International Journal of Advance Research in Mathematics Education

DOI: https://doi.org/10.56916/ijarme.v1i1.xxx
e-issn: 1234-xxxx

Problem-Based Learning To Enhance Pupils' Conceptual Understanding In

Geometry

Herawati*
Department Mathematics Education, Universitas Islam Negeri Ar-Raniry Banda Aceh, Nanggroe Aceh
Darussalam, Indonesia
Geri Syahril Sidik
Department Primary Teacher Education, Universitas Universitas Perjuangan Tasikmalaya, Tasikmalaya,
Indonesia
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Keywords Abstract. This study investigated students' understanding of the concept

Conceptual understanding through a pre-test and a post-test. Analysis of the pre-test showed that
Early Mathematical abilities the initial abilities of students in the experimental and control groups
Junior High School were comparable, allowing for a fair comparison. Variations in students'
ability to solve mathematical problems were investigated through post-
Article History test and N-gain data using different learning approaches. Two main
Received: 2022-09-28 hypotheses were proposed in this study: firstly, the experimental group
Revised: 2022-10-01 would show a higher level of conceptual understanding than the control
Accepted: 2022-10-06 group; secondly, there would be a significant difference in improving
students' conceptual understanding at different levels of ability. The
analysis showed that the experimental group had a significantly higher
level of conceptual understanding than the control group, which
supported the first hypothesis. This finding indicates that the
intervention positively affects students' conceptual understanding. In
addition, the analysis results also showed a significant difference in the
improvement of students' conceptual understanding with different
proficiency levels, which supports the second hypothesis. These findings
highlight the importance of learning approaches tailored to student's
needs and abilities. This study provides strong evidence that specific
mathematics learning models and initial mathematics ability contribute
to improving students' conceptual understanding. These findings
highlight the importance of tailored learning approaches to maximize
students' mathematical concept understanding. The findings have
valuable implications for educators and curriculum developers to
develop more effective teaching strategies according to students' needs.

