THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD (GE 3) / SEMI-FINALS

BOOK BASED

UNIT V: A WORLD OF IDEAS

Lesson 16: Global Media Cultures

Definition of Terms
 Culture -- way of life manifested in tangible objects and intangible ideas we hold dear
 Media cultures -- culture that emerges due to the proliferation of mass media; the
intersection between media and culture

INTRODUCTION
Could global trade have evolved without a flow of information on markets, prices,
commodities, and more? Could empires have stretched across the world without
communication throughout their borders? Could religion, music, poetry, film, fiction,
cuisine, and fashion develop as they have without the intermingling of media and cultures?
-Jack Lule, "Globalization and Media: Creating the Global Village"

One of the fuels, consequences, and manifestations of globalization is the flow of culture
from one geographical area to another. Culture, in simpler terms, refers to humans' way of life-
how we present ourselves, what are the choices we make and how, how we relate with one
another, how we pursue our aspirations (Giddens, Duneier, Appelbaum, & Carr, 2017).

This way of life manifests in tangible objects-e.g., the clothes we use, the infrastructures
we build, the things we create-collectively referred to as material culture.

This also shows in intangible ideas that we hold dear-e.g., our beliefs, our traditions, our
practices-collectively referred to as non-material culture.

Culture are articulated in symbols or illustrations that convey meanings. It is also

manifested in language or a system of symbols that enable members of a society to
communicate with one another. It is observed in our values (what we deem good, desirable, and
important), beliefs (what we deem true), and practices (how we do things). Most importantly it
is enshrined in our norms (rules, roles, and expectations that we have and others have relative
to our membership in a society).

We, humans, are carriers of cultures. We learn culture from our homes and our
communities through direct instruction from our parents or through observation and participation
in community affairs (cultural socialization). Later on, when we go out and interact with
people from other groups, we experience a different culture (cultural exchange). One
tendency is for us to interpret the other culture using our own frame of mind and negotiate which
aspect of this culture align with ours. For some, they adopt to certain values and practices of the
new culture (acculturation) -- to a lesser degree such that we may tend to adopt the new
culture only when we are in public (accommodation) or in a larger degree such that we begin
to resemble the people in the other group (assimilation). The same process tends to be
experienced by the other people we come to interact with.

 Globalization and Culture

While globalization has been rapid in contemporary times, the innate
desire to expand one's horizons by wandering and exploring different spaces, is ingrained in
humanity since its beginnings (Lule, 2014 citing Appadurai, 1996
and Chanda, 2007).
In earlier lessons, we learned that globalization facilitates sharing of ideas, attitudes, and
values across national borders due to increased "contact between people and their cultures"-
their ideas, their values, their ways of life (Kumaravadivelu, 2008, p. 33)-as observed in the
globalization of lifestyles, knowledge, and technologies. Cultural flows is a term often used to
refer to this dynamics of culture in the age of globalization (Ritzer & Dean, 2015).

Global cultural flows can be viewed in different ways (Ritzer & Dean, 2015). One way to
look at it is to recognize that cultures are inherently and strongly unique from one another and
are not significantly affected by input from other cultures in the process of globalization
(cultural differentialism). This view suggests that there are barriers which shield cultures from
being penetrated by external inputs. An example would be religious convictions and ideologies
shared by members of a particular society. Huntington (1996), in his "clash of civilizations"
hypothesis, even suggests that when these civilizations interact, there is a potentially
"catastrophic collision."

Another view is to look at global flows as a creative process which yields combinations of
global and local cultures when external inputs interact with internal inputs (cultural
hybridization). Appadurai's (1996) concept of scapes hints that global flows bring forth unique
cultural realities everywhere (Ritzer & Dean, 2015). These global flows are: (1) ethnoscapes
(movement of people). (2) technoscapes (fluid and interlinked global technology), (3)
financescapes (movement of huge amount of money across nation-states), (4) mediascape (fast
production and transfer of information), and (5) ideoscapes (movement of political images).
Instead of clashing and conflicting, cultures, amidst these global flows, integrate or
interpenetrate one another, give birth to a hybridized form that is unique from both its global
and local origins-a process referred to as glocalization.

Lastly, another view is to recognize that globalization is, in some ways, making cultures
across nation states a little more similar and homogenous (cultural convergence), leading to a
more isomorphic or uniform culture (Tomlison, 2012, as cited by Ritzer & Dean, 2015). This is
linked with the concept of cultural assimilation we discussed earlier wherein dominant
societies tend to influence others to be more like them.

Related concepts in the process of cultural convergence is what Tomlison (2012, as cited
by Ritzer & Dean, 2015) referred to as cultural imperialism-- when cultures consciously
impose themselves on other cultures, and deterritorialization -- when a culture is not anymore
tied to the restrictions of the geographical space where it originates.
 Media Cultures
Lule (2014) contended that unlike globalization which is quite complex to define, media is
quite straightforward-"a means of conveying something," "a channel of communication."
Likewise, he articulated that the intersection between globalization and media can be captured
in five distinct eras:
(a) oral communication,
(b) script,
(c) printing press,
(d) electronic media, and
(e) digital media.
Further, he opined that globalization could have been unimaginable if media is
unavailable. Media is instrumental and supportive of various domains of globalization-economic,
political, and cultural.

