HEAT QUANTITIES AND VAPOURS

In our everyday life, we use heat in various situations e.g. cooking food, electricity generation, transport, etc.
When a body absorbs heat, its temperature rises and when it loses heat, its temperature falls.
The amount of heat required to change the temperature of a substance greatly depends on its mass. However,
equal masses of different substances require different amounts of heat and time for their temperatures to change
by the same value

HEAT CAPACITY
It takes a lot of time to boil a full kettle of water than a half- filled kettle using the same amount of heat. This is
because the larger mass of water in a full kettle requires more heat energy to raise its temperature, leading to a
longer heating time compared to a half-filled kettle, even if the same amount of heat energy is applied.
The amount of heat required by any amount of a substance in order to have its temperature changed by one
degree Celsius (1℃) or One Kelvin (1𝐾) is called heat capacity.

Definition:
This is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a body by 1𝐾 or 1℃.
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐻
𝐶=
∆𝜃

The SI unit of heat capacity is joules per Kelvin (𝐽/𝐾 𝑜𝑟 𝐽𝐾 −1 )

Also,
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝒎𝒄

Activity:
An Iron rod changes its temperature from 10℃ to 30℃ when it absorbs 500𝐽 of heat. Calculate its heat
capacity.
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
500𝐽
𝐶=
(30 − 10)
𝑪 = 𝟐𝟓 𝑱𝑲−𝟏

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (c);

Consider a large saucepan of water. It can hold a lot of water, right? So, when you warm it up, it takes a good
amount of time for the whole water in the saucepan to get warm.
Now, think about a small saucepan of water. It doesn't hold as much as the large saucepan, does it? So, when
you warm it up, it doesn't take as long for the water to get warm throughout the saucepan. Therefore, the
amount of heat energy required to warm these two saucepans depends on the mass of water in them. This
amount of heat energy is known as specific heat capacity.

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Definition:
This is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1𝑘𝑔 mass of a substance by 1𝐾 or 1℃.
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × ∆𝜃
𝐻
𝑐=
𝑚 × ∆𝜃

The SI unit of specific heat capacity is Joules per kilogram per Kelvin (𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾 𝑜𝑟 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 ).

Quantity of heat, 𝐇 = 𝐦𝐜∆𝛉

Where ∆𝛉 – change in temperature.
𝑐 − Specific heat capacity
𝑚 − Mass of substance.
Note: ∆𝛉 = 𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏
Therefore, 𝐇 = 𝐦𝐜(𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 ) where 𝜽𝟐 > 𝜽𝟏

N.B: The specific heat capacity is different for different substances and the table below shows values of specific
heat capacities of some common substances.
Substance Specific heat capacity (𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 )
Water 4200
Ice 2100
Aluminium 900
Copper 400
Mercury 140
Lead 130

NOTE:
• Water has the highest specific heat capacity of 4200 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1.
• A higher specific heat capacity means that it require more heat energy to change its temperature by 1𝐾
or 1℃.

Importances of high specific heat capacity of water

• Water is used as coolant car radiators: Due to its high specific heat capacity, it can absorb a large amount of
heat energy from the engine of the car, but its temperature does not rise too high.
• Formation of sea and land breezes: The specific heat capacity of water is about five times more than that of
sand. It therefore, takes a much longer time to heat and to cool with respect to sand.
During the day, the land cools faster than the sea. The hot air from the sea rises while the cool air from the
sea moves to take its place, giving rise to a sea breeze.
• It regulates the human body’s temperature.

ROLE OF OCEANS IN CLIMATE REGULATION

Oceans cover about 71% of the Earth's surface and have a high ability to store large amounts of heat due to
water's high specific heat capacity. This means that oceans can absorb and retain (store) large amounts of heat
energy from sun without getting very hot.
During the day, oceans absorb heat from the sun, preventing rapid increases in temperature. At night, they
release stored heat, hence reducing temperature drops. With this effect, oceans are able to maintain the earth’s
temperatures and climate patterns stable.

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Question:
“The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 ” What is meant by the statement?
This means that 1kg mass of water requires 4200J of heat to raise its temperature by 1K.

