ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING MODULE- 2

2 MODULE-

MODULE–2

Machine Tools and Operations:

LATHE
Principal of working of a center Lathe
▪ Lathe is the oldest of all machine tool and perhaps the most basic tool used
in industries. The lathe is a machine tool which holds the work piece
between two rigid and strong supports called centers or in a chuck.
▪ Thecuttingtoolisrigidlyheldandsupportedinatoolpost which isfedagainst the revolving
work.
▪ The normal cutting operations are performed with the cutting tool fed either parallel or
at right angles to the axis of the work.
▪ The cutting tool may also be fed at an angle relative to the axis of work
form a chining tapers and angles.

CentreLathe:
Themain parts of the lathe are the bed, headstock, quick changing gear box, carriage
and tailstock.

Fig.PartsofLathe

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LatheoperationsorMachiningprocessonLATHE
Theoperationsthatcanbeperformedonalatheare
a) Byholdingthejobbetweencentersorbetweenchuckanddeadcenter
1. Turning–plain,step,taper,etc.
2. Facing
3. Knurling
4. Thread cutting
1) PlainTurningorCylindricalTurning
▪ The process of metal removal from the cylindrical jobs is called straight or
plain turning. It is a machining process for producing a cylindrical surface
on the workpiece as shown figure below.
▪ The work-piece is supported in-between
thetwocentreswhichpermittherotationof the work-piece. A single point
cutting tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of the work-piece to a known
predetermined depth ofcut,andisthenmovedparalleltothe axis of the work-
piece.
▪ Cross-slide and the carriage are used to perform turning operations and
make the operation faster and economical. Plain turning operations
aregenerallyperformedin two steps-rough and finish turning.
▪ Rough turning is usually done for rolled, cast, or forged parts to remove
theuneven or sandy, or rough surface on the jobs. A roughing tool does
roughing and used for excess stock removal. For finishing a tool with a
slightlyroundcuttingedgeisused.
Thedepthofcutrateisattherangeof0.2to1mmandthefeedratebetween0.1 to
0.3 mm.

Fig. CylindricalTurning
2) FACING
▪ Facingisamachiningprocessforproducingaflatsurfaceattheendfaceofthe
workpiece as shown in figure below.

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▪ Istheoperation of machining the ends of a piece of the work to produce a flat surface
square with the axis.
▪ This is used to cut the work to the required length. The operation involves feedingthe
tool perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
▪ A regular cutting tool may be used for facing a large workpiece. The cutting edge
shouldbesetatthesameheightasthecenteroftheworkpiece.Aproperly ground-facing tool
is mounted in a tool holder in the tool post to accomplish facing operation.

Fig. Facing
3) TAPERTURNING
▪ Taperturningisamachiningprocessforproducingconicalsurfaceonacylinder
workpiece as shown figure below.
▪ Theworkpieceisheldrigidlybetweenthetwosupportsofthemachineandthecutting tool is
fed against the revolving workpiece at an angle to the lathe axis, operation on a lathe
to produce conical surface on the work pieces.

METHODSOFTAPERTURNING.
a. Swiveling the compound rest.
b. OffsettingtheTailstock

a) TaperturningbySwivelingthecompoundrest.
● Inthismethodcompoundrestisswiveledtotherequiredtaperangleandthen locked
in the angular position. Figure Shown below.
● Thecarriage isalso locked in that position
● Fortaperturningthecompoundrestismovedlinearlyatananglesothatthe cutting
tool produces the tapered surface on the workpiece.
● Thismethodissuitableforlimitedlengthsduetothelimitedmovementof
compound rest

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Fig.TaperturningbySwivelingthecompoundrest

4) THREADCUTTING:
▪ Threadcuttingorthreadingisamachiningprocessforcuttingscrewthreadson metallic
parts as shown in the figure below.
▪ Athreadisahelicalridgeformedonthecylindricalrodsurface.By employing a V-Shaped
cutting tool it is possible to accomplish threads on the workpiece.
▪ Inoperation, asuitable tool which gives the required thread profile, say V-
thread,square thread etc., is mounted on the tool post of the lathe.
▪ Theworkpiece ismadeto revolve ata very slowspeed with uniform motion.

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▪ The depth ofcutisselectedandthetoolismadetomoveparalleltothelatheaxisby means of

automatic arrangements. (An appropriate gearratioismaintainedbetween the spindle
on which the work piece is mounted and the lead screw)
▪ Thread cutting is carried out in a number of passes. The final cut is a finishing cut
with a very small depth of cut in order to obtain a good surface finish.