Introduction
As a general model, problem-based Learning (PBL) was created in the mid-1950s in medical
education (Savery & Duffy, 1995). PBL is an instruction that transforms students to acquire knowledge
through collaboration and problem-solving (Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Norman & Schmidt, 2000; Senocak et
al., 2007). Assisting students to develop into skilled problem solvers is a primary objective of
mathematics instruction (Schoenfeld, 2016). Students must actively participate in Learning by offering
mathematical problems (Jatisunda & Nahdi, 2020). Based on Malcolm Knowles, students begin with a
case problem and work up to understanding the problem's broad principles (Espey et al., 2007; Zwaal,
2019). Under the supervision of a tutor, students must assume responsibility for their learning, selecting
what they need to know to improve their Understanding (Barrows, 1996). Problem-based learning to
achieve its objectives effectively, the design of the mathematical problems and the teacher's instruction,
which is critical, must be as organized as possible.
PBL, as a learning method in mathematics, mainly aims to change students' approach to learning
from passive to active. In PBL, students are not just recipients of information but are expected to play
an active role in solving problems and collaborating with their peers to find solutions. PBL in
26
mathematics aims to help students develop deeper and more meaningful problem-solving skills.
Students are exposed to real problem situations relevant to everyday life or real-world situations. In
this way, learning mathematics becomes more contextual, and students can see the relevance and
application of their mathematical concepts. For example, in PBL, students may be asked to work out how
to calculate the area of land needed to build a playground or how to work out the total price of some
food items by using certain mathematical concepts. Through this process, students understand
mathematical concepts theoretically and see how they can be applied in real-life situations. In addition,
PBL empowers students to take an active role in learning. They learn to take responsibility for their
learning process by formulating relevant questions, finding the necessary sources of information and
discussing with classmates to find solutions together. The role of the teacher is also very important in
the implementation of PBL. The teacher acts as a facilitator or guide in the learning process, helping
students to identify their learning needs, providing assistance when needed and giving constructive
feedback. Overall, using PBL in mathematics learning can potentially improve students' understanding
and skills in mathematical problem-solving. Through a problem-based learning approach, students can
experience learning that is more meaningful and relevant to the real world and develop critical skills
that will be useful in their lives outside the classroom.
Students study, analyze, and collaborate to solve an ill-structured topic in a PBL program
(Trinter et al., 2015). Unstructured problems characterize Problem-solving, not structured and difficult
or impossible to answer with only the information provided, resulting in several solutions (Kim & Lim,
2019). However, the issue relates explicitly to the mathematical readiness of students (Gill et al., 2010).
It indicates that students who lack fundamental mathematical understanding cannot do accurate
algebraic and numerical computations (Fitzmaurice et al., 2019). Mathematical problems should
confront pupils with mental obstacles (Son & Lee, 2021). It will be successfully implemented when
pupils have a solid conceptual grasp, but it may be detrimental to students with a superficial knowledge
base (Holmes & Hwang, 2016). The importance of the mathematical problems that students encounter
is to expose them to mental hurdles. Well-designed mathematical problems provide intellectual
challenges that can develop students' critical and creative thinking skills. However, such mathematical
issues can be detrimental to students who have only a superficial understanding of the material. In this
case, implementing PBL will be more successful if students already have a strong conceptual experience
of the material. Therefore, when implementing PBL in mathematics learning, it is necessary to pay
attention to students' level of mathematical understanding. Teachers must identify students' experience
levels and structure mathematical problems according to their abilities. In addition, teachers need to
provide appropriate support and guidance so that students can overcome the obstacles they face in
solving mathematical problems.
Students lack abilities such as prior knowledge, concepts, rules, and knowledge of concepts and
ideas in a related subject, as well as metacognitive knowledge, which is required for problem-solving
(Belland, 2014). When pupils are confronted with the issue's complexities, PBL will negatively influence
them (MerriëNboer, 2013). The working memory's capacity can only process a certain amount of
information simultaneously; hence, this limitation constrains the PBL activity ((Sweller, 1988).
