovering
activity, in which the learner is a principal actor rather than a bench-bound listener (Bruner 1966).

The use of the word “silent” is also significant, as Silent Way is based on the premise that the teacher
should be silent as possible in the classroom in order to encourage the learner to produce as much
language as possible.

Teachers and Materials

The role of the teacher is to direct students’ focus, facilitate self-reflection and provide verbal and
nonverbal feedback when necessary. Students, on the other hand, are encouraged to speak as much as
possible.

Most of the traditional tools for language instruction e.g. textbooks, worksheets etc. are completely absent
from this method. In their place, instruction takes place through the medium of Cuisenaire rods (colored
rods traditionally used in the teaching of math to primary school students) and charts that indicate the
correct pronunciation of certain letter without the teacher having to teach pronunciation through rote
memorization or call-and – response exercises, described by some as a “building block” approach.

The structural patterns of the target language are presented by the teacher and the grammar of the
language are learnt inductively by the learners.

Cuisenaire rods (small colored blocks of varying sizes originally intended for the teaching of
mathematics) are often used to illustrate meaning. New items are added sparingly by the teacher and
learners take these as far as they can in their communication ntil the need for the next new item becomes
apparent. The teacher then provides this new item by modeling it very clearly just once. The learners are
then left to use the new item and to incorporate it into their existing stock of language, again taking it as
far as they can until the next item is needed and so on.

This minimalist role of the teacher has led some critics to describe Silent Way teachers as “aloof” and,
indeed, this apparently excessive degree of self-restraint can be seen as such. The prominent writer on
language teaching, Earl W. Stevick has described the role of the teacher in Silent Way as “Teach, test, get
out of the way”. The apparent lack of real communication in the approach has also been criticized, with
some arguing that it is difficult to take the approach beyond the very basics of the language, with only
highly motivate learners being able to generate real communication from the rigid structures illustrated by
the rods. The fact that, for logistical reasons, it is limited to relatively small groups of learners is also seen
as a weakness.

Nowadays

As with other methods and approaches, however, aspects of Silent Way can be observed in many lessons
in the modern classroom. Cuisenaire rods are also popular with some teachers and can be used extremely
creatively for various purposes from teaching pronunciation to story-telling. The idea of modeling a new
structure or item of vocabulary just once may also have some justification as it encourages learners both
to listen more carefully and then to experiment with their own production of the utterance.

The benefits derived from “discovery learning” under four headings:

a. The increase in intellectual potency

b. The shift from extrinsic to intrinsic rewards

c. The learning of heuristics by discovering and

d. The aid to conserving memory (Bruner 1966:83)

Student’s role on the silent way

We all know what the research says: Students learn better when they can be active participants it their
own learning. It just seems logical that, when it comes to language, allowing students to do all the talking
is the best way to accomplish that.

Students are forced to figure out all kinds of things on their own. While mimicking some of the real-life
problem-solving situations, they might find themselves facing it immersed in the target language. These
are skills that they will not have the opportunity to develop. If the teacher always does the figuring out for
them. Students are engaged in the learning process, discovering words and sounds instead of having these
drilled into them. Students become more engaged and invested in the process. As they assume more
responsibility for their own learning, and tasks have more relevance.

Limited input from the teacher means almost no criticism means students feel that it is safe to make
mistakes, a necessary step in language learning.

Drawbacks

Without adequate explanation or preparation, they might be unsure of how to handle it, especially in the
beginning.

If a students has an IEP, or requires extra coaching because of special needs, they can really struggle with
the Silent Way.

Students may feel that they are not getting enough feedback. Students may feel insecure about the lack of
verbal positive or negative reinforcement in the beginning. Silent Way aims for quality rather than
quantity. It may feel like students spend a lot of time learning the basics of vocabulary and pronunciation.
Rather than progressing quickly through these topics.

Strategies

Check in individually with students who need it from time to time, to make sure that they are okay. The
teacher should schedule regular meeting times with them, or check in discreetly during class. This will
help them feel more confident about their progress.

Practice conveying a message with body language, gestures and facial expressions.
Chapter 5 The Silent Way

1. Write briefly about the Silent Way.

The Silent Way did not emerge directly from the cognitive code approach,
but it shares certain principles with it. The silent way is a methodology of
teaching language based on the idea that teachers should be as silent as
possible during a class but learners should be encouraged to speak as much
as possible. The three basic principles of the Silent Way method are: -
learning is facilitated if the learner discovers rather than remembers or
memorizes, learning is aided by physical objects such as Cuisenaire rods,
and communication is central to learning.

2. Describe a class following the Silent Way method.

The teacher points to different blocks of colors without saying anything. The
blocks of color represent the sounds of the target language that are close to
the sounds of the native language of the students. The teacher points again to
one block of color with a pointer rod and makes the corresponding sound/
the students say the sounds as the teacher points to the other blocks. The
teacher does not model the new sounds but rather uses gestures to show the
students how to pronounce the sounds in their language to make them sound
like the target language sounds. Students take turns tapping out the sounds.
The teacher uses gestures and sometimes the native language to help
students produce the target language sounds and then follows it up by
mouthing the sound without vocalizing it. When the students make mistakes,
the teacher does not say anything but allows them to self-correct. Students
gain experience and knowledge by exploring the new language and by
making choices. The teacher asks for feedback. In later classes, the students
will practice writing the sentences they create.
Chapter 8 Total Physical Response

1. Write briefly about TPR.

The “Total Physical Response” (TPR) method was developed by James Asher
and is based on the Comprehension Approach that tries to emulate how an
individual learns a language. TPR is a language learning program in which
students listen and respond to directions through actions. With TPR,
students are not required to speak in the new language until they are
ready. The emphasis in TPR is on making language learning meaningful,
non-threatening, and fun. In TPR, students hear and observe and then they
hear and act. Students hear the teacher say something in the target
language and see the teacher perform the actions. Then they hear the
command again and see the teacher and volunteers demonstrate the
action. Finally, they hear the command a third time and they do the
actions.