Fig. Thread cutting

5) KNURLING:

▪ Knurlingisanoperationperformedonthelathetogenerateserratedsurfaceonthework piece.
This is used to produce a rough surface for griping like the barrel of the micrometer or
screw gauge. This is done by a special tool called knurling tool whichhas a set of
hardened roller with the desired serrations. As shown in figure (a) andfigure (b)
▪ During knurling operation, the hardened rollers of the tool are pressed against theslowly
rotating work pieces such that the impression of tool serrations are formed onthe work
pieces surface.
▪ Usually,therearethreedifferentpatternofknurlingproducedasperrequirementsandis as
shown.

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Fig.(c)differentpatternofknurlingproduced

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DRILLINGMACHINE
Workingofasimpledrilling machine
▪ Drilling is a machining operation of producingacylindricalholeinasolidworkpiece by
means of a revolving tool called drill bit.
▪ The tool is also called twist drill since it has sharp twisted edges formed around a
cylindrical body. Figure shows the drilling operation.
▪ In operation, the drillbitisheldrigidlyinthechuckofthemachineandrotatedbythe spindle
at high speeds.
▪ With the help of a hand wheel or by automatic means, the drill bit is forced to move
against the rigidly clamped workpiece.
▪ A hole is generated by the sharp cuttingedgesoftherotatingdrillbitandmeanwhile, the
excess material removed (chips) gets curled and escapes through the helical grooves
provided in the drill bit.
▪ Although drilling seems to be a simple process, itisactuallyacomplexone.Thetool apart
from performing the cutting action also extrudes the cut material (chips) from the
workpiece.
▪ Since the cutting action takes place inside the workpiece, a lot of heat generated is
minimized by circulating a suitable coolant.
▪

Fig. Drilling operation

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Fig. Bench or sensitive drilling machine

DRILLING OPERATIONS
1. Drilling
2. Reaming
3. Boring
4. Tapping
5. Counter boring
6. Counter sinking
1. Drilling
Drillingisaprocessofmaking holein a solidobject usinga toolcalled twist drill.

Fig.Drillingoperation

2. Reaming
Reamingistheoperationoffinishinganexistingholeverysmoothlyandaccuratelyinsize.A
drill will not produce a hole having sufficientlygoodqualityoffinishandaccuracyformany
purposes. Therefore when a very accurate smooth hole is required, the hole is first
drilled a little under size, and then it is reamed to the correct size.

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Fig. Reaming Operation

3. Boring
It is an operation of enlarging an existing hole. When a suitable size drill is not available,
initiallyaholeisdrilledtothenearestsizeandusingasinglepointcuttingtool,thesizeofthe hole is
increased

Fig. Boring Operation

4. Tapping
It is an operation in which external threads are cut in the existing hole. Tapping operationuses
a flutedthreadedtoolcalledTap.Atapisacuttingtoolwiththreadscutaccuratelyonits periphery.
These threads are hardened and ground and act as cutting edges.Thetapremoves metal when
screwed into the hole and generates internal threads. A hole of required size in which internal
threads are to be generated is drilled using a twist drill. The drill spindle is fitted with a tap
and the feeding is done by operating the feed lever.

Fig.TappingOperation

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5. Counterboring
It is an operation of enlarging a drilledholepartiallythatisforaspecificlength.Thecounter boring
forms alargesizedrecessorashouldertotheexistinghole.Thecuttingtoolwillhave a smaller
cylindrical projection known as pilot to guide the tool while counter boring. The diameter of
the pilot will always be equal to diameter of the previously drilled hole.Generally the counter
boring is done on the holes toaccommodatethesocketheadscrewsor groovednutsorround
head bolts.

Fig. Counter Boring operation

6. Countersinking
It is an operation of forming a conical shape at the end of a drilled hole. It is done using a
counter sink tool. The cutting speeds for counter sinking must be about onehalfofthatused for
drill. The countersunk holes are usedwhenthecountersunkscrewsaretobescrewedinto the holes
sothattheirtopfaceshavetobeinflushwiththetopsurfaceoftheworkpiece.The counter sinking
process may also be employed for deburring holes.