Therefore, it is vital to find ways to maximize the learning process in which the instructor must pay
attention to the student's intellectual potential (Van MerriëNboer, 2013). The complexity of the
problems that students face in PBL can hurt them. Complex issues can cause difficulties in the learning
process, especially for students who do not understand the material. In addition, the limited capacity of
working memory is also an obstacle in PBL. Working memory capacity can only process a certain
amount of information at a time, so this limitation limits PBL activities.
Therefore, finding ways to maximize the learning process in PBL is important. Teachers should
pay attention to students' intellectual potential and find ways to help them overcome obstacles in
problem-solving. Proper teacher guidance and support are crucial to help students overcome difficulties
and develop critical and creative thinking skills in the learning process. To meet this challenge, the
learning approach in PBL must be adapted to the student's needs and level of understanding. In this
case, the role of the teacher as a facilitator and guide is crucial to help students overcome obstacles and
achieve learning objectives more effectively. With an appropriate approach, PBL can be an effective
learning tool to help students develop problem-solving skills and improve their understanding of the
material being studied.
Previous research on Problem-based Learning (PBL) has shown positive effects on pupils'
cognitive capacities, particularly in enhancing their mathematical achievement in primary schools (Bal
& Artut, 2022). However, there is a need for further exploration of the learning process and
improvements in the quality of measurement tools and data processing in higher education (Guo et al.,
2020). The study's findings revealed that the mathematics textbooks utilized for problem-based
learning often lack problems that adhere to specific rules (Divrik et al., 2020). Therefore, this study aims
to build upon previous research recommendations by implementing PBL in primary schools and
matching relevant problems to students' abilities to enhance the quality of the learning process. While
students were found to comprehend the mathematical difficulties in PBL, their answers lacked structure
and systematic reasoning (Yayuk et al., 2020). Thus, this study seeks to address this issue and improve
students' problem-solving skills in mathematics by carefully selecting and designing problems that align
with the curriculum and promote more organized and systematic thinking.
By conducting this study in secondary schools, we can further explore the potential benefits of
PBL in enhancing students' cognitive capacities and mathematical achievement at an early age.
Implementing PBL with well-crafted and relevant problems can foster critical thinking, collaborative
learning, and metacognitive skills, ultimately contributing to a deeper understanding of mathematical
concepts and their real-world applications. Furthermore, by aligning the problems with students'
abilities, we can provide a more tailored and effective learning experience, encouraging students to
actively engage in problem-solving and positively impacting their overall cognitive development.
This study employs PBL specifically to improve primary pupils' geometry achievement. Geometry
is a branch of mathematics that fosters the development of critical and problem-solving thinking
(Bintoro & Sumaji, 2021). Students dislike geometry because it is abstract and comprises several
formulas and symbols (Doli & Armiati, 2020). Geometry remains difficult for students to master (T. H.
Tan et al., 2015). Students are limited in their ability to solve geometric problems (Cesaria & Herman,
2019). According to data from the Indonesian education evaluation center, geometry achievement
tended to fall in 2017 and 2018 (Puspendik, 2018). In this study, PBL tasks are associated with
geometric notions. A problem is defined as the difference between the existing and intended states;
problem-solving minimizes this difference (C.-S. Tan et al., 2019). According to the actual situation, the
problem's nature is intricate (Branch, 2015; King & Smith, 2020; MacLeod & van der Veen, 2020).
Typically, the difficulties cannot be resolved instantly, are open, occasionally insoluble, and require
research (Bishara, 2016; Özcan, 2016).
This study aimed to investigate the potential of PBL in improving junior high school students'
cognitive abilities and mathematical achievement. This research also seeks to improve the quality of the
learning process by matching mathematical problems that are appropriate to the level of difficulty and
understanding of students at the secondary school level. In addition, this research also aims to identify
and address potential weaknesses in understanding structure and systems in problem-solving related
to the PBL approach. This research is expected to contribute to developing learning approaches that are
more effective and relevant in improving students' understanding of mathematics at the secondary
school level.