Heat calculations
The following should be noted:
Always mass must be in Kilograms (kg)
In questions with the phrase “the temperature rises by” or “the temperature rose by”, the temperature value
given is the change in temperature ∆𝜃
Examples:
1. How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 5𝑘𝑔 of iron from 30℃ to 40℃ if the specific heat
capacity of iron is 440 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 ?
𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃
𝐻 = 5 × 440 × (40 − 30)
𝐻 = 2200 × 10
𝑯 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐉
2. When a block of iron of mass 2𝑘𝑔 absorbs 19𝑘𝐽 of heat its temperature rises by 10℃. Find the specific
heat capacity of iron.
𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃
19000 = 2 × 𝑐 × 10
19000
𝑐=
20
𝒄 = 𝟗𝟓𝟎 𝐉𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏
3. How much heat is given out when an iron metal of mass 2𝑘𝑔 and specific heat capacity
460 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 cools from 300℃ to 200℃.
𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃
𝐻 = 2 × 460 × (300 − 200)
𝐻 = 920 × 100
𝑯 = 𝟗𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐉
4. Calculate the specific heat capacity of gold if 108 𝐽 of heat raises the temperature of a 9𝑔 mass from 0℃ to
100℃.
9 𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃
𝑚= = 0.009𝑘𝑔
1000 108 = 0.009 × 𝑐 × (100 − 0)
𝜃1 = 00 𝐶 108 = 0.9𝑐
𝜃2 = 1000 𝐶 108
𝑐=
0.9
𝒄 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐉𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏
5. 5𝐾𝐽 of heat is supplied to a metal whose specific heat capacity is 400 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 , if the temperature of the
metal rises by 5𝐾. Find the mass of the metal.
𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃
5000 = 𝑚 × 400 × 5
5000 = 2000𝑚
𝒎 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒌𝒈

6. 1200𝐽 of heat is supplied to 100𝑔 of water at 20℃. Calculate the final temperature of water if its specific
heat capacity is 4200 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1

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 100 𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃
𝑚= = 0.1𝑘𝑔
1000 1200 = 0.1 × 4200 × (𝜃2 − 20)
𝜃1 = 200 𝐶 1200 = 420𝜃2 − 8400
𝜃2 = ? 1200 + 8400 = 420𝜃2
9600
θ2 =
420
𝜽𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟗°

CALORIMETRY:
This is the measurement of flow of heat.
The instrument used in calorimetry is called calorimeter.
Calorimeter:
• It is made up of copper.
• It is lagged with an insulator and placed in a jacket with a plastic cover which has two holes for a
thermometer and a stirrer.

Experiment to determine Specific heat capacity of a solid by method of mixtures.

What you need:

• Copper calorimeter • Thermometer • Source of heat
• Stirrer • Water • Thread

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑺𝒕𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒓

𝑳𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅
What to do:
▪ Measure mass, 𝒎𝒄 of an empty calorimeter of known specific heat capacity 𝒄𝒄 .
▪ Pour some water of mass, 𝒎𝒘 in the calorimeter until it is about to get full.
▪ Using a thermometer, read and record the initial temperature, 𝜽𝟏 of the calorimeter and water.
▪ Heat a solid of mass, 𝒎𝒔 whose specific heat capacity,𝒄𝒔 is required to a temperature,𝜽𝟐
▪ Quickly transfer the solid to the calorimeter containing the water
▪ Stir the mixture until a steady final maximum temperature, 𝜃3 is reached.
▪ The mixture is well stirred until a steady final maximum temperature, 𝜃3 is reached.
▪ Determine the specific heat capacity of the solid.

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Assuming there is no heat loss during the experiment,
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 = 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 + 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝒎𝒔 𝒄𝒔 ∆𝜽 = 𝒎𝒘 𝒄𝒘 ∆𝜽 + 𝒎𝒄 𝒄𝒄 ∆𝜽
𝒎𝒔 𝒄𝒔 (𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟑 ) = 𝒎𝒘 𝒄𝒘 (𝜽𝟑 − 𝜽𝟏 ) + 𝒎𝒄 𝒄𝒄 (𝜽𝟑 − 𝜽𝟏 )
𝒎𝒘 𝒄𝒘 (𝜽𝟑 − 𝜽𝟏 ) + 𝒎𝒄 𝒄𝒄 (𝜽𝟑 − 𝜽𝟏 )
𝒄𝒔 =
𝒎𝒔 (𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟑 )

Examples:
1. A metal of mass 0.2𝑘𝑔 at 100℃ is dropped into 0.08𝑘𝑔 of water at 13℃ contained in calorimeter of mass
0.12𝑘𝑔 and S.H.C 400 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 . The final temperature reached is 35℃. Determine the S.H.C of the metal

𝒎𝑴 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒌𝒈, 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃,
𝒎𝑾 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝒌𝒈, 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓℃, 𝒄𝑾 = 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏
𝒎𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝒌𝒈 𝒄𝑪 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏
𝜽𝟑 = 𝟑𝟓℃