Fig. Counter Sinking Operation

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MILLINGMACHINE

• Milling is a process of shaping work materials byfeedingtheworkmaterialagainsta

multipoint rotating cutter. As shown in figure 1(a).
• The machine used for the purpose is called milling machine.Millingcanbeusedfor
producing flat, angular or curved surfaces, for cutting threads, toothed gears,keyways,
slots, and a wide variety of other operations.
• The milling cutter is a multipoint cutting tool. The work piece is mounted on a
movable worktable which will be fed against the revolving milling cutter to perform
the cutting operation.
• Amillingmachineisapoweroperatedmachinetoolinwhichtheworkpiecemounted on
moving table is machined to various shapes when moved under a slow revolving
multipoint cutter.
• The difference between drilling and milling is that, in drilling a rotating drill is fed
against a stationary work piece, while in milling the work piece is fed against a
milling cutter which only revolves.
• Similarly, it also differs from the lathe operation because the lathe tool is fed against
rotating work piece.

Fig. 1(a)

THEPRINCIPLEOFMILLING
• In milling, the cutter is held in the spindle of the machine and made to rotate at
suitable speeds.
• The workpieceis also held rigidly by a suitable deviceandisfedslowlyagainstthe
rotating cutter.
• The workpiece can be fed in two different directionswithrespecttocutterrotationas
shown in figure. below theprocessthusgivesameansofclassificationofmillinginto two
types known as up milling and down milling.

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• In up milling process as shown in figure 2(a), the workpiece is fed in the direction
opposite to that of the rotating cutter, while in down milling process as shown in
figure 2(b), the workpiece is fed in the same direction as that of the rotating cutter.
The various aspects related to the two types are tabulated in a comparison form in
table 1.

Fig. 2(a), 2(b)

ComparisonbetweenUpMillingandDownMilling

Sl. Up milling Downmilling

No. (Conventionalmilling) (Climbmilling)
1. Inupmilling,theworkpieceisfedinthe Indownmilling,theworkpieceisfedinthesame
direction opposite to that of the rotating direction as that of the rotating cutter.
cutter.
2. Thethicknessofchipisminimumatthe Thethicknessofchipismaximumatthebeginning of
beginning of cut and reaches to a cut and reaches to the minimum when the cut
maximum when the cut ends. ends.
3. In up milling, the cutting force is directed Thecuttingforceisdirecteddownwards,andthis tends
upwards. This tends to lift the workpiece to keep the workpiece firmly on the worktable
from the worktable. Hence, greater thereby permitting lesser clamping forces.
clampingforcefortheworkpiecebecomes
necessary.
4. During up milling, the chip gets Indownmilling,thechipsdonotinterferewiththe
accumulatedatthecuttingzone(tool-work revolving cutter, since they are disposed easily by
interface). These chips interfere with the thecutter.Hence,thereisnodamagetothesurface
rotating cutter thereby impairing the finish of the workpiece.
surface finish on the work-surface.
5. In up milling, it is difficult for efficient Indownmilling,thecoolantcaneasilyreachthe
circulationofcoolant.Thecutterrotating in cuttingzone.Hence,efficientcoolingofthetool and
the upward direction carries away the the workpiece can be achieved.
coolant from the cutting zone.
6. Up milling is preferred for rough cuts, Down milling produces better surface finish
especially for castings and forgings, because there is no dig-in of the cutter. It is
becausethismethodenablesthecutterto particularlyusedforfinishingoperationsandsmall
dig-in and start the cut below the hard work like cutting slots, grooves etc.
upper surface.

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TYPESOFMILLINGMACHINES
Thedifferenttypesofmillingmachinesarelistedas follows.

Columnandkneemillingmachines.
a) Plain column and knee type milling machines
▪ Horizontal spindle type
▪ Verticalspindletype

HorizontalSpindleColumn&KneeMillingMachine
It is oneofthemostpopulartypeofmillingmachine,andiscommonlycalledhorizontal milling
machine, because of the horizontalposition of the spindle.Thistypeofmachineis
usedtocutgrooves,slots,keyways,gearteethetc.figure (a) shows oneof the principalviewsofa
horizontalmillingmachine.