Nick Stevenson (2002), in his book Understanding Media Cultures: Social Theory and Mass
Communication, shared why he chose to use the term "media cultures." First, he noted that
"much of the modern culture is transmitted by the media of mass communication," (p. 3)
establishing an inextricable link between the two. Secondly, theories and perspectives on media
can only be understood deeply by looking at the larger cultural context theorized on and lived on
by the theorists. Thirdly, there are "histories of intellectual exchanges that need to be attended
to for a full grasp of the link between culture andmedia.
Data have shown that, in recent years, the digital media has become a phenomenon-with
the prevalent use of social network platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat,
YouTube, among others. In 2018, Pew Research Center revealed that 95 percent of adolescents
have smartphone access and almost half of these adolescents are almost constantly online
(Anderson & Jiang, 2018). The same study reveals that, among the social network platforms,
YouTube, Instagram, and Snapchat are highly consumed. The youth interviewed in the study
revealed that they use social media for various reasons, i.e., communicating and connecting with
friends, accessing information, entertainment, and self-expression, to name a few.

 Media and the Filipinos

Filipinos are also consumers of various forms of media. In a 2016 study, it was found that
while there was a decline in consumption of newspapers, approximately 96 percent of Filipinos
watch television, devoting almost four hours in watching their favorite shows (Arcangel, 2017).
The same survey observed increasing consumption of digital media due to Internet accessibility.
In a 2019 study, it was revealed that Filipinos are the world's top user of social media, spending
a little more than 10 hours online daily (the world's average online use is 6 hours and 42
minutes) as well as of Internet use in front of a computer, spending a little more than five hours
daily (the world's average Internet usage is 3 hours and 28 minutes) (Gonzales, 2019). Similarly,
Filipinos love to watch movies. This is despite of the struggles in the Philippine movie industry
(see Matti, 2016 & Chua, 2019), which include economic pressures, lack of cultural policy on
content quotas (i.e., how much foreign movies can be shown in cinemas), prevalence of digital
media, and movie piracy, among others.
Particularly among the Filipino youth, media is influential in many respects. Lanuza (2003),
in a literature review on the mediatization of Filipino culture, comprehensively presented how
mass media paves way for the emergence of youths subcultures--shaping how the youth
responds to role expectations, how they consume, how they organize and form groups, and how
they take part in cultural production.

 Issues in Media Cultures

In the age of globalization, there are a few issues to address:
 access,
 production and consumption,
 inclusion and participation,
 and cultural integrity.

In the aspect of access, we may ask: Who has access to media? Is it something that
everyone who needs it can get hold of? Or are there only a few groups of people who has access
to it because of certain socioeconomic advantage? If farmers in far-flung areas need to receive
news about updates in agriculture, do they have the opportunity to get hold of this information?
If they have access, what is the quality of access they have-can they access it easily or do they
encounter difficulties that others typically do not? And, if they do not have access, what is the
state doing to level off this concern on access and what is their power to change the situation?

In the aspect of production and consumption, we may ask: what media contents are
made available for consumption? Who decides what to produce and not to produce? What are
the intentions for producing such contents? What cultures are being conveyed in the media
content? Who controls what to convey and how? As Servaes and Lie (2003) said, identity and
consumption of media are interlinked-"you are what you consume" (p. 18).

In the aspect of inclusion and participation, we may ask: how are people represented
in media? Are these portrayals empowering or diminutive? Does the media culture promote a
culture of dignity? Does the media culture put forward equity and human rights? How does the
media culture represent women, people with exceptionalities, LGBTQ+, and other vulnerable and
oppressed sectors?

In the aspect of cultural integrity, we may ask: how does the media culture shape the
inherent culture in the local sphere? How is culture framed in media? In the processes of cultural
hybridization, as Wang (2002, cited by Servaes & Lie, 2003) construed, are cultural products a-
culturised (without any substance associated with any culture), deculturalised (made to be
appealing to global audiences by removing culture-specific elements), or reculturalised (given
another cultural touch).

Lesson 17: Globalization of Religion

Definition of Terms
 Religion -- a unified system of beliefs and practice related to faith, the sacred, higher
moral values
 Secularization -- diminishing role of religion in the society
 Glocalization of religion -- intermingling of universal and local religious beliefs
INTRODUCTION
No doubt, when all we do is consider the formulas literally, these religious beliefs and
practices appear disconcerting, and our inclination might be to write them off to some sort of
inborn aberration. But we must know how to reach beneath the symbol to grasp the reality
it represents and that gives the symbol its true meaning. The most bizarre or barbarous rites
and the strangest myths translate some human need and some aspect of life, whether social
or individual.
-Emilé Durkheim, "The Elementary Form of Religious Life"

There are more than 7 billion people in the world today, and almost 84 percent of these
people (approximately 5.8 billion) identify themselves as part of a religious group, reveals a 2010
study by Pew Research Center (2012). The same study revealed that majority of these people
are either Christians, Muslims, Hindus, respectively. A huge minority expressed that they are
unaffiliated, a little more than 16 percent.