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 + 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝒎𝑴 𝒄𝑴 ∆𝜽 = 𝒎𝑾 𝒄𝑾 ∆𝜽 + 𝒎𝑪 𝒄𝑪 ∆𝜽
𝒎𝑴 𝒄𝑴 (𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽𝟑 ) = 𝒎𝑾 𝒄𝑾 (𝜽𝟑 − 𝜽𝟐 ) + 𝒎𝑪 𝒄𝑪 (𝜽𝟑 − 𝜽𝟐 )
𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝒄𝑴 × (𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟑𝟓) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 × 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟎 × (𝟑𝟓 − 𝟏𝟓) + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟒𝟎𝟎(𝟑𝟓 − 𝟏𝟓)
𝟏𝟑𝒄𝑴 = 𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟎 + 𝟗𝟔𝟎
𝟕𝟔𝟖𝟎
𝒄𝑴 =
𝟏𝟑
𝒄𝑴 = 𝟓𝟗𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏

2. A liquid of mass 200𝑔 in a calorimeter of heat capacity 500 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 and mass 1𝑘𝑔 is heated such that its
temperature changes from 25℃ to 50℃. Find the S.H.C of the liquid if the heat supplied was 14,000 𝐽.
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 = 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 + 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑯 = 𝒎𝒍 𝒄𝒍 ∆𝜽 + 𝒎𝒄 𝒄𝒄 ∆𝜽
𝑯 = 𝒎𝒍 𝒄𝒍 (𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 ) + 𝒎𝒄 𝒄𝒄 (𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 )
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 = × 𝒄𝒍 × (𝟓𝟎 − 𝟐𝟓) + 𝟏 × 𝟓𝟎𝟎 × (𝟓𝟎 − 𝟐𝟓)
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟓𝒄𝒍 + 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟓𝒄𝒍
𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒄𝒍 =
𝟓
𝒄𝒍 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏

3. A piece of metal of mass 0.5𝑘𝑔 is heated to 100℃ and then placed in 0.4𝑘𝑔 of water at 10℃, if the final
temperature of the mixture is 30℃. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal. (Neglect heat absorbed
by container with water and S.H.C of water is 4200 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1)
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 = 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝒎𝒔 𝒄𝒔 ∆𝜽 = 𝒎𝒘 𝒄𝒘 ∆𝜽
𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝒄𝒔 × (𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎) = 𝟎. 𝟒 × 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟎 × (𝟑𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎)
𝟑𝟓𝒄𝒔 = 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒄𝒔 =
𝟑𝟓
𝒄𝒔 = 𝟗𝟔𝟎 𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏
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4. A metal of mass 0.2𝑘𝑔 at 100℃ is dropped into 0.08𝑘𝑔 of water at 13℃ contained in calorimeter of mass
0.12𝑘𝑔 and S.H.C 400 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 . The final temperature reached is 35℃. Determine the S.H.C of the metal

𝒎𝑴 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒌𝒈, 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃,
𝒎𝑾 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝒌𝒈, 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓℃, 𝒄𝑾 = 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏
𝒎𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝒌𝒈 𝒄𝑪 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏
𝜽𝟑 = 𝟑𝟓℃

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 + 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝒎𝑴 𝒄𝑴 ∆𝜽 = 𝒎𝑾 𝒄𝑾 ∆𝜽 + 𝒎𝑪 𝒄𝑪 ∆𝜽
𝒎𝑴 𝒄𝑴 (𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽𝟑 ) = 𝒎𝑾 𝒄𝑾 (𝜽𝟑 − 𝜽𝟐 ) + 𝒎𝑪 𝒄𝑪 (𝜽𝟑 − 𝜽𝟐 )
𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝒄𝑴 × (𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟑𝟓) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 × 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟎 × (𝟑𝟓 − 𝟏𝟓) + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟒𝟎𝟎(𝟑𝟓 − 𝟏𝟓)
𝟏𝟑𝒄𝑴 = 𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟎 + 𝟗𝟔𝟎
𝟕𝟔𝟖𝟎
𝒄𝑴 =
𝟏𝟑
𝒄𝑴 = 𝟓𝟗𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏

Experiment to show that different substances have different specific heat capacities
• Take three metallic balls of iron, copper and lead of equal mass and put them in boiling water for some time.
Then, take them out of the water and measure their temperature. All of them will be at temperature 100oC.
• Now, put them immediately on the thick slab of wax.
• Note the depth that each of the ball goes into the wax.
• The ball which absorbs more heat from the water will give more heat to wax. More wax will thus melt and
the ball will go deeper in the wax.

observation
• It will be observed that the iron ball goes deepest into the wax. Lead ball goes the least and copper ball goes
to intermediate depth. This shows that for equal rise in temperature, the three balls have absorbed different
amounts of heat. This means that the property which determines the amount of heat absorbed by a ball is
different for the three balls. This property is called the specific heat capacity.