Themachineconsistsofthefollowingparts:
a) Baseis usuallya strongand a hollowpart whichforms thefoundationof the
machineanduponwhichalltheotherpartsaremounted.Thebasealsoservesas a sump for the
cutting fluid.Apumpandfiltrationsystemcanbeinstalledinthebase. Theholeprovidedin the
centerof thebase,housesthesupportfortheelevating screwthatraisesandlowersthe knee.
b) Column is a verticalhollow casting and is usually combined with the base to form a
single casting.The column houses the spindleand bearingsas well as the drive units
(gears,clutches, shafts, and shifting mechanisms)for transmittingpower from the
electricmotor to the spindle at desiredspeeds.Thefrontfaceoftheverticalcolumnis provided
With a squareor dovetailtypeguidewayson which the knee slides up and down.
c) Spindleis a hollow shaft supported by the column with suitable bearingsthat absorb both
radialand thrustloads.The spindleis madehollowand taperedinsideto
acceptstandardarbors.Thespindleobtainspowerfromthemotorandtransmitsitto the arbor.
The arborcarryingthe cutterrotatesabout a horizontalaxis.
d) Overarmmountedon the verticalcolumn supportsthe yoke, whichintumsupports the free
end of the arbor.
e) Kneeis a castingthat slides up and down on the verticalguidewaysprovided on the
column by means of an elevating screw.The kneesupportsthe saddle.

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Fig.Horizontal-spindle column and knee milling machine

f) Saddlemounted on the kneeis providedwith two slides(guideways) onitstopand
bottomsurfaces.Theslidesare machinedat rightanglesto each other.Thelower slide fits the
slide providedon top of the kneeand facilitateshorizontalmovementof thesaddle.Theupper
slideprovided onthesaddle accepts theslide provided onthe bottomsurfaceof the
worktable.
g) Worktableislargerin size and rests on the saddle.The bottomsurfaceof the table has a
dovetailslide thatfits in the slideon the top surfaceof the saddle.This
arrangementfacilitatestheworktabletobemovedlongitudinallyoratrightanglesto the
movementofthe saddle.The worktableis provided with T-slots all alongits length for
mounting vice or other workholdingdevices.Thisenablestheworkpiece to be
clampedrigidlyon the table. The worktablemay be manually controlledor powerfed.A dial
graduatedin thousandthsof an inch (not shown in figure)is providedto allowfor accurate
tablemovementandplacement.

VerticalSpindleColumnandKneeMillingMachine
▪ Verticalspindlemilling machines aresimilar inconstruction tothehorizontal
millingmachines,exceptthatthe spindleis held in a verticalposition.
▪ This typeof machineis generallyusedtoperformendmillingandfacemilling operations.
Figure showsthe principalpartsof a verticalmillingmachine.

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Fig.Verticalspindlecolumnandkneetypemillingmachine(swiveling type)

Themachineconsistsofthefollowingparts:
a)Baseis usuallya strongand a hollowpart whichforms thefoundationof the
machineanduponwhichalltheotherpartsaremounted.Thebasealsoservesas a sump for the
cutting fluid.Apumpandfiltrationsystemcanbeinstalledinthebase. Theholeprovidedin the
centerof thebase,housesthesupportfortheelevating screwthatraisesandlowersthe knee.
b) Column is a verticalhollow casting and is usually combined with the base to form a
single casting.The column houses the spindleand bearingsas well as the drive units
(gears,clutches, shafts, and shifting mechanisms)for transmittingpower from the
electricmotor to the spindle at desiredspeeds.Thefrontfaceoftheverticalcolumnis provided
With a squareor dovetailtypeguidewayson which the knee slides up and down.
c) Spindleis locatedvertically,paralleltothefaceofthecolumn,andperpendicularto the top of
the worktable.The spindle is mountedin the spindlehead and .carriesthe cutterat its
end.The spindle head houses the motor & feed controls & can be either fixedtype or
swiveling type.
In fixed type,the spindleheadis fixed, andhencethespindle remains vertical.The
spindlecan be adjustedup and down to performoperationslike grooving,slotting,
facing,drillingandboring.While,inswivelingtype,thespindleheadcanbeswiveled to any
angletothesurfaceoftheworktable.Thispermitworkingonangularsurfaces of workpieces.
d) Overarmmountedon the verticalcolumn supportsthe yoke, whichintumsupports the free
end of the arbor,
e) Kneeis a castingthat slides up and down on the verticalguidewaysprovided on the
column by means of an elevating screw.The kneesupportsthe saddle.
f) Saddle mountedonthekneeisprovidedwithtwoslides(guideways)onitstopand