28
Methods
This study employed a quasi-experimental method. The research population was selected from
Class VIII students in public secondary schools within Cluster III of Majalengka District. A purposive
sampling strategy was utilized to choose a sample with similar mathematical ability characteristics. The
sample consisted of 33 students in Class VIII A (experimental Class) from one state secondary school
and 36 students in Class VIII C (control class) from another state secondary school. Using the quasi-
experimental method allowed the researchers to control for confounding factors and compare the
impact of the Problem-based Learning (PBL) approach on students' mathematical abilities. In this
manner, the study aims to provide more academically rigorous and evidence-based insights into the
Effectiveness of PBL in enhancing students' mathematical achievement at the junior high school level.
The study's design:
O X O
…………………………………
O O
Figure 1. Matching-only Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design adapted from (Fraenkel et al., 2011)
This study utilizes a quasi-experimental design to investigate the effects of two distinct learning
models: project-based learning and direct instruction. The participants are Class VIII students from
public secondary schools in Cluster III of Majalengka District. The researchers employed purposive
sampling to ensure the sample represents students with similar mathematical ability characteristics.
The experimental Class (Class VIII A) received project-based learning, while the control class (Class VIII
C) received direct instruction. The research instrument includes a comprehension test based on
indicators of students' mathematical comprehension ability, following the notion developed by
Schoenfeld (1983). The indicators assess various aspects of mathematical understanding, such as
recalling concepts, algorithmic problem-solving, mathematical language translation, and making
connections between mathematical and non-mathematical concepts.
To ensure the validity and reliability of the test questions, thorough testing and evaluation
procedures were conducted. Students' early mathematical abilities were initially assessed using
prerequisite mathematical questions to categorize them into high, medium, and low proficiency levels.
The research process was conducted over nine repetitions, involving seven sessions for learning
material discussions and two meetings for pre- and post-learning mathematical problem-solving exams.
The test score data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA to draw statistically significant conclusions.
Through this rigorous approach, the study aims to provide comprehensive insights into the impact of
project-based learning and direct instruction on students' mathematical comprehension abilities at the
junior high school level. The findings of this research have the potential to contribute valuable evidence
to the field of education, offering implications for instructional design and teaching practices in
mathematics education.