 Size of Major Religious Groups, 2010

Percentage of the global population
 Christians - 31.5%
 Muslims - 23.2%
 Unaffiliated - 16.3%
 Hindus - 15.0%
 Buddhists - 7.1%
 Folk Religionists* - 5.9%
 Other Religions** - 0.8% J
 ews - 0.2%

 Definitions and Meanings of Religion

Religions have been diversely defined, both academically, by theorists in the field of social
sciences, and subjectively by people who engage in it. These definitions are worth reviewing
before we commence into further discussion about religion in the contemporary world.

In the new translation of Emilé Durkheim's (1912) Les Formes élémentaires de la vie
religieuse: Le système totémique en Australie (commonly referred to as Formes), Karen
Field (1995) iterated the sociologist's definition of religion:
"a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things-that is to say, things set
apart and forbidden; beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community
called a Church all those who adhere to them" (p. xxxiv).

Field continued explaining the three essential elements of this definition. First, religion is
defined as an "observable phenomena" (p. xxxiv), which can be studied objectively. Second, it
is construed as an organized and ordered system. Third, the sacredness of religious entities is
collectively constructed in a social process toward a united "moral community" (p. xxxiv).
Formes, Field imparted, was founded upon this definition.
 On the other hand, Kenneth Pargament, a psychologist specializing in the study of religion
and psychological well-being, defined religion as "a process, a search for significance in ways
related to the sacred" (Pargament, 1997, p. 32, cited by Xu, 2016), distinguishing it from
spirituality which is "a search for the sacred" (Pargament, 1997, p. 32, cited by Xu, 2016). For
Pargament, spirituality is religion's "most critical function" (Pargament, 1997, p. 31).

Notwithstanding these scholarly constructions of what religion is, people tend to have their
own private and personal views of what is religion-much more like a subjective meaning they
associate with religion. Some affiliate with a religion because of affiliation motivation (to have
positive social interaction with people; Van Capellen et al., 2017). Religion serves as an indicator
of social proximity and, thus, provides a platform for social connection. Others affiliate with a
religion as a form of coping with stressful situations--what Pargament (1997) would refer to as
religious coping. Religion, here, provides some form of psychological shield that enables
people to battle against the undesirable outcomes of their life's challenges. There are also those
who relate with religion as a spiritual experience--an outcome of the experience of the mystical
and the divine and a celebration of their spirituality (Rankin, 2009). And, yet again, some look at
it as a mechanism promoting self-control and moral behaviors (Association of Psychological
Sciences, 2011).

 Religion in the Age of Globalization

Having articulated the meanings that people attach to religion and religious experience,
the question we ask now is this: In the time when rapid and widespread globalization of
economic, political, and cultural information and process, where does religion lie in the greater
scheme of things?

 Secularization
Victor Roudometof (2014) addressed this question in his essay, Religion and Globalization.
He started by pointing out the rift between the study of religion and the social sciences. He
further underscored how the focus of social sciences in the past century was secularization--
the hypothesized demise of religion and its value in societies, manifested, for instance, in the
separation of the church and state. It can be said that secularization is the enforcement of
secularism--a philosophical view oriented toward the need for a secular life beyond one's
religious life.
In an earlier work, Stark (1999) has discussed so comprehensively why the secularization
hypothesis-suggesting that the demise of religion will happen alongside the rise of
modernization-does not hold fast as a sound sociological hypothesis, citing evidence that across
centuries there have not been a stark change in people's religious beliefs and commitments.

According to Roudometof (2014), there have been two distinct perspective related to
secularization in the modern times:
(1) the notion of post-secularity (Habermas, 2008; Habermas & Ratzinger, 2006) or the
return of religious consciousness in the public sphere; and
(2) religious modernity, where secularization is an active process emerging from social
action.
 Religious Pluralism and Tolerance
One of the consequences and promoters of globalization is cultural
diversity. As people let ideas flow in and out of geographical spaces, we bring in and out, as well,
our beliefs, values, and traditions. We heard from old religions the Jewish's experience of exile or
diaspora--when they were sent out from the Land of Israel, and scattered toward different parts
of the world. Today, the same journey is taken by people. The age of diaspora in the
contemporary times happen for various reasons. And as people move in and out of territories,
they also carry with them their religious affiliation and its correspondent philosophies and
practices.

It is therefore common, in a globalized world, to have smaller groups of people within

communities, whose culture are quite different from the rest. Imagine for instance, a China town
in a bustling European country or a Filipino community in the Middle East. This phenomenon
when a small group of shared identity maintains their cultural practices as long as it aligns with
the larger society's norms is referred to as cultural pluralism. In the context of religion, cultural
pluralism requires a certain form of religious tolerance--allowing others to abide by their own
religious practices and beliefs, such as consenting the establishment of places of worships.
Religious tolerance is quintessential in fostering peace in the community (Firdaus, 2018). In a
study among university students, it was found that adolescents tend to be more tolerant when
they realize how religious tolerance is part of their religious beliefs and when they are allowed to
appreciate the entire spectrum of their religious tradition than "be religious exclusively with a
legal-style ideology" (Firdaus, 2018, p. 1).