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bottomsurfaces.Theslidesare machinedatrightanglestoeachother.Thelower slide fits the

slide providedon top of the kneeand facilitateshorizontalmovementof thesaddle.Theupper
slideprovided onthesaddle accepts theslide provided onthe bottomsurfaceof the
worktable.
g) Worktableislargerin size and rests on the saddle.The bottomsurfaceof the table has a
dovetailslide thatfits in the slideon the top surfaceof the saddle.This
arrangementfacilitatestheworktabletobemovedlongitudinallyoratrightanglesto the
movementofthe saddle.The worktableis provided with T-slots all alongits length for
mounting vice or other workholdingdevices.Thisenablestheworkpiece to be
clampedrigidlyon the table. The worktablemay be manually controlledor powerfed.A dial
graduatedin thousandthsof an inch (not shown in figure)is providedto allowfor accurate
tablemovementandplacement.

MILLINGOPERATIONS
1. Plain milling
2. End milling
3. Slot milling

1. PlainMilling

Plain milling is used to machine flat and horizontal surfaces. Here plain milling cutteris
used, which is held in the arbor and rotated. The table is moved upwards to give the
required depth of cut.

Fig. Plain Milling

2. EndMilling

It is an operation of producing narrow slots, grooves and keyways using an end mill
cutter. The mill tool may be attached to theverticalspindleformillingtheslot.Depthof cut is
given by raising the machine table.

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Fig. End Milling

3. T-slotmilling
Inthismillingoperation,firstaplainslotiscutontheworkpiecebyasideandface milling cutter. Then
the T-slot cutter is fed from the end of the work piece.

Fig. Slot Milling

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INTRODUCTIONTOADVANCEDMANUFACTURINGSYSTEM

COMPUTERNUMERICALCONTROL(CNC)

Introduction

Definition: Computer Numerical Control or CNC is an advanced form of the NC system

where the machine control unit is a dedicated microcomputer instead of a hard-wired
controller, as in conventional NC.

Computer Numerical Control has evolved during the rapid improvements of the computer
technology.TheadventofMicroprocessorsfromthe1970shavehelpedinquick advancements in the
Computer Technology andisinturnadaptedinmodernCNC Technology.

Today's CNC Controllerhaslatestfeatureslikehighspeedsofoperation,largememories,bus

architectures, improved servos, etc.

CNCTechnologyhaspoweredtheMachineToolindustrytoday.Itisusedinmajorityof machine tools

like machining centers, turning centers, grinders, lathes, drilling machines, etc.

COMPONENTOFACNCSYSTEM

ACNCSystemconsistsofthefollowingelements:
1. Input Device
2. MCUor MachineControl Unit
3. MachineTool
4, Driving System
5. Feedback devices
6. Display Unit

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Fig.ElementsofaCNCsystem
1. INPUTDEVICE:
Thepart program isentered intothe CNC Control or theMCUthrough the input device.
ThereisvariousinputdevicesusedonaCNCMachinesuchas

a) USB(UniversalSerialBus)Flashdrive:HeretheUSBflashdrivestransferdatato the
control. USB is very common nowadays and its use is increased in modern
computers.
b) SerialCommunication:Aserialcommunicationport connectsacomputersystem and
a CNC Machine tool through an interface called RS-232. Most machines have RS-
232 port and an RS-232 cable connects the computer and the CNC Machine to
transfer data from the computer to the CNC Machine.
c) Ethernet Communication: The Ethernet communication is a more reliable and
efficientmeansoftransferringpartprogramsfromComputertotheCNCControl.
d) ConversationalProgramming:Thisisanotherwaytoinputpartprogramsto the
controller through a keyboard. Built-in intelligent software inside the controller
enables the operator to enter step by step data.

2. MCUORMACHINECONTROLUNIT:
The Machine Control Unit ortheMCUistheheartoftheCNCSystem.Itconsistsofthe following
components:

a) CentralProcessingUnit:TheCPUisthebrainoftheMCUanditcomprisesof

i). acontrolsectionthatretrievesdatafromthememoryandgeneratessignals which in

turn activates all MCU components.
ii). AnALU(ArithmeticLogicUnit)thatperformsintegerarithmeticoperations

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like addition, subtraction, multiplication, counting, etc and logical operations

iii). Immediate Access Store or Immediate Access Memory:Thisholdsthedataand
programs temporarily that is required at that instant by the control section.