Results And Discussion

The study gathered information on understanding concepts from the initial (pre-test) and final
(post-test) assessments. From the examination of the pre-test results, it is deduced that the starting
capabilities of students in both groups are comparable, thereby making them apt for an evaluative
comparison. The variation in the proficiency of the two sets of students in solving mathematical issues
was explored through the use of both post-test and N-gain data, which incorporate unique approaches
to learning. The following declaration lays the groundwork for the hypothesis that will be used to
measure improvements in the ability to understand concepts:
1. The group undergoing the experiment demonstrated a higher level of conceptual understanding
than the control group.
2. There is a significant difference in how students at different skill levels improve their
understanding of concepts.
An Independent sample t-test will be used to demonstrate the first hypothesis. Table 1 displays
the test findings for variance in the mean mathematical relationship.

Table 1. The Results Of The Different Tests Are Based On The Average Post-Test Conceptual
Understanding score
Levene's Test for Equality of F Sig. t df Sig. (2-
Variances tailed)
Equal variances assumed 11.78 .002 6.210 62 .000

The study employed Levene's Test for Equality of Variances to assess whether the variances
between the two groups being compared were equal. With an F value of 11.78 and a significance level
of .002, we can reject the null hypothesis of Levene's test, stating that the variances of the two groups
are equal. It implies that the variances between the two groups are not equal. Furthermore, the results
of the t-test show a t-value of 6.210, with degrees of freedom (df) of 62, and a significance (2-tailed) of
.000. As the p-value is less than .05, we can reject the null hypothesis of the t-test, which suggests that
there is no significant difference between the means of the two groups. Consequently, there is a
significant difference in the means of the two groups being compared. These results provide statistical
support for the hypothesis, indicating that the experimental group exhibits superior conceptual
understanding compared to the control group.
Table 3. Descriptive statistical data on post-test results of conceptual understanding
Std. Std. Error
Class N Mean Deviation Mean

Postest eksperiment 30 71.540 8.867 1.676

class

control class 30 60.416 12.88 2.388

Table 3 presents the descriptive statistical data for the post-test results of conceptual
understanding in both the experimental and control classes. Each Class comprised 30 students. The
average score for the experimental Class in the post-test was 71.540, indicating a relatively higher level
of understanding of the concepts than the control class, which obtained an average score of 60.416.
These results suggest that the experimental Class outperformed the control class regarding conceptual
understanding. The standard deviation for the experimental Class (8.867) was lower than that of the
control class (12.88), implying that the post-test scores in the experimental Class were more tightly
clustered around the mean compared to the control class. It indicates a higher performance consistency
among the experimental group students.
Furthermore, the standard error of the mean for the experimental Class (1.676) was smaller
than that of the control class (2.388). It suggests that the mean score of the experimental Class is more
likely to be a reliable representation of the entire population, as it has less variability than the control
class. Based on the findings from Table 3, it can be interpreted that the experimental Class demonstrated
superior conceptual understanding compared to the control class. The results highlight the effectiveness
of the teaching approach or intervention implemented in the experimental Class, which led to improved
performance and a more consistent understanding of the concepts among the students. Furthermore, a
two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with GLM-Univariat will be used to test the second and third
hypotheses. Table 4 displays the findings of the analysis.