EXERCISE
1. A piece of copper of mass 100𝑔 is heated to 100℃ and is then transferred to a well lagged copper can of
mass 50𝑔 containing 200𝑔 of water at 10℃. Neglecting heat loss, calculate the final steady temperature of
water after it has been well stirred. Take S.H.C of copper and water to be 900 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 and
4200 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 respectively.
Ans; [𝟏𝟒℃]

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2. A heating coil is placed in thermal flask containing 0.6𝑘𝑔 of water for 600𝑠. The temperature of water rises
by 25℃ during this time. Water is replaced by 0.4𝑘𝑔 of another liquid. And the same temperature rise
occurs in 180𝑠. Calculate the S.H.C of the liquid given that S.H.C of water is 4200 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1. State any
assumption.
Ans; [𝟏𝟖𝟗𝟎 𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏]

3. Copper calorimeter of mass 120𝑔 contains 100𝑔 of paraffin at 15℃. If 45𝑔 of aluminum at 100℃ is
transferred to the liquid and the final temperature is 27℃. Calculate the S.H.C of paraffin [S.H.C of
aluminum and copper are 1000 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 and 400 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 respectively]
Ans; [ 𝟐. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 ]

4. A liquid of mass 250𝑔 is heated to 80℃ and then quickly transferred to a calorimeter of heat capacity
380 𝐽𝐾 −1 containing 400𝑔 of water at 30℃. If the maximum temperature recorded is 55℃ and specific
heat capacity of water is 4200 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 . Calculate the S.H.C of the liquid.
Ans; [𝟖𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏]

LATENT HEAT:
During a change of state of a substance, heat is absorbed or lost without causing any change in temperature of a
substance.
"Imagine you have a bowl of ice cream. When you leave it out on a hot day, what happens? It starts to melt,
right? That's because the ice cream is absorbing something called 'latent heat.'
Now, let's break it down. 'Latent' means hidden or concealed. So, latent heat is like a hidden energy that's stored
in things, like ice cream or ice cubes, and it's released or absorbed when those things change from one state to
another.
When we're talking about ice cream melting, the latent heat is the energy it takes for the solid ice cream to turn
into liquid. It's like the ice cream is soaking up this hidden energy from the air around it, which makes it melt.

Definition:
This is the amount of heat absorbed or lost when a substance is changing from one state to another at constant
temperature.
Particle theory explanation of latent heat
When heat is applied to a substance, the molecules of a substance absorb this heat energy and start moving
faster. They gain enough strength and start moving further apart. Therefore, this heat applied to the substance
doesn’t increase its temperature but instead it is only used to break the intermolecular forces holding the
molecules together and also increase the spacing of the molecules.

Demonstrating latent heat

What you need
• Ice cubes
• Thermometer
• Beaker
• Source of heat
• Stop watch

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What to do
▪ Put the ice cubes in a beaker and measure their initial temperature using a thermometer
▪ Heat the beaker containing the ice cubes and immediately start the stop watch.
▪ Stir the ice water in the beaker.
▪ Wait until all the ice has melted to form water
▪ Note the time taken for ice to melt to water.
▪ Note also the final temperature of water from the ice.

Observation:
It is observed that the final temperature of ice-water will be the same as the initial temperature of ice. This
shows that there was no temperature change during the process of melting ice.

There are two types of latent heat namely:

• Latent heat of fusion
• Latent heat of vaporization

Latent heat of fusion:

This is the amount of heat required to change a substance from solid state to liquid state at constant temperature.

Specific latent heat of fusion (𝑳𝒇 ):

This is the amount of heat required to change 1kg mass of substance from solid state to liquid state at constant
temperature.
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑯 = 𝒎𝑳𝒇
The SI unit of specific latent heat of fusion is 𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏

Examples:
1. The specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 340,000 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 . What do you understand by this statement?
𝑰𝒕 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝟏𝒌𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒔 𝟑𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑱 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒂 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅.

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2. How much heat is needed to melt 10𝑔 of ice at 0℃? [Specific latent heat of fusion of ice =
3.36 × 105 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1]
𝑯 = 𝒎𝑳𝒇
𝟏𝟎
𝑯= × 𝟑. 𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑯 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑱

Latent heat of vaporization:

This is the amount of heat required to change a substance from liquid state to gaseous state at without change in
its temperature.