b) CNCMemory: The memoryof the CNCisdivided into

i). Main Memory which consists of Read Only Memory (ROM) and Random
Access Memory (RAM). The ROM stores the Operating System Software and
machine interface programs. The RAM stores the Part programs.
ii). Secondary Memory such as Hard disks which is used to store large programs
and which can be used by the main memory when required.

c) Input/output Interface:
● The Input/output interface or the I/O interface establishes communication
between the machine operator, the components of the CNC system and other
connected computers.
● The Operator control panel is the interface through which the machine operator
communicates with the CNC system. A keyboard and a display screen are also
included in the panel.

d) Machine tool controls:

● A Machine Tool consists of various axes such as X, Y, Z, A, B,Candaspindle
which rotates at the designed RPM.
● The position and velocity control of each of the axis and the rotational speed
control are accomplished by certain hardware components in the MCU.
● The MCU generates control signals that are transformed intoaformsuitablefor
thespecificpositioncontrolsystemsthatisrequiredtodrivethevariousaxesofthe
machine.

e) Sequencecontrolsforauxiliaryfunctions:
● Apart from the general functions like spindle speed, feed rate, etc, certain
auxiliary functions like tool emergency stop, tool changing function, etc are
carried out under part control program controls.

3. MACHINETOOL:
● This can be any type of machine tool such as a Machining center, a turningcenter,
a lathe, milling machine, etc.
● The essential parts of the machine tool include
themachinetable,machineslide,thedrivingleadscrew,ballscrew,rigidandheavymach
ineStructure, and automatic tool changing system, spindle and spindle drive
system, chip removal System etc.
● The machine table iscontrolledintheXandYaxes,whilethespindlerunsalong the Z
axis.
● Inothermachinetools,thereareadditionalaxessuchasA,BorCthatallows

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rotarymotionsaroundtheX,YandZ axes.

4DRIVINGSYSTEM:
● A drive system essentiallyismadeupofamplifiercircuits,drivemotors,andball lead-
screws. The control signals (position and speed) of each axis are fed bythe
Machine Control Unit (MCU) to the amplifier circuits.
● Then, the control signals are augmented to actuate drive motors which in turn
rotate the ball lead-screws to position the machine table.
● The commonly used types of electrical motors include DC Servo Motor, AC
Servo Motor, Stepping Motor and Linear Motor.

5. FEEDBACKDEVICES:
● Fortheaccurate operation of a CNC Machine, the positional valuesandspeed
oftheaxesneedstobecontinuouslyupdated.
● Thisisdonebythe feedback devices.

6. DISPLAYUNIT:
● The display unit is the device that ensures interaction between the machine
operator and the machine.
● Display unit displays the currentstatusofoperationsuchasthespindleRPM,the
running part program, the feed rate, position of the machine slide, etc.

AdvantagesofCNCmachines
1. Theaccuracy and repeatability obtained ishigh.
2. Complexshapedcontourscanbemachined.
3. Can be easily programmed to handle variety of product styles.
4. High volume of production compared to conventional machines
5. EvenlesserskilledortrainedpeoplecanoperateCNCMachinesunlikethe
Conventional ones where highly skilled people are required.
6. CNCMachinescanbeuseduninterruptedlywithoutturningthemoffprovidedregular
maintenance is done.
7. Prototypescanbeproducedfasterandthusresultsinreducedleadtimes.
8. Avoidserrorsthatwereotherwisecommittedbyhumansoperatingconventional machines.
9. SinceCNCmachinescanbeprogrammed,onepersonmaywelltakecareofanumber of CNC
Machines. This reduces the employees and hence costs are reduced.
10. UsingCNCMachinesresultsinasaferworkenvironmentsincetheoperatorisnot
exposed to the machine area during machining.
11. CNCMachinescanbeupgradedtonewertechnologiesbyreplacingtheexistingCNC
Control with an advanced one.
12. ManyCNCMachinescanbelinkedtogethertoamain'computer.Programsfromthe main
computer can be downloaded to any connected CNC Machine.This leads us to

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anothertype of NC concept called asthe Direct Numerical Control (DNC).

DisadvantagesofCNCmachines
1. Athoroughprogrammingknowledgeisrequiredbytheoperatorsorprogrammers. This
again requires skilled programmer and hence the cost of labour can be high.
2. Costof a CNC Machine ishigh compared to the Conventional MachineTools.
3. ThesparesofCNCMachinesarerelativelycostlierthanConventionalMachines.
4. CNCMachinesrequireairconditionedenvironmentand/orachillerunit.Thusextra costs
are involved.