An interesting case in understanding the concept of religious pluralism in the age of

globalization is that of the Baha'i Faith-a small religion with approximately 7 million followers
around the globe (Grim, 2012, in Fozdar, 2015). Baha'i upholds principles of equality and social
justice, peace and unity, world citizenship, and cultural pluralism, among others (Fozdar, 2015).
In the age of globalization, however, what is interesting is that Baha'i apparently evolved into a
religion which is taking the route of homogenization-i.e., using Ruhi books as a central source of
doctrine-to systematically and efficiently pass on its belief systems in a global community
(Fozdar, 2015). The Baha'i case then engages us to reflect: where does globalization really bring
us? Will it sustain diversity or will it necessitate homogeneity?

 Religious Fundamentalism
A critical issue on religion, which emerges in the contemporary world, is the debate on
religious fundamentalism. Altemeyer and Hunsberger (1992) defined religious fundamentalism
as:

The belief that there is one set of religious teachings that clearly contains the
fundamental, basic, intrinsic, essential, inerrant truth about humanity and deity; that
this essential truth is f undamentally opposed by the forces of evil which must be
vigorously fought; that this truth must be followed today according to the
fundamental, unchangeable practices of the past; and that those who believe and follow
these fundamental teachings have a special relationship with the deity. (p. 118)
 There are varying opinions as to religious fundamentalism. Some studies have established
that it relates to cognitive and affective processes that influence behavior (Kossowska et al.,
2018). Other studies, on the other hand, have shown that it is linked to some form of conflict and
hostility toward people of different belief systems (Koopmans, 2014). Ylmaz (2006) opined that
religious fundamentalism manifests in two ways:
 nonviolent intolerance -- ("extreme identification with a particular religion", p. 3) and
 violent intolerance -- ("direct use of physical violence in pursuing subjectively-defined
religious missions", p. 4).
This proposition suggests that not all forms of religious fundamentalism causes some form
of physical harm, but either forms imply some sort of "exaggerated in-group centrality and
discrimination of out-groups" (p.3), which are manifestations of intolerance.

In his Foreign Affairs article The Clash of Civilizations?, which culminated into a book The
Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, Samuel Huntington (1993, 1996),
hypothesized that in the post-Cold War world, the next "fundamental source of conflict" is
cultural, instead of economic and
political. He suggested that the divide in humanity is mainly cultural as seen from diverse
civilizations, each with own worldviews and value systems. He further suggests that these
cultural affiliations will trigger discord and thus lead to inter-civilizational conflicts. There are
diverse views about this hypothesis, some adhering to it as potentially true, others suggesting
that it is plainly a
fundamental attribution error (Brooks, 2011).

After reflecting, engage your classmates into a conversation about your

insights. If you have questions, approach your teacher.
The global issue on the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) in recent years
have fueled the debate on religious fundamentalism. There are thinkers which believe that the
rise of ISIS cannot be explained fully without viewing it from the lens of religious ideology; there
are others who believe that ISIS does not truly represent the Islamic traditions (see Cottee, 2016
and Hamid, 2015 for a discussion on the different views on this issue). If at all there is an insight
we can derive from this debate, it is how "religion matters in social and political life" (Cottee,
2016, citing Hamid, 2015).

 Glocalization of Religions
Another phenomenon that matters in analyzing religion trends in the age of globalization
is referred to as glocalization of religion--"universal religion is thematized alongside local
particularity" (Beyer, 2007, cited by Roudometof, 2013, p. 229). This is linked with
deterritorialization--the flow of religious traditions in areas where these traditions are
unfamiliar or unpopular, paving way for the emergence of transnational religions--i.e.,
"religion 'going global"" (Roudometof, 2015). Historically, we can glean that major religions in the
world originate from particular geographical spaces and has territorial attachments. For instance,
Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Judaism can be traced back to the Middle East, while Buddhism
and Taoism from oriental Asia. These religions have proliferated around the world as cultural
exchanges between the East and the West took place during the age of expeditions and
colonialism. Nowadays, arguably, nearly the same trends can be observed, only faster. Territorial
attachments of religions become less and less profound as they found place in multiple spaces
around the globe.