30
 Table 4. Analysis Of Variance Of Data On Improving Conceptual Understanding Based On The
Mathematics Learning Model And Early Mathematical Ability

Type III Sum of

Source df Mean Square F Sig.
Squares
Corrected 4034.068a 5 830.614 188.055 .000
Model
Intercept 21077.612 1 209577.612 45540.43 .000
7
Model 1754.200 1 1654.200 360.452 .000
EMS 2400.526 2 1250.263 260.207 .000
Class * EMS 132.276 2 61.638 13.176 .000
Error 276.917 58 4.702
Total 221005.000 64
Corrected Total 4509.984 63
a. R Squared = .939 (Adjusted R Squared = .934)

Table 4 presents the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) results for assessing the improvement in
conceptual understanding based on the mathematics learning model and early mathematical ability. The
table displays the Type III Sum of Squares, degrees of freedom (df), Mean Square, F-value, and the
significance level (Sig.) for each source of variation. The Corrected Model, which evaluates the combined
effect of all the factors, shows a Type III Sum of Squares of 4034.068 with 5 degrees of freedom. The
Mean Square is 830.614, and the F-value is 188.055, which is highly significant (Sig. = .000). This
indicates that the overall model fits the data well. There are significant differences in conceptual
understanding based on combining the mathematics learning model and early mathematical ability. The
Intercept, representing the overall mean, has a Type III Sum of Squares of 21077.612 with 1 degree of
freedom. The Mean Square is 209577.612, and the F-value is 45540.437, which is also highly significant
(Sig. = .000). The individual factors contribute significantly to the model. The Model factor has a Type
III Sum of Squares of 1754.200, with 1 degree of freedom, and a significant F-value of 360.452 (Sig. =
.000). The EMS (Early Mathematical Ability) factor contributes significantly as well, with a Type III Sum
of Squares of 2400.526, 2 degrees of freedom, and an F-value of 260.207 (Sig. = .000).
Furthermore, the interaction effect between Class and EMS, denoted as Class * EMS, is also
significant. It has a Type III Sum of Squares of 132.276, 2 degrees of freedom, and an F-value of 13.176
(Sig. = .000). This indicates that the combination of Class and Early Mathematical Ability significantly
impacts the improvement in conceptual understanding. The Error term, which represents the variability
within each group, has a Type III Sum of Squares of 276.917 with 58 degrees of freedom. The total
variability (Corrected Total) in the data is 4509.984. The R-squared value, a measure of the proportion
of variance explained by the model, is 0.939, indicating that 93.9% of the variability in improving
conceptual understanding can be attributed to the factors included in the model. The Adjusted R-
squared value, considering the number of predictors, is 0.934. In conclusion, the results from Table 4
show that combining the mathematics learning model and early mathematical ability significantly
improves conceptual understanding. The model explains a substantial portion of the variability
observed in the data, suggesting a strong relationship between the factors and the outcome.
In this study, it was hypothesized that the group undergoing the experiment would demonstrate
a higher level of conceptual understanding compared to the control group. The hypothesis was based
on the assumption that implementing the specific mathematics learning model and early mathematical
ability would lead to better learning outcomes and improved conceptual understanding in the
experimental group. The results from the analysis supported the hypothesis, showing that the
experimental group had a significantly higher mean score in the post-test assessment than the control
group. The experimental group's mean score of 71.540 indicated a relatively higher understanding of
the concepts, while the control group scored 60.416, suggesting a lower level of understanding.
Moreover, the standard deviation for the experimental group was lower than that of the control
group, indicating that the post-test scores were more tightly clustered around the mean in the
experimental group. It suggests a higher consistency in performance among the students in the
experimental group, further supporting the notion of superior conceptual understanding. The statistical
analysis, including the Independent sample t-test and ANOVA, demonstrated that the observed
differences were not due to random chance but were significant and attributed to the specific
mathematics learning model and early mathematical ability utilized in the experimental group. In
conclusion, the study's findings provided strong evidence to support the hypothesis that the group
undergoing the experiment, exposed to the specific mathematics learning model and early mathematical
ability, demonstrated a higher level of conceptual understanding compared to the control group. It
highlights the effectiveness of the intervention and underscores the importance of tailored teaching
approaches to enhance students' learning outcomes and conceptual understanding of mathematics.
The second hypothesis stated that there is a significant difference in how students at different
skill levels improve their understanding of concepts. This hypothesis aimed to investigate whether the
improvement in conceptual understanding varied based on the student's initial skill levels in
mathematics. The results from the analysis provided support for this hypothesis. The two-way analysis
of variance (ANOVA) with GLM-Univariate revealed that both the main effect of the mathematics
learning model (Model) and the early mathematical ability (EMS) were significant contributors to the
improvement in conceptual understanding.
Furthermore, the interaction effect between Class and EMS (Class * EMS) was also significant.
This interaction effect indicates that the impact of the mathematics learning model and early
mathematical ability on improving conceptual understanding differed based on the student's initial skill
levels. The significant interaction effect implies that students with varying ability levels responded
differently to the intervention. It suggests that the combination of the specific mathematics learning
model and early mathematical ability had a varying impact on improving conceptual understanding
across different groups of students. This finding has important implications for understanding the
effectiveness of the intervention for different student populations. It highlights the need for tailored
approaches to cater to student's diverse needs and skill levels. Some students with higher initial
mathematical abilities might benefit more from the intervention, while others with lower abilities might
still show improvement, albeit to a different extent.
In conclusion, the study's results provided evidence to support the hypothesis that there is a
significant difference in how students at different skill levels improve their understanding of concepts.
The analysis demonstrated that the impact of the mathematics learning model and early mathematical
ability on improving conceptual understanding varied across student groups with different skill levels.
This finding emphasizes the importance of personalized and targeted educational interventions to
accommodate students' diverse needs and abilities. Based on the analysis and results presented in the
study, we can draw the following conclusions from the two hypotheses: 1. The group undergoing the
experiment demonstrated a higher level of conceptual understanding compared to the control group.
The statistical analysis, including the Independent sample t-test, showed that the experimental group
had a significantly higher mean score in the post-test assessment than the control group. It indicates
that the specific mathematics learning model and early mathematical ability intervention used in the
experimental group led to better learning outcomes and improved conceptual understanding.
Therefore, we can conclude that the experimental group exhibited superior conceptual understanding
compared to the control group. There is a significant difference in how students at different skill levels
improve their understanding of concepts. The two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with GLM-

