George Berkeley

George Berkeley, an Irish philosopher, is best known for his philosophy of

immaterialism (sometimes called subjective idealism). Central to his thought
is his refutation of abstract ideas, which he presents in his works, particularly
in An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision (1709) and A Treatise Concerning
the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710).

1. What Are Abstract Ideas?

Abstract ideas, as understood by philosophers like John Locke, are general

concepts formed by separating common features from specific instances. For
example:

The abstract Idea of a “triangle” might include all triangles regardless of size,
color, or angles.

Similarly, the concept of “beauty” might encompass all beautiful things,

independent of specific forms.

Berkeley rejected this notion, arguing that it was both unnecessary and
incoherent.

2. Berkeley’s Critique of Abstract Ideas

Berkeley’s critique can be summarized in three main arguments:

a. Ideas Are Always Particular

Berkeley argued that all ideas in the mind are particular, not abstract.

When we imagine a triangle, for instance, we always picture a specific

triangle (e.g., an equilateral triangle of a certain size and color). It is
impossible to conceive of a triangle that is neither scalene, isosceles, nor
equilateral.
 b. Misuse of Language

Berkeley believed that the notion of abstract ideas arises from a

misunderstanding of how language functions.

Words like “triangle” or “beauty” are not tied to abstract concepts; rather,
they are general terms that signify particular instances and are used in a
practical way to group similar things.

For Berkeley, language is a tool for communication and does not correspond
to abstract entities in the mind.

c. No Psychological Evidence

Berkeley argued that introspection reveals no mental process capable of

producing truly abstract ideas.

For example, one cannot simultaneously conceive of a colorless, shapeless

“extension,” as Locke might suggest. All thoughts of extension include
specific qualities like a particular shape, size, or color.

3. Positive Proposal: Generality Without Abstraction

While rejecting abstract ideas, Berkeley proposed an alternative:

Generality through Particularity: A particular idea can represent many

instances if it is used generally.

Example: A specific triangle (e.g., a small, blue, equilateral triangle) can

represent all triangles when used in a general context, such as in
mathematical reasoning.
The mind does not need abstract concepts to generalize; it simply applies
specific ideas in a flexible manner.

4. Implications of Berkeley’s Refutation

a. Immaterialism

Berkeley’s rejection of abstract ideas is central to his broader philosophy of

immaterialism.

He argued that the material world does not exist independently of

perception. Instead, the only things that exist are minds and their ideas, all
of which are particular.

b. Critique of Other Philosophers

Berkeley criticized Locke for relying on abstract ideas in his account of

knowledge, arguing that Locke’s approach led to confusion and skepticism.

Berkeley’s view was also intended to counter skepticism and atheism. He

believed that grounding knowledge in particular, perceptible ideas would
make knowledge more certain and faith in God more secure.

5. Significance of Berkeley’s Refutation

Berkeley’s rejection of abstract ideas reshaped debates in metaphysics,

epistemology, and the philosophy of language.

His Ideas influenced later philosophers like David Hume and paved the way
for modern discussions about the nature of concepts, perception, and
linguistic representation.
In sum, Berkeley’s critique of abstract ideas underscores his commitment to
a philosophy grounded in the immediacy of perception and the rejection of
unnecessary metaphysical constructs. This was a critical step in his
immaterialist project to demonstrate that existence is fundamentally tied to
being perceived (esse est percipi).

“Esse est percipi” (“To be is to be perceived”) is George Berkeley’s central

philosophical principle. It means that the existence of objects depends on
their being perceived by a mind. In Berkeley’s immaterialist philosophy,
material objects do not exist independently; they exist only as ideas in the
minds of perceivers. For objects not currently perceived by humans, Berkeley
argued that they are sustained by being perceived by God, the ultimate
perceiver.

Esse Est Percipi: Berkeley’s Philosophy of Existence

George Berkeley’s immaterialist philosophy, famously summarized by the

Latin phrase esse est percipi (“to be is to be perceived”), presents a radical
rethinking of reality. In his work A Treatise Concerning the Principles of
Human Knowledge (1710), Berkeley argued that objects exist only insofar as
they are perceived. Rejecting the existence of material substance, Berkeley
claimed that the world consists solely of minds and the ideas they perceive.
This essay examines the origins, meaning, and implications of esse est
percipi, highlighting its significance in the broader context of philosophical
thought.