In the age of globalization, Roudometof (2013, 2014) suggested four (4) forms of
glocalization:
(1) vernacularization,
(2) indigenization,
(3) nationalization, and
(4) transnationalization.
Each form can be described as follows:
Form Description
(Roudometof, 2013, p. 229-231)
 Linking "religious universalism with
Vernacularization vernacular language"
 sacred practices remain to be tied to
particular sacred language
 e.g., Arabic to Islam
 Linking "religious universalism with local
Indigenization particularism"
 religious practices are blended with
indigenous practices
 e.g. African traditional forms meet
Christianity
 Linking "universal religion and local,
Nationalization national particularism”
 emergence of local religions tied with
universal religions
 e.g., Church of England
 absorption of a universal religion into ones
Transnationalization one's own culture; naturalization of religion
 allegiance to global religious community
 e.g., White Anglo-Saxon Protestant among
Americans

Lesson 18: Globalization of Technology

Definition of Terms
 Technology -- a technique, a process, or a material good emerging from the use of
science in addressing human problems
 Technology diffusion -- flow of technologies across borders

INTRODUCTION
If there is something so profound in our experience of the modern world, that is the
seemingly indispensable role of technology in our daily lives. Technology, as we have been
taught in our science subjects as that which refers to the application of science, is something
that comes forth from using the systematic body of knowledge we possess to respond to
pressing issues and problems that we face. Wahab, Rose, and Osman (2012) have surveyed
literatures on the matter and found that there are quite a number of definitions and
characteristics of technology. Some of these definitions are as follows (Wahab, Rose, & Osman,
2012, p. 62): possessing a physical and an informational component (Kumar et al 1999),
configuration/system (Sahal, 1981), and knowledge (Dunning 1994). Hence, the authors
concluded that technology, in essence, is either a technique or a way of doing things.
Historically, we can glean that technological advancement has trodden a long, winding,
and often turbulent road-a process commonly referred to as the industrial revolution (IR)--
wherein humanity has found a way to maximize the available resources that they can tap toward
the advancement of their aspirations individually and collectively. Priescaru (2016), as cited by
Xu, David, and Kim (2018), summarized the industrial revolution and divided the eras into four.
People in the first IR used coal as their primary source of energy and created the steam engine.
Those in the second IR discovered oil and electricity and designed the internal combustion
engine. Computers and robots are the main achievements of the third IR, where nuclear energy
and natural gas were found as potential source of energy. And, nowadays, we are in the era of
the fourth IR where the goal is to maximize the use of green energies, amidst the proliferation
of the Internet.

 The Fourth Industrial Revolution

Klaus Schwab has used the term "Fourth Industrial Revolution" to refer to
the era when people navigate between their online and offline selves (Xu, David, Kim, 2018). In
this era of industrialization, people can expect the following:
 emergence of creator-entrepreneurs (technology allows us to create more and to
produce our ideas)
 artificial intelligence (AI)
 fusion (integration of disciplines)
 robotics (more daring inventions that are geared toward making our lives more
efficient)
 Internet (remote and real-time interconnectedness)

All these are presumed to make our lives easier and more convenient. But then again, we
can also anticipate challenges (Xu, David, Kim, 2018, p. 93) such as:
 changes in the job market, in terms of competencies required from people and in
terms of preference for machines than people in tasks that are performable by
robots;
 changes in the nature of threats and vulnerability (cyber security issues) as we
become more reliant to digital technologies;
 changes in the way we do things; and
 unanticipated impacts to basic services and sectors (education, health, and
environment).

 Technological Diffusion and Globalization

 In the age of globalization, technology also flows in and out across borders. This process
can be referred to as technology diffusion. It is essential to look at technology diffusion
because, the inflow and outflow of technology is simultaneous to economic, political, and cultural
flows.

Technologies are goods that are bought and sold in the market. Think about the cars that
you see on the streets, which are mostly produced in China, USA Japan, and India (International
Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers OICA), 2018), Think about the raw materials from
other territories which are required to produce particular technologies, and thus are
imported/exported (eg, minor metals are being imported to China in large quantities to produce
undertones. Between 2014 to 2018, for example, US, Russia, France, Germany, steel; OECD,
2011). Some technologies in the market also have political and China were found to be the top
five arms exporters in the world, while Saudi Arabia was among the topmost importers, based on
a report by Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) (Deutsche Well,
2019).
Many may be oblivious to the link between technology and the economy and politics. This
issue may even be beyond the immediate sphere of concern of the ordinary citizen. However, we
easily recognize the cultural value of technology, especially in the context of those technologies
we use in our daily lives. Digital technologies such as smartphones, laptops, and other
computing device are very well within our reach.

Remarkably, people have different responses when exposed to these new technologies.
According to the diffusion of innovation (DOI) theory (Rogers, 1962), some would try new
technologies even if these are still crudely developed, eg, some beta-users of newly developed
apps or users of 1st generation technologies (innovators). Others would adopt earlier than the
average user but would need some systematic support to be able to navigate using a new
technology (early adopters). But then, there are those few who are skeptical and would rather
use tried and tested methods
and tools (laggards).

Nowadays, we also hear

the term digital natives which refer to people who have been accustomed to digital
technologies. There are also those referred to as digital immigrants, people who were not born
into the digital world but are coping and adopting new technologies.

 Technological Trends in the Age of Globalization

The following are just some observable technological trends in the age of globalization.
While some of these trends have been scrutinized in scholarly works, many are potential subject
of inquiry.