Specific latent heat of vaporization (𝑳𝒗 ):

This is the amount of heat required to change 1kg mass of a substance from liquid state to gaseous state
without change in its temperature
The SI unit of specific latent heat of vaporization is 𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 .
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑯 = 𝒎𝑳𝒗

Example:
1. How much heat is needed to change 10𝑔 of water at 100℃ to steam at constant temperature? [Specific latent
heat of vaporization of water = 2.3 × 106 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 ]
𝑯 = 𝒎𝑳𝒗
𝟏𝟎
𝑯= × 𝟐. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑯 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑱

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The table below shows latent heats for various substances

Specific latent heat Specific latent heat of

Substance Melting point (℃) Boiling point (℃)
of fusion, 𝐿𝑓 (J/kg) vaporization, 𝐿𝑣 (J/kg)
Water 0 3.36 × 105 100 2.26 × 106
Mercury -39 1.14 × 104 357 2.96 × 105
Ethanol -114 1.08 × 105 78 8.55 × 105
Copper 1083 2.07 × 105 2566 4.73 × 106
Lead 327 2.32 × 104 1750 8.59 × 105
Nitrogen -210 2.57 × 104 -196 2.00 × 105

QUESTION; Explain why specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is always greater than specific
latent heat of fusion the same substance e.g. (ice, water and steam)
✓ For Latent heat of fusion (solid to liquid); heat required is small because it only increases slightly
increases the molecular spacing by breaking the intermolecular forces.
✓ For latent heat of vaporization (liquid to gas); heat required is large because it has to increase the
molecular spacing by breaking the intermolecular forces and also has to provide energy that enables
molecules to escape from the surface of the liquid.

NOTE: The phenomenon above explains why a person feels much heat when burnt by steam than when burnt
by water at the same temperature.

EFFECTS OF HEAT ON MATTER:

𝑴𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑺𝑶𝑳𝑰𝑫 𝑳𝑰𝑸𝑼𝑰𝑫 𝑮𝑨𝑺
𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

When a solid is heated it changes to a liquid at its melting point.

Definition:
Melting point is a constant temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid.
When a liquid is cooled it changes to a solid at its freezing point.
Definition:
Freezing point is a constant temperature at which a liquid changes to a solid.
When a liquid is heated it changes to a gas (vapour) at its boiling point.
Definition:
Boiling point is the constant temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas.
When a liquid is cooled it condenses and changes to a liquid.

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 HEATING AND COOLING CURVES (graphs of temperature against time)
The heating curve when ice below its melting point is heated.

𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 (℃) 𝑭

𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑫 𝑬

𝑩 𝑪
𝟎 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

Explanation of the shape of graph.

AB: temperature of ice is increasing from A to its melting point 0℃
BC: ice is changing to water at 0oC
CD: the temperature of water is increasing from 0℃ 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 100℃
DE: water is changing to steam at 100oC
EF: temperature of steam is increasing

The states of water along different regions are;

AB – solid state (ice)
BC – solid state and liquid state (water + ice)
CD – liquid state (water)
DE – liquid state and gaseous state (water + vapour)
EF – gaseous state (steam or vapour)

The cooling curve when water above its boiling point is cooled

𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 (℃) 𝑨

𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑩 𝑪

𝑫 𝑬
𝟎 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

Explanation of shape of the graph

AB: temperature of steam is decreasing from to boiling point 100℃.
BC: steam is changing to water at 100oC
CD: the temperature of water is decreasing from 100℃ to freezing point 0℃
DE: water is changing to ice at 0oC
EF: temperature of ice is decreasing

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The states of water along different regions are;
EF – solid state (ice)
DE – solid state and liquid state (water + ice)
CD – liquid state (water)
BC – liquid state and gaseous state (water + vapour)
AB – gaseous state (steam or vapour)

Examples:
1. 2𝑘𝑔 of ice at −5℃ was heated up to steam at 100℃.
i) Sketch a temperature time graph curve for the ice up to steam
ii) Find the heat at each section of the graph drawn. (S.H.C of ice = 2000 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1, S.H.C of water =
4200 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1, S.L.H. of fusion of ice = 3.36 × 105 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1, S.L.H. of vaporization of water =
2.26 × 106 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1)
i)
𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 (℃)
𝑯𝟓
𝑯𝟒
𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑯𝟑
𝑯𝟐
𝟎
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝑯𝟏
−𝟓

ii) 𝑯𝟏 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 − 𝟓℃ 𝒕𝒐 𝟎℃

𝑯𝟏 = 𝒎𝒊 𝒄𝒊 ∆𝜽
𝑯𝟏 = 𝟐 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 × (𝟎 − (−𝟓))
𝑯𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑱
𝑯𝟐 𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝟎℃
𝑯𝟐 = 𝒎𝒊 𝑳 𝒇
𝑯𝟐 = 𝟐 × 𝟑. 𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝑯𝟐 = 𝟔𝟕𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝑱
𝑯𝟑 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝟎℃ 𝒕𝒐 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝑯𝟑 = 𝒎𝒘 𝒄𝒘 ∆𝜽
𝑯𝟑 = 𝟐 × 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟎 × (𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟎)
𝑯𝟑 = 𝟖𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑱
𝑯𝟒 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒂𝒕 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝑯𝟒 = 𝒎𝒘 𝑳 𝒗
𝑯𝟒 = 𝟐 × 𝟐. 𝟐𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝑯𝟒 = 𝟒, 𝟓𝟐𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑱

APPLICATIONS OF SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT IN DAILY LIFE

Cooking: Latent heat is extensively used in cooking, especially in processes like boiling, steaming, and baking.
Water absorbs latent heat during boiling, resulting in the conversion of liquid water into vapor, which cooks
food. Similarly, latent heat is released during the process of condensation, aiding in the cooking of various
dishes.

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Air Conditioning: Latent heat plays a crucial role in air conditioning systems. When warm air passes through
the evaporator coil, latent heat is absorbed, causing the moisture in the air to condense and cool down. This
process helps in regulating the temperature and humidity of indoor spaces, providing a comfortable
environment.
Refrigeration: Refrigerators and freezers use latent heat to keep food and other perishable items fresh. When
the refrigerant absorbs latent heat from the food, it evaporates, cooling the surrounding space. This allows the
refrigerator to maintain a temperature lower than the room temperature, preventing spoilage.
Drying Clothes: Latent heat is utilized in drying clothes using a dryer. The heat energy applied to wet clothes
causes the water to evaporate. As the water changes from a liquid to a gas, it absorbs latent heat, resulting in the
drying of the clothes.
Distillation: Distillation is a process that uses latent heat to separate mixtures based on their boiling points. By
applying heat to a mixture, the component with the lowest boiling point vaporizes and can be collected
separately. The latent heat involved in the vaporization aids in the separation of different substances.
Fire fighting: Latent heat is used in firefighting to extinguish fires. Water, being an excellent heat absorber,
absorbs latent heat from the fire, reducing its temperature and suppressing the flames.
Sterilization of medical Instruments: In hospitals and laboratories, steam sterilization is employed to kill
bacteria and other microorganisms. The high temperature steam carries latent heat, which is essential in
achieving the required level of sterilization.
Power Generation: Latent heat is utilized in power plants that employ steam turbines for electricity generation.
Water is heated to produce steam, which expands and rotates the turbine blades, converting heat energy into
mechanical energy and eventually electrical energy.
Cooling drinks with cold water and ice:
A glass of hot water can be cooled faster by adding cold water or ice into it.
During the melting of ice, a large quantity of specific latent heat is absorbed from the drink and this causes the
drink towards a temperature that approaches the melting limit of ice.
Ice absorbs a large quantity of latent heat during the process of melting.

ORIGIN OF ENERGY IN A STORM

Before a storm forms, the Sun heats the Earth's surface, causing water from oceans, lakes, and rivers to
evaporate into the atmosphere. This process absorbs heat energy from the surface and converts liquid water into
water vapor.
As water evaporates, it absorbs a tremendous amount of heat energy from its surroundings. This energy is
known as latent heat of vaporization. Despite the temperature of the air not changing significantly, this absorbed
energy is stored within the water vapor molecules as latent heat.
As moist air rises and cools in the atmosphere, the water vapor eventually reaches a point where it condenses
back into liquid water droplets or ice crystals. This process releases the stored latent heat energy into the
surrounding air.
The release of latent heat during condensation provides a significant source of energy for the storm. This energy
fuels the storm's development, intensification, and sustenance by warming the surrounding air and promoting
further convection.

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The release of latent heat causes the air to become buoyant and rise rapidly. This upward motion, known as
convection, leads to the formation of towering cumulonimbus clouds, thunderstorms, and sometimes larger
storm systems like hurricanes or typhoons.
As the warm, moist air rises and cools, it releases additional latent heat, which further enhances the storm's
intensity and vertical motion. This process can lead to the development of strong winds, heavy rainfall,
lightning, and other severe weather phenomena associated with storms.

VAPOURS
When a liquid is heated, its molecules gain sufficient energy and escape from the surface of a liquid. The
molecules that have escaped are in vapour phase.
Vapours are like invisible water droplets floating in the air.
When water is heated, it turns into steam, which is water vapor.
Just like when we breathe out on a cold day and see our breath as fog, that's water vapor too!

There are two types of vapours namely;

▪ Saturated vapour
▪ Unsaturated vapour

SATURATED VAPOUR
Imagine a sponge that's soaked with water until it can't hold any more.
When the air is saturated, it's like it's full of water vapor, just like the sponge is full of water.
On a rainy day, the air feels heavy and damp because it's saturated with water vapor, and it can't hold any more.

Saturated vapour is the vapour that is in dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid.
i.e. 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Saturated vapour pressure;

𝑷𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝑽𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒓
𝑬𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕

• When a liquid in a closed container is heated, some of the liquid molecules get enough kinetic energy and
break the intermolecular forces and escape from the surface of the liquid and occupy the space just above it
and become vapour molecules. This process is called evaporation.
• These vapour molecules collide with the walls of the container hence creating vapour pressure.
SSEKWE ROBERT @2024 14
• When these molecules bounce off from the walls of the container, they strike the liquid
surface and re-enter the liquid. This process is called condensation.
A state of dynamic equilibrium is attained i.e. (rate of evaporation = rate of condensation) and this point,
vapour is said to be saturated and exerting saturated vapour pressure.

Definition: Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted on the walls of the container by the vapour molecules.

UNSATURATED VAPOUR
Imagine a closed container with some liquid water in it. If only a small amount of water has evaporated and
turned into vapor, but there is still plenty of space left in the container, then the vapor in the container is
unsaturated. This means that there is room for more water molecules to evaporate and become vapor.
In summary, unsaturated vapor is vapor that still has the capacity to hold more molecules of a substance in
vapor form.
Unsaturated vapour is the vapour that is not in dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid.
i.e. 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ≠ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

EVAPORATION:
Evaporation is when a liquid turns into a gas. It's like disappearing water!
Imagine a puddle of water on the ground. When the Sun shines on it, the water starts to disappear slowly.
That's evaporation!
Even when you can't see it, water is always evaporating around us. It happens all the time, not just when it's
sunny.
Water doesn't need to be boiling hot to evaporate. It can evaporate at any temperature, even when it's cold!
An easy way to understand evaporation is when you wash your clothes at night and hang them outside. When
you wake up in the morning, your clothes are dry! That's because the water from your clothes evaporated into
the air while you were sleeping.
Evaporation takes place at all temperatures but it is greatest when the liquid is at its boiling point and it occurs
only at the surface of the liquid.
Explanation of evaporation according to kinetic theory:
(How evaporation causes cooling)
According to kinetic theory, molecules of a liquid are in a state of continuous random motion and their speed
depend on the temperature of the liquid.
Faster moving molecules with the most kinetic energy reach the liquid surface and weaken the
intermolecular forces of attraction and then escape from the surface of liquid causing evaporation.
The slow-moving molecules with the lowest kinetic energy remain in the liquid thus cooling the liquid.

Applications of cooling as a result of evaporation:

• Sweating to Cool Down: When we exercise or play in the sun, our bodies heat up. To cool down, our
bodies produce sweat, which evaporates from our skin, taking away heat and making us feel cooler.
• Blowing on Hot Food: When people blow air onto a cup of hot porridge or soup, they're helping it cool
down faster. This works because the air movement increases the rate of evaporation from the surface of the
hot liquid, which takes away heat and cools the food down.
• Wet Clothes on a Hot Day: On a hot day, people can feel cooler by wetting their clothes or placing a wet
towel on their heads. As the water evaporates from the clothes or towel, it absorbs heat from their bodies.
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• Panting of Dogs: Dogs hang out their tongues during hot weather, they're actually using evaporation to cool
down. Dogs don't sweat like humans do, so panting is their way of releasing excess heat from their bodies.
As they pant, moisture evaporates from their tongue and the lining of their mouth, taking away heat and
helping them cool down.
• Refrigeration: Refrigeration systems, like the one in your refrigerator at home, also use evaporation to cool
things down. Inside the refrigerator, there's a liquid called a refrigerant. When this liquid evaporates inside
the refrigerator coils, it absorbs heat from the food and air inside the fridge, cooling them down. Then, the
refrigerant is compressed back into a liquid outside the fridge, releasing the heat it absorbed, and the cycle
starts again.

Factors that affect the rate of evaporation:

Rate of evaporation indicates the number of molecules that escape from liquid surface per second.
The following factors affect the rate of evaporation;

(i) Surface area:

Increasing the surface area increases the rate of evaporation because a large surface exposes many energetic
molecules to escape while small surface exposes fewer molecules to escape.
❖ This explains why a plate cools porridge faster than a cup since the plate is wider than the cup.
(ii) Temperature:
Increasing temperature increases the rate of evaporation and decreasing the temperature decreases the rate of
evaporation. At high temperature, more molecules will move faster to escape from the liquid surface but at low
temperature fewer molecules move faster to escape from the liquid surface.
(iii) Wind (air currents):
The rate of evaporation increases if there is too much wind/air blowing because wind blows away molecules
which have already escaped from the liquid so they can’t return back to the liquid.
❖ This explains why a person can cool porridge while blowing air through it.

(iv) Pressure:
Reducing pressure of air above the liquid surface (atmospheric pressure) increases the rate of evaporation since
low pressure is exerted on the liquid surface.

BOILING:
When you heat water on the stove and it starts bubbling and making lots of steam, that's boiling!
Boiling happens when the temperature of the liquid gets high enough to make bubbles of vapor form inside the
liquid and rise to the surface.
Boiling occurs at a fixed temperature called the boiling point. For water, this temperature is 100 degrees
Celsius (212 degrees Fahrenheit) at sea level.
Boiling is different from evaporation because it happens throughout the liquid, not just at the surface.
Boiling involves formation of bubbles.

NOTE:
• For boiling to occur, saturated vapour pressure must be equal to atmospheric pressure. Therefore, At the
boiling point, the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure pushing down
on the liquid's surface. This is when boiling occurs!
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Differences between boiling and evaporation

Boiling Evaporation
• It occurs at a fixed temperature. • It occurs at any temperature.
• It takes place throughout the liquid. • It takes place at the liquid.
• Doesn’t cause cooling. • Causes cooling.
• Involves formation of bubbles. • Doesn’t involve formation of bubbles.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT BOILING POINT OF A LIQUID

(i) Atmospheric pressure:

The lower the atmospheric pressure, the lower the boiling point (temperature needed to boil a liquid). But if
pressure is increased, the boiling point also increases.
This is because if the atmospheric pressure is decreased, then the liquid will boil more easily since it will take
less time for its saturated vapour pressure to equal to atmospheric pressure.
At higher altitudes (e.g. mountains) where atmospheric pressure is lower, the boiling point is lower, and water
boils at a lower temperature.
This explains why;
▪ Cooking takes longer at higher altitudes.
▪ In a pressure cooker, food cooks more quickly.
▪ During cooking we cover our saucepans.

Cooking at a top of a mountain

The boiling point of water depends on the atmospheric pressure. At sea level, where the air pressure is
higher, water boils at 100℃.
But as you go up a mountain where the air pressure is lower, water boils at a lower temperature, maybe
90℃ or 85℃.
Now, when you're cooking matooke, you typically boil it in water until it becomes soft and tender.
However, because the boiling point of water is lower at higher altitudes, the water isn't as hot as it would be
at sea level. So, even though the water is bubbling and looks like it's boiling, it's not as hot as it needs to be
to cook the matooke quickly.
Because the water isn't as hot as it should be, it takes longer for the matooke to cook through and become
soft. You might need to leave it boiling in the saucepan for a longer time compared to cooking at sea level.
This extended cooking time allows the matooke to absorb more heat from the water and cook properly,
despite the lower boiling temperature.

(ii) Impurities:
Addition of impurities like salt raises the boiling point of a liquid.
Salts in a water will cause water molecules to be more attracted to the salts thus a higher temperature is
required to break the forces of attraction between water molecules thus increasing the boiling point of water.
This explains local salt “kisula” is added to beans so as they boil easily.

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PRESSURE COOKER:
Pressure cookers are useful in places where the atmospheric pressure is low e.g. at the top of a mountain
because they raise the boiling point of a liquid thus reducing time for cooking.

How a pressure cooker works.

• A pressure cooker is like a magic pot that cooks food super fast!
• A pressure cooker has a lid (cover) that prevents steam from escaping.
• When you put water and food inside the pressure cooker and close the lid, something amazing happens!
• As the water heats up, it turns into steam (just like when you boil water on the stove).
• But because the lid is sealed tight, the steam can't escape from the pressure cooker. Instead, it gets trapped
inside, building up steam pressure causing the boiling point of water to rise above 1000C.
• This high pressure makes the water inside the pressure cooker hotter than it would be in a regular pot.
• The super-hot steam cooks the food inside the pressure cooker really quickly.

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