1. Origins of Berkeley’s Idea

Berkeley developed esse est percipi as a response to the dominant

materialist philosophy of his time, particularly that of John Locke. Locke
posited that material substances exist independently of human perception
and that our knowledge of them comes through sensory experience.
Berkeley, however, found Locke’s distinction between the material world and
sensory experience problematic.

He argued that the qualities we attribute to objects—such as color, texture,

or shape—exist only in the mind as sensory ideas. For instance, the redness
of an apple or the hardness of a stone exists only as perceptions. If these
qualities cannot exist outside perception, Berkeley concluded, there is no
basis for assuming the existence of matter independent of the mind.

2. Meaning of Esse Est Percipi

The phrase esse est percipi encapsulates Berkeley’s immaterialist thesis:

1. Objects Depend on Perception: Material objects, as we understand

them, exist only when they are perceived. For example, a tree exists
because someone sees it, hears it rustle, or feels its texture.
2. Ideas vs. Substance: What we think of as “objects” are actually
collections of ideas in the mind, not independent substances existing
“out there.”
3. Role of Minds: Reality consists of perceiving minds (subjects) and their
perceptions (ideas). There is no place for material substances outside
these relationships.
4. The Problem of Unperceived Objects

A common challenge to Berkeley’s philosophy is the question: What happens

to objects when they are not being perceived? Does a tree cease to exist
when no one is looking at it? Berkeley addressed this by invoking God as the
ultimate perceiver. God continuously perceives all things, ensuring their
consistent existence. Thus, even when no human perceives an object, it still
exists because it is present in the divine mind.

5. Implications of Esse Est Percipi

b. Metaphysics
Berkeley’s immaterialism challenges traditional dualist and materialist
metaphysics. By eliminating material substances, he simplifies reality into
two categories: perceivers (minds) and perceived

: Berkeley’s Theory of Knowledge

George Berkeley’s theory of knowledge is a cornerstone of his immaterialist

philosophy, outlined in works such as A Treatise Concerning the Principles of
Human Knowledge (1710). At its core, Berkeley argues that all knowledge is
derived from sensory experience and that the existence of objects depends
on their being perceived (esse est percipi). Rejecting the idea of material
substance, Berkeley redefines reality as consisting solely of minds
(perceivers) and their ideas (perceived)

For Berkeley, knowledge begins with perception. He holds that we have

direct access only to ideas—sensory experiences such as colors, sounds, and
textures. These ideas are not representations of an external material world
but are the entirety of what exists. Since we cannot perceive anything
beyond our ideas, Berkeley concludes that the concept of matter as an
independent substance is unnecessary and incoherent.

To address the problem of unperceived objects (e.g., a tree when no one is

looking), Berkeley introduces God as the ultimate perceiver. God
continuously perceives all things, ensuring their consistent existence and the
coherence of reality. Thus, human knowledge is grounded in the orderly
perceptions sustained by divine providence.

Berkeley’s theory eliminates skepticism about the external world by denying

its material independence. Instead, reality is seen as a system of
experiences directly accessible to the mind, governed by the consistent
perceptions upheld by God. This radical view reshapes the relationship
between perception, reality, and knowledge.

John Locke

John Locke: Method and Origin of Knowledge

John Locke, a key figure in empiricism, outlined his philosophy of knowledge

in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). He rejected the notion
of innate ideas, arguing instead that all knowledge originates from
experience. His method emphasizes observation, introspection, and reason
as tools for understanding the mind’s processes.

Origin of Knowledge

Locke argued that the mind is a “tabula rasa” (blank slate) at birth, without
any pre-existing knowledge or ideas. He identified two sources of knowledge:

1. Sensation: External experiences from the senses provide the mind with
ideas of qualities like color, shape, or motion. These are our primary
interactions with the external world.
2. Reflection: The mind’s observation of its own operations, such as
thinking, reasoning, and willing, generates ideas about mental
processes.

From these two sources, simple ideas are formed. The mind then combines,
compares, and abstracts these simple ideas to create complex ideas.

Locke’s Method

Locke employed a systematic empirical method to study knowledge,

grounded in careful observation and logical analysis:

1. Analysis of Ideas: Locke examined how ideas arise from sensory input
and mental reflection.

2. Categorization of Knowledge: He divided knowledge into intuitive

knowledge (self-evident truths), demonstrative knowledge (reasoned
conclusions), and sensitive knowledge (knowledge of external objects
through the senses).

3. Critique of Innate Ideas: He refuted the idea that certain principles or

truths are inborn, showing that all ideas have experiential origins.
Significance

Locke’s approach laid the foundation for modern empiricism and influenced
later thinkers like Berkeley and Hume. By emphasizing experience as the
basis of knowledge, Locke challenged speculative metaphysics and focused
on understanding the limits and capabilities of the human mind.

: Locke’s Refutation of Innate Ideas

John Locke’s rejection of innate ideas is a central theme in his work An Essay
Concerning Human Understanding (1690). Locke argued that the mind is a
“tabula rasa” (blank slate) at birth, and all knowledge arises from
experience. He systematically dismantled the notion that humans are born
with pre-existing ideas or principles.

Main Arguments Against Innate Ideas

1.Lack of Universal Agreement

Locke observed that supposed innate ideas, such as the principles of logic
(“what is, is” or “it is impossible for the same thing to be and not to be”), are
not universally recognized.

For example, children, individuals with cognitive impairments, or people from

different cultures often do not exhibit knowledge of these principles,
suggesting they are not innate but learned.

1. No Ideas Before Experience

Locke pointed out that infants lack any evidence of innate knowledge. He
argued that if innate ideas existed, they should be present from birth, yet
they only emerge after experience.

He concluded that all ideas must derive from sensation (external

experiences) or reflection (the mind’s observation of its own operations).

2. Ideas Require Conscious Awareness

Locke argued that innate ideas would have to be present in the mind,
whether consciously recognized or not. However, he found it absurd to claim
that individuals possess ideas they are unaware of, as ideas are inherently
tied to conscious thought.

3. Cultural and Historical Variability

The diversity of beliefs, customs, and knowledge across societies contradicts

the idea of universally innate principles. Locke used this variability to argue
that knowledge is acquired through experience and education, not implanted
at birth.

Locke’s Positive Proposal

Locke replaced the notion of innate ideas with his empiricist framework,
emphasizing that all knowledge originates from two sources:

1. Sensation: Knowledge derived from sensory experiences of the

external world.
2. Reflection: Knowledge gained through introspection and awareness of
mental processes.

These simple ideas are combined by the mind into complex ideas, allowing
for the development of knowledge without relying on innateness.

Significance

Locke’s refutation of innate ideas challenged long-standing assumptions in

philosophy, particularly those of rationalists like René Descartes, who
believed in inborn knowledge. Locke’s empiricism shifted the focus to
experience as the foundation of knowledge, profoundly influencing modern
philosophy and the development of psychology and education.

[ John Locke: Primary and Secondary Qualities

John Locke, in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690),

distinguished between primary and secondary qualities as part of his theory
of perception. This distinction addresses how objects produce ideas in our
minds and what aspects of objects truly exist independent of perception.

1.Primary Qualities
Definition: Primary qualities are inherent in objects themselves and exist
independently of any observer. They are objective, measurable, and
inseparable from the object, regardless of whether it is perceived.

Examples:

Shape

Size

Motion/rest

Number

Solidity

Characteristics:

They exist in the object whether or not anyone perceives them.

They resemble the ideas they produce in the mind (e.g., the shape you
perceive corresponds to the object’s actual shape)

1. Secondary Qualities

Definition: Secondary qualities are not inherent in objects but arise from the
interaction between primary qualities and the perceiver’s sensory apparatus.
These qualities exist only in perception and are subjective.

Examples:

Color

Taste

Sound

Smell

Heat or cold

Characteristics:
They do not exist in objects themselves but are powers to produce
sensations in perceivers.

They do not resemble the physical processes