 Information and Communication

The emergence of the Internet of Things (IOT) makes human-computer interaction speedier and
more reliable, making it possible to manage very important services such as transportation,
healthcare, and security. We see nowadays, for instance, that we can already watch over our
home even when we are far away from it through security cameras that are linked via the
Internet. A doctor from another country can provide professional advice or, in some cases, can
even conduct medical procedures to a service user in another place (telemedicine). Even
interviews, meetings, and educational activities can be done via Skype, Zoom, and other
teleconferencing technologies. Because of technology, we are already capable of doing
synchronous (real-time) communication even amidst distance. At the same time, when the one
we need to talk to is not available, it is possible for us to engage into asynchronous
communication such as when we leave messages through emails and messengers that our
friends and families can respond to later on.

 Transportation
Transportation technologies have become more prevalent, with more people being able to
avail of their own private vehicles. Some countries were also able to establish reliable and
efficient public transportation system.

 Production Statistics of Cars and Commercial Vehicles, 2018

Top 10 performing countries rounded off to the nearest hundred thousand
 China
 USA
 Japan
 India
 Germany
 Mexico
 South Korea,
 Brazil
 Spain
 France

Cars:1,000,000 cars
Commercial vehicles: 500,000 commercial vehicles
 Aviation technology has also become more dependable in recent years, allowing more and
more people to travel long distances at a cheaper rate than in the past. There are four major
developments in aviation technology, according to Martin (2018):
(a) digital twin, which is a digital and virtual replica of the physical aircraft engine which
enables efficient monitoring of the aircraft;
(b) use of artificial intelligence (AI) for predictive maintenance, i.e., predicting possible
issues that may arise in the aircraft;
(c) use of mobile computing in aviation; and
(d) use of drones in aircraft maintenance procedures.

 Architecture, Energy, and the Environment

There is a movement toward green architecture as an impact of the recent damor to
address ecological breakdown. People are beginning to realize that Our environment is at the
tipping point and if we do not do something about it, everything that we do haphazardly to our
environment may boomerang. Alongside the movement toward environment-friendly
infrastructures is the preference for green energy or renewable sources such as wind,
hydropower, geothermal heat, etc. With the pressing issue on the environment, there emerges
also new currencies such as for instance the carbon credits--the allowable amount of carbon
emission that a country can have, which can actually be used in the carbon trade.

 Commerce
New business models have also emerged in recent years. Entrepreneurs bring in their
businesses into the electronic world, thus, the birth of e-commerce. Online platforms such as
Lazada, Amazon, and Shopee are made available where you can buy and sell products. Even
businesses with physical stores are putting up online platforms to extend their reach. Social
network media such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are used as marketing and advertising
tools. Banks have also put up electronic platforms where clients can hold transactions bills
payment, money transfer) without having to appear physically in a physical banking
infrastructure. In travel and transportation services, there are platforms where clients can book
tickets, manage their bookings, and even cancel and perform other transactions related to their
trip. Business processes in a territory can also be done overseas through business process
outsourcing (BPOs), facilitated by reliable Internet connectivity and dependence communication
technologies.
 Space Science
Since the first wave of space explorations in the 1960s, much has changed in our space
technologies, as nation-states invest in research and development on this issue. National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, 2018), the US agency responsible for space
explorations, revealed that, in succeeding years, there will be attempts and efforts to:
(a) know the possibility of life in Mars,
(b) get closer to the Sun,
(c) explore Jupiter's moon,
(d) send humans deeper into space, and
(e) test and develop more advanced space navigation instruments.
 Even the Philippines is aligning with the technological trajectory toward space exploration
with the launching of Diwata-1 in 2016 and Diwata-2 in 2018, two micro-satellites with the aim of
supporting earth observation missions that will be useful in climate studies and disaster risk
management (PHL Microsat, n. d.). According to PHL Microsat, this program is a foundation to
Philippines vision to create its own space agency.

 AI, Robots, and Nanotechnology

Most importantly, the contemporary world has also witnessed how technology nowadays
can afford to simulate some of human capacities through the use of computer and machines-i.e.,
artificial intelligence. When Sophia-bot, an almost humanoid robot, came to the fore, it has
triggered discussion as to what would be the direction of humanity in the era of Al (see Urbi &
Sigalos, 2018). What used to be found only in the figment of our imaginations, as reflected in
movies, are now becoming more real and possible. As we are able to manipulate particles at the
atomic-molecular levels (nanotechnology), we are also able to create very minute particles
that may influence and alter substances found in living cells (e.g., use of nanoparticles in
delivering drugs).

Lesson 19: Globalization of Lifestyle

Definition of Term
 Lifestyle -- a multidimensional, pluralistic, and crosscutting concept referring to the way
we live our everyday, as well as the factors influencing this process (choice, individual
and group processes, etc.)

INTRODUCTION
Earlier, we have discussed that cultural flows are prevalent in the age of globalization. In
this lesson, we will look more specifically on patterns and manifestations of cultural flows in
various aspects of our lifestyle. While saying that culture now freely crosses territorial borders is
not so difficult to comprehend, being able to observe interpenetration of cultures in the food we
eat, in the clothes we wear, and even in the arts and music we produce and consume, provide a
much more profound experience as to how this cultural flow shapes us individually and
collectively.
Mikael Jensen (2007), in his article "Defining lifestyle," offered an exhaustive discussion on
how lifestyle can be defined and construed. Jensen (2007) argued that lifestyle should be
understood in a "pluralistic way" (p. 63), such that it cuts across various human activities.
Reviewing various literatures on the subject, Jensen conveyed that lifestyle is defined differently:
(a) as the "how" of doing things and living one's life,
(b) as a totality of factors that enable us to keep ourselves healthy, and
(c) as our consumption behavior.
Considering how complex the concept of lifestyle is,
Jensen suggested that it has to be analyzed at various levels.