ApplicationsofCNCmachines

1. Signage.:Whetheryou’recreatingasmall-scale2Dprojectoramorecomplex3D
signagecomponent,aCNCmachinecangetthejobdonequicklyandcleanly.CNC routers
are capable of skillfully working with a wide range of materials, including foam,
wood, plastic, acrylic, aluminum, brass, and more.
2. Cabinets and furniture.: Cabinet manufacturing is one of the most common
applications for CNC machines, whether used to create customized or more standard
pieces. In addition to cabinetry, CNCs help shops produce closet sets, Shaker and
RaisedPanelDoors,countertops,chairs,tables,andmorewithimmenseprecisionand
unrivaled efficiency.
3. Aluminumandbrassmachining.:Workingwithnon-ferrousmetalslikealuminum
andbrassrequiresincreasedcuttingcapabilityfromyourCNCmachine–inaddition to a
little more attention and preparation.
4. Prototypingand3Dmodeling.:Precisemodelingandprototypingareessentialto the
success of the production process.
5. Musicalinstruments.:TheprecisioncapabilitiesofCNCmachinesareperhapsnever more
crucial than when creating musical instruments. Every component needs to be cut to
exact specifications and made to interact properly in order to produce a beautiful
range of sounds.
6. SomeIndustrieswhereCNCMachiningareused
a) Industriesforremovingmetal
b) IndustriesforFabricatingMetals
c) ElectricalDischargeMachining(EDM)Industry
d) OtherIndustrieswhereCNCmachinesareused:CNCmachinesarealsoused
extensivelyinthewoodworkingindustriestoperformvariousoperationslike
routing (similar to milling) and drilling. CNC technology is also used in
numberofletteringandengravingsystems.TherearealsoCNCmachinesfor the
electrical industry such as CNC coil winders, and CNC terminal location and
soldering machines.

3D PRINTING

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3D printing or additive manufacturing is the construction of athree-

dimensionalobjectfromaCAD model or a digital 3D model. It can be done in a variety of
processes in which material is deposited, joined or solidified
undercomputercontrol,withmaterialbeingadded together (such as plastics, liquids or powder
grains being fused), typically layer by layer.

One of the key advantages of 3D printing is the ability to produce very complex shapes or
geometries that would be otherwise impossible to construct by hand, including hollow parts
or parts with internal truss structures to reduce weight. Fused deposition modeling (FDM),
which uses a continuous filament of a thermoplastic material, is the most common 3D
printing process in use as of 2020.

GENERALPRINCIPLE OF3DPRINTING

Modeling

3D printable models may be created with a computer-aided design(CAD)package,viaa3D

scanner, or by a plain digital camera and photogrammetry software. 3D printed models
created with CAD result in relatively fewer errorsthanothermethods.Errorsin3Dprintable
models can be identified and corrected before printing.

Fig.CADModelused for3DPrinting

CAD models can be saved in the stereolithographic file format (STL), a de facto CAD file
format for additive manufacturing that stores data based on triangulations of the surface of
CAD models.

Printing

Before printing a 3DmodelfromanSTLfile,itmustfirstbeexaminedforerrors.MostCAD

applications produce errors in output STL files, of the following types:

1. Holes
2. FacesNormals
3. Self-Intersections
4. Noise Shells
5. Manifold Errors
6. Overhang Issues

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Once completed, the STL file needs to be processed by a piece of software calleda"slicer",
which converts the model into a series of thin layers and produces a G-code file containing
instructionstailoredtoaspecifictypeof3Dprinter(FDMprinters).ThisG-codefilecanthen
beprintedwith3Dprintingclientsoftware(whichloads the G-code, and uses it to instruct the 3D
printer during the 3D printing process).

Finishing
However,theprinter-producedresolutionissufficientformanyapplications;greateraccuracy can
be achieved by printing a slightly oversized version of the desired object in standard
resolution and then removing material using a higher-resolution subtractive process.
Some printable polymers suchasABS,allowthesurfacefinishtobesmoothedandimproved using
chemical vapor processes based on acetone or similar solvents.