2. Describe a class following the TPR method.

The teacher enters the class and gives a command in the target language
and performs the action with the students. The students remain still. The
teacher gives the commands quite quickly. The teacher sits down and
issues commands to the volunteers. Then the teacher directs students
other than the volunteers. The teacher introduces new commands when
she is satisfied that the first set of commands has been mastered. The
teacher changes the order of the commands. When the students make an
error, the teacher repeats the command while acting it out. The teacher
gives the students commands they have not heard before. The teacher
gives a weird command and everyone laughs. The teacher writes the new
commands on the board. Students are not corrected immediately. In later
classes, students start directing and giving commands.
1. Write briefly about the Communicative Language Teaching Method.

Around the 1970s, educators started questioning whether the methods

used to teach languages were actually working outside the classroom. They
observed that though learners were able to use the linguistic structures
quite accurately, in actual communication they faltered. According to
Hymes, communicative competence was the ability to communicate
knowing when and how to say what to whom. This led to a shift in the late
1970s and the early 1980s from a language-centered approach to a
Communicative approach (Widdowson 1990; Savignon 1997).
The communicative language teaching method is based on the theoretical
principles of the Communicative approach that aims to make learners
communicatively competent in the language they are learning. The most
important notable characteristic of the communicative language teaching
method that makes it stand apart from other methods is that it does not
prescribe any fixed classroom techniques (Klapper, 2003). Therefore,
language teachers usually adopt this method in the classroom according to
their interpretation, and so they differ from classroom to classroom.

2. Watch the video clip that has been shared in the group and describe the
class proceedings. Do you think it is following the CLT method? Justify.
What is content-based instruction?

The focus of a CBI lesson is on the topic or subject matter. During the lesson,
students are focused on learning about something. This could be anything
that interests them from a serious science subject to their favorite pop star
or even a topical news story or film. They learn about this subject using the
language they are trying to learn, rather than their native language, as a tool
for developing knowledge and so they develop their linguistic ability in the
target language. This is thought to be a more natural way of developing
language ability and one that corresponds more to the way we originally
learned our first language.

What does a content-based instruction lesson look like?

There are many ways to approach creating a CBI lesson. This is one possible
way.

 Preparation
o Choose a subject of interest to students.
o Find three or four suitable sources that deal with different
aspects of the subject. These could be websites, reference
books, audio or video of lectures, or even real people.

 During the lesson

o Divide the class into small groups and assign each group a small
research task and a source of information to use to help them
fulfill the task.
o Then once they have done their research, they form new groups
with students that used other information sources and share and
compare their information.
o There should then be some product as the result of this sharing
of information which could take the form of a group report or
presentation of some kind.

What are the advantages of content-based instruction?

 It can make learning a language more interesting and motivating.

Students can use the language to fulfill a real purpose, which can make
students both more independent and confident.
  Students can also develop a much wider knowledge of the world
through CBI which can feed back into improving and supporting their
general educational needs.

 CBI is very popular among EAP (English for Academic Purposes)

teachers as it helps students to develop valuable study skills such as
note-taking, summarising, and extracting key information from texts.

 Taking information from different sources, and re-evaluating and

restructuring that information can help students to develop very
valuable thinking skills that can then be transferred to other subjects.

 The inclusion of a group work element within the framework given

above can also help students develop their collaborative skills, which
can have great social value.

What are the potential problems?

 Because CBI isn't explicitly focused on language learning, some

students may feel confused or may even feel that they aren't improving
their language skills. Deal with this by including some form of
language-focused follow-up exercises to help draw attention to
linguistic features within the materials and consolidate any difficult
vocabulary or grammar points.

 Particularly in monolingual classes, the overuse of the student's native

language during parts of the lesson can be a problem. Because the
lesson isn't explicitly focused on language practice students find it
much easier and quicker to use their mother tongue. Try sharing your
rationale with students and explain the benefits of using the target
language rather than their mother tongue.

 It can be hard to find information sources and texts that lower levels
can understand. Also, the sharing of information in the target language
may cause great difficulties. A possible way around this at lower levels
is either to use texts in the students' native language and then get them
to use the target language for the sharing of information and end
product, or to have texts in the target language, but allow the students
to present the end product in their native language. These options
should reduce the level of challenge.

 Some students may copy directly from the source texts they use to get
their information. Avoid this by designing tasks that demand students
evaluate the information in some way, to draw conclusions, or to put it
 to some practical use. Having information sources that have conflicting
information can also be helpful as students have to decide which
information they agree with or most believe.

Conclusions
While CBI can be both challenging and demanding for the teacher and the
students, it can also be very stimulating and rewarding. The degree to which
you adopt this approach may well depend on the willingness of your
students, the institution in which you work, and the availability of resources
within your environment. It could be something that your school wants to
consider introducing across the curriculum or something that you experiment
with just for one or two lessons. Whichever you choose to do I would advise
that you try to involve other teachers within your school, particularly teachers
from other subjects. This could help you both in terms of finding sources of
information and in having the support of others in helping you evaluate your
work.