32
Univariate demonstrated that the mathematics learning model and early mathematical ability were
significant factors contributing to the improvement in conceptual understanding.
Additionally, the significant interaction effect between Class and EMS indicated that the impact
of the intervention varied across different student groups with varying skill levels. It suggests that
students with different initial mathematical abilities responded differently to the intervention. Hence,
we can conclude that there is a significant difference in how students at different skill levels improve
their understanding of concepts. In summary, the study's findings strongly support the effectiveness of
the specific mathematics learning model and early mathematical ability intervention in enhancing
conceptual understanding. The results also underscore the importance of considering individual
student differences and tailoring educational approaches to meet diverse learning needs. These
conclusions can have significant implications for educational practices and curriculum development,
emphasizing the value of personalized and targeted teaching strategies to optimize student's learning
outcomes in mathematics.

Conclusion
This study aims to collect data on students' concept understanding through pre-test and post-
test. The results of the pre-test analysis showed that the initial abilities of the students in both groups,
experimental and control, were comparable so that they could be objectively compared. Variations in
students' ability to solve mathematical problems were examined through post-test and N-gain data
using different learning approaches. The two main hypotheses proposed in this study are as follows:
firstly, the experimental group would show a higher level of conceptual understanding than the control
group; secondly, there would be significant differences in how students with different levels of ability
improved their conceptual understanding. The results of the analysis showed that the experimental
group did show a higher level of conceptual understanding than the control group, supporting the first
hypothesis. The results also showed that the effect of the intervention varied according to the student's
skill level, supporting the second hypothesis. This study provides evidence for the effectiveness of
specific mathematics learning models and initial mathematics skills in improving students' conceptual
understanding. The research highlights the importance of personalized and tailored teaching strategies
to improve students' understanding of mathematical concepts. The findings have valuable implications
for educators and curriculum developers in designing more effective learning approaches supporting
students' conceptual understanding progress.

References
Bal, A. P., & Artut, P. D. (2022). Investigation of Primary School Students Solving Arithmetic Verbal
Problems. Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn) , 16(1), 76–84.
https://doi.org/10.11591/edulearn.v16i1.20336
Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview. New
Directions for Teaching and Learning, 1996(68), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/tl.37219966804
Belland, B. R. (2014). Scaffolding: Definition, current debates, and future directions. In Handbook of
research on educational communications and technology (pp. 505–518). Springer.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5
Bintoro, H. S., & Sumaji, S. (2021). PROSES BERPIKIR SPASIAL DITINJAU DARI KECERDASAN
INTRAPERSONAL MAHASISWA PENDIDIKAN MATEMATIKA. AKSIOMA: Jurnal Program Studi
Pendidikan Matematika, 10(2), 1074–1087. https://doi.org/10.24127/ajpm.v10i2.3641
Bishara, S. (2016). Creativity in unique problem-solving in mathematics and its influence on motivation
for learning. Cogent Education, 3(1), 1202604.
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1202604
Branch, L. J. (2015). The impact of project-based learning and technology on student achievement in
mathematics. In New media, knowledge practices and multiliteracies (pp. 259–268). Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-209-8_24
Cesaria, A., & Herman, T. (2019). Learning obstacle in geometry. Journal of Engineering Science and
Technology, 14(3), 1271–1280.
Divrik, R., Tas, A. M., & Pilten, P. (2020). Teachers' Views on the Problem-Solving & Problem-Posing
Tasks in Primary School Mathematics Textbooks. Journal of Curriculum and Teaching, 9(1), 73–85.
https://doi.org/10.5430/jct.v9n1p73
Doli, W., & Armiati, A. (2020). Development of Mathematics Learning Tools Based on Realistic
Mathematics Education for Vocational High School Students. Journal of Physics: Conference Series,
1554, 12021. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1554/1/012021
Espey, E., Ogburn, T., Kalishman, S., Zsemlye, M., & Cosgrove, E. (2007). Revitalizing problem based
learning: student and tutor attitudes towards a structured tutorial. Medical Teacher, 29(2–3), 143–
149. https://doi.org/10.1080/01421590701316522
Fitzmaurice, O., Walsh, R., & Burke, K. (2019). The 'Mathematics Problem'and preservice post primary
mathematics teachers–analyzing 17 years of diagnostic test data. International Journal of
Mathematical Education in Science and Technology , 1–23.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2019.1682700
Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2011). How to design and evaluate research in education .
New York: McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages.
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/60b6/99eda714ac21599455741fb499dd4e68f615.pdf
Gill, O., O'Donoghue, J., Faulkner, F., & Hannigan, A. (2010). Trends in performance of science and
technology students (1997–2008) in Ireland. International Journal of Mathematical Education in
Science and Technology, 41(3), 323–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207390903477426
Guo, P., Saab, N., Post, L. S., & Admiraal, W. (2020). A review of project-based learning in higher
education: Student outcomes and measures. International Journal of Educational Research, 102,
101586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101586
Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational
Psychology Review, 16(3), 235–266. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3
Holmes, V.-L., & Hwang, Y. (2016). Exploring the effects of project-based learning in secondary
mathematics education. The Journal of Educational Research, 109(5), 449–463.
Jatisunda, M. G., & Nahdi, D. S. (2020). Kemampuan Pemecahan Masalah Matematis melalui
Pembelajaran Berbasis Masalah dengan Scaffolding. Jurnal Elemen, 6(2), 228–243.
https://doi.org/10.29408/jel.v6i2.2042
Kim, J. Y., & Lim, K. Y. (2019). Promoting learning in online, ill-structured problem solving: The effects
of scaffolding type and metacognition level. Computers & Education, 138, 116–129.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.05.001
King, B., & Smith, C. (2020). Using project-based learning to develop teachers for leadership. The
Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas , 93(3), 158–164.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2020.1735289
MacLeod, M., & van der Veen, J. T. (2020). Scaffolding interdisciplinary project-based learning: a case
study. European Journal of Engineering Education, 45(3), 363–377.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2019.1646210
MerriëNboer, J. J. G. Van. (2013). Perspectives on problem solving and instruction. Computers &
Education, 64, 153–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.11.025
Norman, G. R., & Schmidt, H. G. (2000). effectiveness of problem-based learning curricula: Theory,
practice and paper darts. Medical Education, 34(9), 721–728. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-
2923.2000.00749.x