Levels of analyzing lifestyle (Jensen, 2007)

 global
 national/ structural
  positional/ subcultural
 Individual

On a larger scale, someone must ask: What is the prevailing lifestyle in the world today, in
this particular era? How does lifestyle flow from various territories in the world? How does North
meet South or East meet West?
Then, someone must also ask: What is the prevailing lifestyle in the particular territory or
country that one belongs? How does the nation-state regulate and affect this lifestyle? Are their
policies and programs that control and promote a particular pattern of behavior and thought
related to how life is lived on a daily basis by the citizens?
At the meso-level sphere, someone must also ask: How is one's lifestyle affected by
social institutions within a particular community? Does my family, friends, neighbors, and other
significant others influence my lifestyle and how?
Finally, at the individual level someone must ask: How does my personality, preferences,
aspirations, fears, and other personal factors affect my lifestyle? How is my lifestyle related to
my identity and to what I envision myself to become in the future?

Another way of understanding lifestyle was discussed by Anthony Veal (1993) in an earlier
review of the concept of lifestyle. According to Veal (1993, pp. 241-247), lifestyle can be
analyzed by looking at:
(1) activities or behaviors (consumption, leisure, and household behaviors);
(2) attitudes and values (influences on behavior such as politics and religion);
(3) individual processes (preferences);
(4) group processes (social interactions and influences);
(5) coherence (alignment of lifestyle with personal goals);
(6) recognizability (whether lifestyle is shared with others or not); and
(7) choice (whether people get to choose the lifestyle they want and what are the factors
influencing so).

 Lifestyle in the Age of Globalization

At this point, let us explore lifestyle trends in the age of globalization, particularly those
that are accessible or observable in your own community. Let us also understand how scholars
frame these lifestyle trends.

 Food
The Philippines is inherently an agricultural country. Its biodiversity is high, which entails
that there are opportunities also to diversify food choices. Food, inasmuch as it is a basic need, is
also cultural. Much of our cultural heritage can be gleaned from the food we prepare. The food
we eat and serve shows much about our economic activities, our household practices, the
resources we have, and the nature and integrity of the socio-ecological system we are in.
Globalization, however, has also brought along with it "significant shifts in our world's food
systems and dietary patterns" (Black, 2016, p. 1), specifically in areas of
(1) food access,
(2) food availability, and
(3) food quality.
 In later lessons. we will discuss the concept of food security-a major concern to look into in
the globalized world-at a macro and more systemic level. In this lesson, however, our aim is to
focus on the observable changes and trends.

Elizabeth Black (2016), in her work on globalization of the food industry identified the
following influences to changes in food and dietary patterns. First is urbanization, where more
people are occupying more urban areas away from their traditional home setting, thus paving
way for the rise of fast food. Second is foreign investments, wherein import and export of
processed food are being made available to territories, altering traditional food consumption
patterns.

 Music
Music is a valuable manifestation of our "subjective aesthetic experience" (El-Ghadban,
2014). It continues to play a significant part in our daily lives either as a form of expression or
experiencing emotions, ideas, and realities that are important to us. In the age of globalization,
El-Ghadban (2014) opines, the ease of contact among musical tradition fosters mutuality
inasmuch as it springs forth friction-i.e., "awkward, unequal, unstable, and creative" (Tsing,
2005, p. 4) state when something different intermingles.

This process of disequilibrium often leads to the birth of more recent traditions, such as
when African and European traditions paved the way for the emergence of reggae, jazz, and
other genres (Small, 1987, as cited by El-Ghadban, 2014). Richard Letts (2003) from the Music
Council of Australia reported in a study on the effect of globalization on music among different
countries, Philippines included. The report described that assimilation of Western music started
in the Philippines since the Hispanic colonization where sacred music was used in the
introduction of Christianism. It further articulated that while Philippines has its own unique music
genre (e.g., kundiman) and, recently, the growing organization of professional musicians, we
remain to include western musical traditions in our regular music consumption.
With the advent of online streaming applications such as Soundcloud, Spotify, and
YouTube, where sharing of music productions and creations are swift and nearly free, the
intermingling of musical cultures, in principle, not beyond possible. In fact, some data shows that
streaming is the topmost contributor to the growing music market, accounting for almost 40
percent of revenues (Beltran, 2018).

 Sports
In the contemporary world, sports has been widely recognized as an important aspect of
life (Wharton, 2014). This particular activity, just like any other, also plays a role in the larger
mantle of globalization. Wharton (2014) explained that in one way or another, sports becomes a
platform for identity formation among nations. Similarly, the presence of international
competitions such as the Olympics, which attracts increasing participation and audience from
people across the globe, also shows how sporting events can operate on a global scale (Pop,
2013).