Materials
Traditionally, 3D printing focused on polymersforprinting,duetotheeaseofmanufacturing and
handling polymeric materials. However,themethodhasrapidlyevolvedtonotonlyprint various
polymers but also metals and ceramics, making 3D printing a versatile option for
manufacturing. Layer-by-layer fabrication of three-dimensional physical models is amodern
concept that "stems from the ever-growing CAD industry, more specifically the solid
modelingsideofCAD.Beforesolidmodelingwasintroducedinthelate1980s, three-dimensional
models were created with wire frames and surfaces." but in all cases the
layersofmaterialsarecontrolledbytheprinterandthematerialproperties.The three-dimensional
material layer is controlled bydepositionrateassetbytheprinteroperator and stored in a
computer file.

Applications
3D printing or additive manufacturinghasbeenusedinmanufacturing,medical,industryand
sociocultural sectors (e.g. Cultural Heritage) to create successful commercial technology.
More recently, 3D printing has also beenusedinthehumanitariananddevelopmentsectorto
produce a range of medical items, prosthetics, spares and repairs.

Foodindustry
Additivemanufacturingof food is being developed by squeezing out food, layer by layer, into
three-dimensional objects. A large variety of foods are appropriate candidates, such as
chocolate and candy, and flat foods such as crackers, pasta, andpizza.NASAislookinginto the
technology in order to create3Dprintedfoodtolimitfoodwasteandtomakefoodthatis designed to
fit an astronaut's dietary needs. In 2018, Italian bioengineer Giuseppe Scionti developed a
technology allowing the production offibrousplant-basedmeatanaloguesusing a custom 3D
bio printer, mimicking meat texture and nutritional values.

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Fashionindustry

3Dprintinghasenteredtheworldofclothing, with fashion designers experimenting with 3D-

printed bikinis,shoes,anddresses.IncommercialproductionNikeisusing3Dprintingto prototype
and manufacture the2012VaporLaserTalonfootballshoeforplayersofAmerican football, and
New Balance is 3D manufacturing custom-fit shoes for athletes.3D
printinghascometothepointwherecompaniesareprintingconsumergradeeyewearwith on-
demand custom fit and styling (although they cannot print the lenses). On-demand
customization of glasses is possible with rapid prototyping.

Transportationindustry

In cars, trucks, and aircraft, Additive Manufacturing is beginning to transform both (1)
unibody and fuselage design and production and (2) powertrain design and production. For
example

In early 2014, Swedish supercar manufacturer Koenigsegg announced the One:1, a supercar
thatutilizesmanycomponentsthatwere3Dprinted.Urbeeisthenameofthefirstcarinthe

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world car mounted using the technology 3D printing (its bodywork and car windows were
"printed").

In2014,LocalMotorsdebutedStrati,afunctioningvehiclethatwasentirely3Dprintedusing ABS
plastic and carbon fiber, except the powertrain.

In May 2015 Airbus announced that its new Airbus A350 XWB included over 1000
components manufactured by 3D printing.

In 2015, a Royal Air Force Eurofighter Typhoon fighter jet flew with printed parts. The
UnitedStatesAirForcehasbeguntoworkwith3Dprinters,andtheIsraeliAirForcehasalso
purchased a 3D printer to print spare parts.

Fig.TheStoofbruginAmsterdam,the world'sfirst 3D-printedmetal bridge

Healthsector

In March 2014, surgeons in Swansea used 3D printed parts to rebuild the face of a
motorcyclist who hadbeenseriouslyinjuredinaroadaccident.InMay2018,3Dprintinghas been
used for the kidneytransplanttosaveathree-year-oldboy.Asof2012,3Dbio-printing technology
has been studied by biotechnology firms and academia for possible use in tissue engineering
applications in which organs and body parts are built using inkjet printing techniques. In this
process, layers of living cells are deposited onto a gel medium or sugar matrix and slowly
built up to form three-dimensional structures including vascular systems. Recently, a heart-
on-chip has been created which matches properties of cells.

Educationsector

3D printing, and open source 3D printers in particular, are the latest technology making
inroads into the classroom. Some authors have claimed that 3D printers offer an
unprecedented "revolution" in STEM education. The evidence for such claims comes from
both the low-cost ability for rapid prototyping in the classroom by students, but also the
fabrication of low-cost high-quality scientific equipment from open hardware
designsformingopen-sourcelabs.Futureapplicationsfor3Dprintingmightincludecreating open-
source scientific equipment.

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Fig.TheAudi RSQwasmade withrapidprototyping industrialKUKArobots

Fig.A3Dselfie in 1:20 scale printed using gypsum-based printing

Fig.3Dprinted necklace

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