34
Özcan, Z. Ç. (2016). The relationship between mathematical problem-solving skills and self-regulated
learning through homework behaviours, motivation, and metacognition. International Journal of
Mathematical Education in Science and Technology , 47(3), 408–420.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2015.1080313
Puspendik. (2018). Hasil TIMSS 2018 diagnosa hasil untuk perbaikan mutu dan peningkatan capaian .
Savery, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist
framework. Educational Technology, 35(5), 31–38. https://doi.org/10.2307/44428296
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1983). The wild, wild, wild, wild, wild world of problem solving (A review of sorts).
For the Learning of Mathematics, 3(3), 40–47.
Schoenfeld, A. H. (2016). Learning to think mathematically: Problem solving, metacognition, and sense
making in mathematics (Reprint). Journal of Education, 196(2), 1–38.
https://doi.org/10.1177/002205741619600202
Senocak, E., Taskesenligil, Y., & Sozbilir, M. (2007). A study on teaching gases to prospective primary
science teachers through problem-based learning. Research in Science Education, 37(3), 279–290.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-006-9026-5
Son, J.-W., & Lee, M. Y. (2021). Exploring the relationship between preservice teachers' conceptions of
problem solving and their problem-solving performances. International Journal of Science and
Mathematics Education, 19(1), 129–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-019-10045-w
Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2),
257–285.
Tan, C.-S., Tan, S.-A., Mohd Hashim, I. H., Lee, M.-N., Ong, A. W.-H., & Yaacob, S. nor B. (2019). Problem-
Solving Ability and Stress Mediate the Relationship Between Creativity and Happiness. Creativity
Research Journal, 31(1), 15–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2019.1568155
Tan, T. H., Tarmizi, R. A., Yunus, A. S. M., & Ayub, A. F. M. (2015). Understanding the primary school
students' van Hiele levels of geometry thinking in learning shapes and spaces: A Q-methodology.
Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education , 11(4), 793–802.
https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2015.1439a
Trinter, C. P., Moon, T. R., & Brighton, C. M. (2015). Characteristics of students' mathematical promise
when engaging with problem-based learning units in primary classrooms. Journal of Advanced
Academics, 26(1), 24–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X14562394
Van MerriëNboer, J. J. G. (2013). Perspectives on problem solving and instruction. Computers &
Education, 64, 153–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.11.025
Yayuk, E., As’ ari, A. R., & Subanji. (2020). Primary School Students' Creative Thinking Skills in
Mathematics Problem Solving. European Journal of Educational Research, 9(3), 1281–1295.
https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.9.3.1281
Zwaal, W. (2019). Assessment for problem-based learning. Research in Hospitality Management, 9(2),
77–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/22243534.2019.1689696.