 TV Viewers of Summer Olympics

1996 - 2012 in billions
 Atlanta, 1996 - 3.2
 Sydney, 2000 - 3.6
 Athens, 2004 - 3.9
 Beijing, 2008 - 4.7
 London, 2012 - 4.9

 SUMMARY
Globalization has influenced politics, economy, and culture, not only in the larger context,
but even in the manifestations of these spheres in our daily lives. With more and more options
being made available to us by the inflow of lifestyles from other territories, we are challenged to
be more conscientious about our choices and priorities.

Lesson 20: Globalization of Education

Definition of Terms
 Education -- the process of teaching and learning: the discipline concerned with
facilitating transfer and exchange of knowledge, skills, and belief and value systems
 Equivalency -- process of gauging whether one's level of achievement is commensurate
to the expected requirement for an academic degree
 Qualifications framework -- a set of standards and competencies that serve as basis in
evaluating educational qualifications between and among nation-states

INTRODUCTION
If there is a sphere of life which is greatly interlinked to globalization, it is education. We
mentioned that cultural, economic, and political flows are observable in the age of globalization,
and while education, itself, is diversely defined, we can say that one of its roles is to serve as a
channel through which flow of knowledge and information is done.
Unlike other channels of cultural flows, education plays a rather direct function in
imparting beliefs and values to people. When people go through the educative process, they are
presented with content and provided with experiences that are aligned with what is deemed
important by a particular society. In the family, parents teach their children knowledge and skills
that they believe their children would need to survive and succeed in the larger world beyond
the confines of their homes. In school, teachers teach their students based on a curriculum
developed to hone graduates that are adaptable to changes in their environment, particularly in
the world of work. In workplaces, employees are taught and trained to be able to meet the
demands of economic and political flows that are circumstantial to the existence and survival of
an organization. In different ecologies, therefore, education serves as a container of knowledge.

 Trends in Education amidst Globalization

 Transnational Education
Studying abroad is not new, but with the advancement in transportation technologies and the
evolution of international policies on migration, it is in a different country. According to UNESCO
(2015), there were 4.1 million becoming more possible for learners in a territory to receive
formal education international students between 2005 to 2013, rising to as high as almost 4.9
million in 2016 (Migration Data Portal, 2019, citing UNESCO 2018 data).

Many academic institutions would also have linkages and partnership with those from
other countries, and opportunities for scholarship abounds. Some of the scholarship programs for
international students are as follows:
 Monbukagakusho (MEXT Japan) http://www.mext.go.jp
 Newton Agham Program (British Council) https://www.britishcouncil.ph/
programmes/newton-fund/phd-programme
 Erasmus Mundus Programme (European Union) https://eacea.ec.europa. eu/erasmus-plus
 Fulbright Scholarship https://fulbright.org.ph/scholarship-programs/

In the Philippines, for instance, it is not anymore shocking to observe multicultural classrooms
comprised of learners who come from different nation- states. It is also not surprising to hear of
local Filipino students going abroad to study or taking some units from foreign universities. There
are mainly three different types of international students:

 Internationally mobile students -- "individual who has physically crossed an

international border between two countries with the objective to participate in
educational activities in a destination country, where the destination country is different
from his or her country of origin" (UNESCO, 2015)
 Foreign students -- non-citizens who are currently enrolled in higher education degree
courses (usually moving to another country with their families)
 Credit-mobile students -- not necessarily moving into another country but are taking
some units from a foreign university (Van Mol and Ekamper, 2016)

 Open and Distance Education

Another affordance of technology that are made available to us in the modern times is the
possibility for open and distance education. Unlike before when receiving formal education
necessitated attending classes in a physical classroom, learning can now take place in the virtual
world. Some courses are now offered in part or in full through computer- and/or web-mediated
classrooms.

 Equivalency and Qualifications Frameworks

In previous lessons, we discussed that ASEAN integration is one of the recent
developments in Asian regionalism. One issue in ASEAN integration is how to ensure that the
educational attainment of the labor force is aligned with the expectations and requirements
across SEA countries. If the flow of labor is going to be open, then the trainings and qualifications
of individual citizens of the member states should be comparable to that of others so as to
ensure fair and equitable human resource processes.

Concern about levelling off of educational training among people in the international labor
market has been addressed through the process of equivalence and recognition process.
Before the K to 12 curriculum was implemented in the country, teachers from the Philippines who
wish to teach in a K to 12 curriculum, say for example in the UAE, need to secure attestation
from the government that the academic training they received from their home country is
comparable to the required training to perform the role of a teacher in the host country.

Another approach is to develop a qualifications framework--a set of qualifications

among nation-states are comparable to one another. An example of standards and competencies
that serve as basis to say whether educational this is the ASEAN Qualifications Reference
Framework, aligned with the ASEAN Economic Community 2015 Blueprint and the ASEAN Socio-
Cultural Blueprint
2025.

The ARQF acts also as a guide

among ASEAN member states (AMS) toward developing their own national qualifications
framework: