FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER-I UNIT

Computer:
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as an input from the
user and processes it under the control of a set of instructions (called program),
produces a result (output), and saves it for future use.

Functionalities of a Computer There are three basic functionalities of a Computer

System and they are
1. Input
2. Process
3. Output
But if we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the
following five functions:
Step 1 - Takes data as input.
Step 2 - Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 - Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Step 4 - Generates the output.
Step 5 - Controls all the above four steps.
 Characteristics of Computer System
The characteristics of the computer system are as follows −

Speed
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while
performing mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of
instructions per second. The time taken by computers for their operations is
microseconds and nanoseconds.

Accuracy
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data
inconsistency or inaccuracy.

Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and
accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it
superior to that of human beings.
Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with
same accuracy and efficiency.

Reliability
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give
same set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.
Automation
Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual
intervention.

Memory
A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data.
Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also
used to store data.

Basic Applications of Computer

Computers play a role in every field of life. They are used in homes, business,
educational institutions, research organizations, medical field, government offices,
entertainment, etc.

Home
Computers are used at homes for several purposes like online bill payment, watching
movies or shows at home, home tutoring, social media access, playing games, internet
access, etc. They provide communication through electronic mail. They help to avail
work from home facility for corporate employees. Computers help the student community
to avail online educational support.

Medical Field
Computers are used in hospitals to maintain a database of patients’ history, diagnosis,
X-rays, live monitoring of patients, etc. Surgeons nowadays use robotic surgical devices
to perform delicate operations, and conduct surgeries remotely. Virtual reality
technologies are also used for training purposes. It also helps to monitor the fetus inside
the mother’s womb.
Entertainment
Computers help to watch movies online, play games online; act as a virtual entertainer
in playing games, listening to music, etc. MIDI instruments greatly help people in the
entertainment industry in recording music with artificial instruments. Videos can be fed
from computers to full screen televisions. Photo editors are available with fabulous
features.

Industry
Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing inventory,
designing purpose, creating virtual sample products, interior designing, video
conferencing, etc. Online marketing has seen a great revolution in its ability to sell
various products to inaccessible corners like interior or rural areas. Stock markets have
seen phenomenal participation from different levels of people through the use of
computers.

Education
Computers are used in education sector through online classes, online examinations,
referring e-books, online tutoring, etc. They help in increased use of audio-visual aids in
the education field.

Government
In government sectors, computers are used in data processing, maintaining a database
of citizens and supporting a paperless environment. The country’s defense organizations
have greatly benefitted from computers in their use for missile development, satellites,
rocket launches, etc.

Banking
In the banking sector, computers are used to store details of customers and conduct
transactions, such as withdrawal and deposit of money through ATMs. Banks have
reduced manual errors and expenses to a great extent through extensive use of
computers.

Business
Nowadays, computers are totally integrated into business. The main objective of
business is transaction processing, which involves transactions with suppliers,
employees or customers. Computers can make these transactions easy and accurate.
People can analyze investments, sales, expenses, markets and other aspects of
business using computers.
Training
Many organizations use computer-based training to train their employees, to save money
and improve performance. Video conferencing through computers allows saving of time
and travelling costs by being able to connect people in various locations.

Arts
Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture. The fluid
movement of dance can be shown live via animation. Photos can be digitized using
computers.

Science and Engineering

Computers with high performance are used to stimulate dynamic process in Science and
Engineering. Supercomputers have numerous applications in area of Research and
Development (R&D). Topographic images can be created through computers. Scientists
use computers to plot and analyze data to have a better understanding of earthquakes

Basics of Computers - Classification

Historically computers were classified according to processor types because
development in processor and processing speeds were the developmental benchmarks.
Earliest computers used vacuum tubes for processing, were huge and broke down
frequently. However, as vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors and then chips, their
size decreased and processing speeds increased manifold.
All modern computers and computing devices use microprocessors whose speeds and
storage capacities are skyrocketing day by day. The developmental benchmark for
computers is now their size. Computers are now classified on the basis of their use or
size −

 Desktop
 Laptop
 Tablet
 Server
 Mainframe
 Supercomputer
Let us look at all these types of computers in detail.
Desktop
Desktop computers are personal computers (PCs) designed for use by an individual
at a fixed location. IBM was the first computer to introduce and popularize use of
desktops. A desktop unit typically has a CPU (Central Processing Unit), monitor,
keyboard and mouse. Introduction of desktops popularized use of computers among
common people as it was compact and affordable.

Riding on the wave of desktop’s popularity many software and hardware devices were
developed specially for the home or office user. The foremost design consideration here
was user friendliness.

Laptop
Despite its huge popularity, desktops gave way to a more compact and portable personal
computer called laptop in 2000s. Laptops are also called notebook computers or
simply notebooks. Laptops run using batteries and connect to networks using Wi-Fi
(Wireless Fidelity) chips. They also have chips for energy efficiency so that they can
conserve power whenever possible and have a longer life.
Modern laptops have enough processing power and storage capacity to be used for all
office work, website designing, software development and even audio/video editing.

Tablet
After laptops computers were further miniaturized to develop machines that have
processing power of a desktop but are small enough to be held in one’s palm. Tablets
have touch sensitive screen of typically 5 to 10 inches where one finger is used to touch
icons and invoke applications.
Keyboard is also displayed virtually whenever required and used with touch strokes.
Applications that run on tablets are called apps. They use operating systems by
Microsoft (Windows 8 and later versions) or Google (Android). Apple computers have
developed their own tablet called iPad which uses a proprietary OS called iOS.

Server
Servers are computers with high processing speeds that provide one or more services
to other systems on the network. They may or may not have screens attached to them.
A group of computers or digital devices connected together to share resources is called
a network.

Servers have high processing powers and can handle multiple requests simultaneously.
Most commonly found servers on networks include −

 File or storage server

 Game server
 Application server
 Database server
 Mail server
 Print server

Mainframe
Mainframes are computers used by organizations like banks, airlines and railways to
handle millions and trillions of online transactions per second. Important features of
mainframes are −

 Big in size
 Hundreds times Faster than servers, typically hundred megabytes per second
 Very expensive
  Use proprietary OS provided by the manufacturers
 In-built hardware, software and firmware security features

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the fastest computers on Earth. They are used for carrying out
complex, fast and time intensive calculations for scientific and engineering applications.
Supercomputer speed or performance is measured in teraflops, i.e. 1012 floating point
operations per second.

Chinese supercomputer Sunway TaihuLight is the world’s fastest supercomputer with

a rating of 93 petaflops per second, i.e. 93 quadrillion floating point operations per
second.
Most common uses of supercomputers include −

 Molecular mapping and research

 Weather forecasting
 Environmental research
 Oil and gas exploration
 Generations of Computer

The development of computer systems is normally discussed as the development over

different generations.
With the succession of different generations, came the advancement in computer
technology.

Computer Generations
Let us now discuss the development in Computer Technology over the different
generations.
First Generation
 The period 1940 to 1956, roughly considered as the First Generation of Computer.
 The first generation computers were developed by using vacuum tube or
thermionic valve machine.
 The input of this system was based on punched cards and paper tape; however,
the output was displayed on printouts.
 The first generation computers worked on binary-coded concept (i.e., language of
0-1). Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC, etc.
The main features of the first generation are:
• Vacuum tube technology
• Unreliable
• Supported machine language only
• Very costly
• Generates lot of heat
• Slow input and output devices
• Huge size
• Need of AC
• Non-portable
• Consumes lot of electricity
Second Generation
 The period 1956 to 1963 is roughly considered as the period of Second Generation
of Computers.
 The second generation computers were developed by using transistor technology.
 In comparison to the first generation, the size of second generation was smaller.
 In comparison to computers of the first generation, the computing time taken by
the computers of the second generation was lesser.
The main features of second generation are:
• Use of transistors
• Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
• Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
• Generates less heat as compared to first generation computers
• Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
• Faster than first generation computers
• Still very costly
• AC required
• Supported machine and assembly languages
Some computers of this generation were: • IBM 1620 • IBM 7094 • CDC 1604 • CDC 3600 •
UNIVAC 1108
Third Generation
 The period 1963 to 1971 is roughly considered as the period of Third Generation
of computers.
 The third generation computers were developed by using the Integrated Circuit
(IC) technology.

 In comparison to the computers of the second generation, the size of the

computers of the third generation was smaller.
 In comparison to the computers of the second generation, the computing time
taken by the computers of the third generation was lesser.
  The third generation computer consumed less power and also generated less
heat.
 The maintenance cost of the computers in the third generation was also low.
 The computer system of the computers of the third generation was easier for
commercial use.
The main features of third generation are:
• IC used
• More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
• Smaller size
• Generated less heat
• Faster
• Lesser maintenance
• Costly
• AC required
• Consumed lesser electricity
• Supported high-level language
Some computers of this generation were:
• IBM-360 series
• Honeywell-6000 series
• PDP (Personal Data Processor)
• IBM-370/168 • TDC-316
Fourth Generation
 The period 1972 to 2010 is roughly considered as the fourth generation of
computers.
 The fourth generation computers were developed by using microprocessor
technology.
  By coming to fourth generation, computer became very small in size, it became
portable.
 The machine of fourth generation started generating very low amount of heat.
 It is much faster and accuracy became more reliable.
 The production cost reduced to very low in comparison to the previous generation.
 It became available for the common people as well.
The main features of fourth generation are:
• VLSI technology used
• Very cheap
• Portable and reliable
• Use of PCs
• Very small size
• Pipeline processing
• No AC required
• Concept of internet was introduced
• Great developments in the fields of networks
• Computers became easily available
Some computers of this generation were: • DEC 10 • STAR 1000 • PDP 11 •
CRAY-1(Super Computer) • CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
Fifth Generation
 The period 2010 to till date and beyond, roughly considered as the period of fifth
generation of computers.
  By the time, the computer generation was being categorized on the basis of
hardware only, but the fifth generation technology also included software.
 The computers of the fifth generation had high capability and large memory
capacity.
 Working with computers of this generation was fast and multiple tasks could be
performed simultaneously.
 Some of the popular advanced technologies of the fifth generation include Artificial
intelligence, Quantum computation, Nanotechnology, Parallel processing, etc.

The main features of fifth generation are:

• ULSI technology
• Development of true artificial intelligence
• Development of Natural language processing
• Advancement in Parallel Processing
• Advancement in Superconductor technology
• More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
• Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
Some computer types of this generation are:
• Desktop • Laptop • Notebook • Ultrabook • Chromebook
COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER:

Computer - Input Devices

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
  Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data
to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although
there are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys
or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.No Keys & Description

Typing Keys
1
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the
same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad
2 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a
set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding
machines and calculators.
 Function Keys
3 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row
at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for
some specific purpose.

Control keys
4 These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys.
Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

5
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock,
Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device
having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement
of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are
pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present
between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the
screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
  Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower
spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer
Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item
or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system
placed in a small tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead
of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the
pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A
track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the
computer for further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form
that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer
can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be
stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever
the camera had been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial
data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and
image manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to
be processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on
the cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that
are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine
readable code, and stores the text on the system memory.
Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light
and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the
books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which
is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by
pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple
choice questions.
 Computer - Output Devices
Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of
a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a
rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the
pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel
to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be
divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard
character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data
horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT −

 Large in Size
 High power consumption
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight
and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear
them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games,
monitors, laptop computer, and graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy
into light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD
(Liquid-Crystal Device).

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers −

 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed
on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types −

 Character printers
 Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are
popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed
is in the form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9,
9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages
  Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages

 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used
for word-processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with
very nice quality.

Advantages

 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages

 Slower than DMP

 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of two types −

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the
drum is divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper,
i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is
embossed on the track. Different character sets available in the market are 48 character
set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are
fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages

 Very high speed

Disadvantages

 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A
standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages

 Noisy
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a
complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types −

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers

 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed
to form the characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

 Very high speed

 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages

 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology.
They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce
high quality output with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of
printing modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers
can produce multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages

 High quality printing

 More reliable
Disadvantages

 Expensive as the cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer

Computer - Memory

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer
memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and
instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number
of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from
zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this
memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of these locations
varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the
CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those
parts of data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data
and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system,
from where the CPU can access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is
currently working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It
is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as
registers. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory.
It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than
the main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly
does not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines.
The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then
the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

Primary Memory - Random Access Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the
machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside
the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time.
Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is
a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it
can hold.
RAM is of two types −

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM
chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power
to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the
same amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus
used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM
 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This
is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred
times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All
DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

 Short data lifetime
  Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption

Secondary memory
Secondary or external storage is not directly accessible by the CPU. The data from
secondary storage needs to be brought into the primary storage before the CPU can use
it. Secondary storage contains a large amount of data permanently.The different types of
secondary storage devices are −
Hard Disk
Hard disks are the most famously used secondary storage devices. They are round, flat
pieces of metal covered with magnetic oxide. They are available in many sizes ranging
from 1 to 14 inch diameter.

Floppy Disk
They are flexible plastic discs which can bend, coated with magnetic oxide and are
covered with a plastic cover to provide protection. Floppy disks are also known as floppies
and diskettes.
Memory Card
This has similar functionality to a flash drive but is in a card shape. It can easily plug into
a port and removed after its work is done. A memory card is available in various sizes
such as 8MB, 16MB, 64MB, 128MB, 256MB etc.

Image Credit: SanDisk

Flash Drive
This is also known as a pen drive. It helps in easy transportation of data from one system
to another. A pen drive is quite compact and comes with various features and designs.
Image Credit − HP
CD-ROM
This is short for compact disk - read only memory. A CD is a shiny metal disk of silver
colour. It is already pre recorded and the data on it cannot be altered. It usually has a
storage capacity of 700 MB.

Tertiary Storage
This provides a third level of storage. Most of the rarely used data is archived in tertiary
storage as it is even slower than primary storage. Tertiary storage stores a large amount
of data that is handled and retrieved by machines, not humans.The different tertiary
storage devices are −
Tape Libraries
These may contain one or more tape drives, a barcode reader for the tapes and a robot
to load the tapes. The capacity of these tape libraries is more than a thousand times that
of hard drives and so they are useful for storing large amounts of data.
Optical Jukeboxes
These are storage devices that can handle optical disks and provide tertiary storage
ranging from terabytes to petabytes. They can also be called optical disk libraries, robotic
drives etc

Concept of Hardware and Software

The concept of hardware and software is explained in detail below −
Hardware
The term hardware refers to mechanical device that makes up computer. Computer
hardware consists of interconnected electronic devices that we can use to control
computer’s operation, input and output. Examples of hardware are CPU, keyboard,
mouse, hard disk, etc.

Hardware Components
Computer hardware is a collection of several components working together. Some parts
are essential and others are added advantages. Computer hardware is made up of CPU
and peripherals as shown in image below.
Software
A set of instructions that drives computer to do stipulated tasks is called a program.
Software instructions are programmed in a computer language, translated into machine
language, and executed by computer. Software can be categorized into two types −

 System software
 Application software
System Software
System software operates directly on hardware devices of computer. It provides a
platform to run an application. It provides and supports user functionality. Examples of
system software include operating systems such as Windows, Linux, Unix, etc.

Application Software
An application software is designed for benefit of users to perform one or more tasks.
Examples of application software include Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Oracle,
etc.

Differences between Software and Hardware are sorted out below –

Sr.No. Software Hardware

1 It is a It includes physical components of computer system.

collection of
programs to
bring
computer
hardware
system into
operation.

2 It includes It consists of electronic components like ICs, diodes, registers, crystals,

numbers, boards, insulators, etc.
alphabets,
alphanumeric
symbols,
identifiers,
keywords,
etc.

3 Software Hardware design is based on architectural decisions to make it work over

products a range of environmental conditions and time.
evolve by
adding new
features to
existing
programs to
support
hardware.

4 It will vary as It is mostly constructed for all types of computer systems.

per computer
and its built-
in functions
and
programming
language.

5 It is designed The hardware can understand only low-level language or machine

and language.
developed by
 experienced
programmers
in high-level
language.

6 It is The hardware works only on binary codes 1’s and 0’s.

represented
in any high-
level
language
such as
BASIC,
COBOL, C,
C++, JAVA,
etc.

7 The software The hardware consists of input devices, output devices, memory, etc.
is
categorized
as operating
system,
utilities,
language
processor,
application
software, etc.

CONCEPTSS OF DATA
PROCESSING
Data processing is the conversion of data into usable and desired form. This conversion or
“processing” is carried out using a predefined sequence of operations either manually or automatically.
Most of the processing is done by using computers and thus done automatically. The output or
“processed” data can be obtained in various forms. Example of these forms include image, graph, table,
vector file, audio, chartsor any other desired format. The form obtained depends on the software or
method of data processing used. When done itself it is referred to as automatic data processing.
Data Processing Cycle:

The data processing cycle consists of a series of steps where raw data (input) is
fed into a process (CPU) to produce actionable insights (output). Each step is taken in a
specific order, but the entire process is repeated in a cyclic manner. The first data
processing cycle's output can be stored and fed as the input for the next cycle.
Generally, there are six main steps in the data processing cycle:

Step 1: Collection
 The collection of raw data is the first step of the data processing cycle. The type of
raw data collected has a huge impact on the output produced. Hence, raw data should
be gathered from defined and accurate sources so that the subsequent findings are valid
and usable. Raw data can include monetary figures, website cookies, profit/loss
statements of a company, user behavior, etc.

Step 2: Preparation
Data preparation or data cleaning is the process of sorting and filtering the raw
data to remove unnecessary and inaccurate data. Raw data is checked for errors,
duplication, miscalculations or missing data, and transformed into a suitable form for
further analysis and processing. This is done to ensure that only the highest quality
data is fed into the processing unit.

Step 3: Input
In this step, the raw data is converted into machine readable form and fed into
the processing unit. This can be in the form of data entry through a keyboard, scanner
or any other input source.

Step 4: Data Processing

In this step, the raw data is subjected to various data processing methods using
machine learning and artificial intelligence algorithms to generate a desirable output.
This step may vary
slightly from process to process depending on the source of data being processed
(data lakes, online databases, connected devices, etc.) and the intended use of the
output.

Step 5: Output
The data is finally transmitted and displayed to the user in a readable form like
graphs, tables, vector files, audio, video, documents, etc. This output can be stored and
further processed in the next data processing cycle.

Step 6: Storage
The last step of the data processing cycle is storage, where data and metadata
are stored for further use. This allows for quick access and retrieval of information
whenever needed, and also allows it to be used as input in the next data processing
cycle directly.

Different Types of input/Output

The different types of output files as –

 Plain text file – These are exported as notepad or WordPad files. These are

the simplest form of the data file.

 Table/ Spreadsheet – In this file format, the data represent in rows and columns,

which help in easy understanding and analysis of data. This file format to perform

various operations like filtering & sorting in ascending/descending order and

statistical operations as well.

 Graphs and Charts – The graphs and charts format is standard features in

most of the software. This format is very easy to analyze the data, not required

to read each numeric data which takes a time consuming only in one look can

understand and analyze the data.

 An Image File or Maps/Vector – If the application required to store and

analyze with spatial data the option to export the data into image file and maps

file or vector files is of great use.

Along with these, the other format can be software specific file formats which can be

used and processed by specialized software.

 Types of Data Processing
There are different types of data processing based on the source of data and the
steps taken by the processing unit to generate an output. There is no one-size-fits-all
method that can be used for processing raw data.
Type Uses
Batch Processing Data is collected and processed in batches. Used for large amounts
of data. Eg: payroll system
Real-time Processing Data is processed within seconds when the input is given. Used for small
amounts of data.
Eg: withdrawing money from ATM
Online Processing Data is automatically fed into the CPU as soon as it becomes available.
Used for continuous processing of data.
Eg: barcode scanning
Multiprocessing Data is broken down into frames and processed using two or more CPUs
within a single computer system. Also known as parallel processing.
Eg: weather forecasting
Time-sharing Allocates computer resources and data in time slots to several users
simultaneously.

Data Processing Methods

There are three main data processing methods - manual, mechanical and electronic.
Manual Data Processing
In this data processing method, data is processed manually. The entire process
of data collection, filtering, sorting, calculation and other logical operations are all done
with human intervention without the use of any other electronic device or automation
software. It is a low- cost method and requires little to no tools, but produces high
errors, high labor costs and lots of time.
Mechanical Data Processing
Data is processed mechanically through the use of devices and machines.
These can include simple devices such as calculators, typewriters, printing press, etc.
Simple data processing operations can be achieved with this method. It has much
lesser errors than manual data processing, but the increase of data has made this
method more complex and difficult.
Electronic Data Processing
Data is processed with modern technologies using data processing software and
programs. A set of instructions is given to the software to process the data and yield
output. Thismethod is the most expensive but provides the fastest processing speeds
with the highest reliability and accuracy of output.
Examples of Data Processing
Data processing occurs in our daily lives whether we may be aware of it or not. Here
are some real-life examples of data processing:
 A stock trading software that converts millions of stock data into a simple graph
 An e-commerce company uses the search history of customers to recommend similar products
 A digital marketing company uses demographic data of people to strategize location-specific
campaigns
 A self-driving car uses real-time data from sensors to detect if there are pedestrians and
other cars on the road
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