B.

Sc (NS)
CARGO HANDLING & STOWAGE I
15DMRN51

Capt. J M V
UNIT 1 – INTRODUCTION TO SHIP AND CARGOES

General cargo vessels carry packaged items like chemicals, foods, furniture, machinery, motor-
and military vehicles, footwear, garments, etc.
Container ships (sometimes spelled containerships) are cargo ships that carry all of their load in
truck-size intermodal containers, in a technique called containerization. They are a common means
of commercial intermodal freight transport and now carry most seagoing non-bulk cargo. Container
ship capacity is measured in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU).
Tankers carry petroleum products or other liquid cargo.
Dry bulk carriers carry coal, grain, ore and other similar products in loose form.
Multi-purpose vessels, as the name suggests, carry different classes of cargo – e.g. liquid and
general cargo – at the same time.
Reefer ships (or Refrigerated) ship is specifically designed and used for shipping perishable
commodities which require temperature-controlled, mostly fruits, meat, fish, vegetables, dairy
products and other foodstuffs.
Roll-on/roll-off (RORO or ro-ro) ships are designed to carry wheeled cargo, such as cars, trucks,
semi-trailer trucks, trailers, and railroad cars, that are driven on and off the ship on their own
wheels.

What is Bulk Cargo?

Bulk cargo is a shipping term for items that are shipped loosely and unpackaged as opposed to
being shipped in packages or containers.

An item may be classified as bulk cargo if it is not containerized and easily secured on a vessel.
Items such as oil, grain, or coal are all examples of bulk cargo.
Bulk cargo is classified as either free flowing, a liquid, or a dry item. This type of cargo is typically
dropped or poured as a liquid or solid into a merchant ship, railway car, or tanker truck.

Items may also be referred to as break bulk cargo, which is cargo that is packaged but non-
containerized. Some examples of break bulk include drummed fuel, bagged cement, vehicles, and
large parts to build an airplane. Items described as break bulk cargo can be transported in bags,
barrels, and pallets.

Use the following diagram to determine if your product classifies as bulk cargo:

Oil cargoes are generally divided into two classes:

 Light oil which include various spirits such as gasoline white spirit, alcohol, kerosene, light gas oil, etc.
and
 Heavy oils which include crude oils, asphalt, fuel oils, heavy gas oils, diesel oil, lubrication oils, etc.

Liquids
Sea borne liquids range from drums of products such as bitumen capable of carriage in
conventional tween deck ships, to parcels of edible oils transported in specially coated and heated
tanks and to huge homogenous cargo of crude mineral oil carried by VLCC’s.
Most of these products are inflammable with a low flash point and many are dangerous in other
ways, either emitting toxic gases or possessing corrosive qualities or both.
Chemicals Cargoes which are generally carried in liquid form in bulk in specially built tanks and
which pose danger to personnel handling them. Examples: Acids, Alkalis, Mineral Oils, alcohols,
additives, vegetable and animal oils and molasses etc.

These cargoes may possess one or more of the following properties, which influence the design of
the ship: -
1) High Specific Gravity up to 2.2
2) High viscosity
3) Highly corrosive
4) Poisonous
5) Flammability
6) Self-reactive
7) Heat sensitive
8) High heat required to prevent solidification
9) Highly sensitive to impurities because of possible reaction or cargo impairment.

Containers are basically just a box in which cargoes are placed and the box itself is transported.
Majority of general purpose containers are boxes constructed with walls of aluminium or thin steel
sheeting, corrugated to provide strength and rigidity, reinforced corner posts with double watertight
doors at one end. Used to carry various types of cargo e.g. tobacco, electronic components, clothing
etc.
Heavy-cargo ships - designed to carry cranes, oil drills, machinery for factories and power
stations, equipment for heavy industry and other cargo weighing 700-1000 t.
What are refrigerated cargoes?
Any cargo that has to be loaded, maintained and/or carried at a certain temperature in order for it to
reach its destination without deterioration is classed as refrigerated cargoes.
This includes meat, beef, fish, poultry products, dairy products, drugs, fruits etc. Refrigerated
cargoes are perishable to a greater or lesser degree, and their safe carriage depends on maintaining
suitable storage conditions during transportation.

SHIP’S DERRICK
Parts of Derrick
 Cargo Boom: A spar extending from a mast or a king post, used as a derrick arm to handle
cargo. It is a cylindrical spar made of wood or steel by which cargo is loaded and
discharged. It is supported by masts or king posts.
 Cargo Runner: The term used to describe cargo lifting wire used on Derrick.
 Topping Lift: The rig that supports the cargo boom at any desired angle from the deck and
the tackle that rises and lowers the boom. There could be a single topping lift or a multiple
topping lifts used for the derrick.
 Span topping lift: It is a stationary lift shackled into the head of the boom and into the head
of a king post. The boom remains at one certain angle at all times.
 Guys: The lines or tackle used to steady or swing cargo booms are known as guys. Guys
may be outboard, inboard or leading athwartship.
 Head of boom: It is the upper end of the boom.
 Heel of the boom: it is the lower end of the boom.
 Bail: It is triangular piece of steel or boiler plate used in connection with the single topping
lift. The lower end of the single topping lift is shackled into the upper corner of the bail; the
topping lift chain and the bull rope are shackled into the shackled into the topping lift eye,
the bail served to separate them.
 Side whip or side runner: It is runner on boom positioned over the side of the ship.
 Hatch whip or hatch runner: It is runner on the boom positioned over the hatch.
 Pedestal: It is the fitting which takes the gooseneck of the jumbo boom.
  Preventer: Any piece of gear rigged in addition to the regular gear to prevent it from
carrying away; the best known is the preventer guy which is simply a single wire shackled
into the head of the boom and led down to the deck and made fast.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0PJ4zTvNwwQ&list=PLNtMYzxzFNRXZAnHy9IKv4DFuj8AhS-AD

SHIP CRANE
A deck cargo crane mainly comprises of these sections and equipment:
Base Structure of the crane: The base structure of the crane is an extra strengthened structure, on
which, the pedestal of the crane is mounted.
Fixed Pedestal: This structure equally distributes the stresses to the base structure and also
incorporates the moving turrets via a slew ring connection to enable the rotational movement of the
crane
Crane House: Crane House is where the operator’s cabin is situated, and the crane Jib is connected
to it. As per the make and design, the turret can move 360 degrees to its centre of rotation.
Jib Arm: The Jib arm is what carries the load. The arm can be hydraulically moved in four
directions- Up, down, back and forward. The Crane House performs the rotational movement of the
crane to transfer the load.
Hoist with wire: The hoist is hanged at the end of the Job arm with the use of steel wire ropes,
which are connected to the winch drum for lifting or lowering weight for transfer.
Hydraulic and electric equipment: The hydraulics and electrical machinery are an integral part of
crane operation. Hydraulic oil pressure results in the movement of jib and turret, and winches do
the lifting of the load using hoist and wire. A small leak in the hydraulic line or problem in the
winch motor may stall the complete loading/unloading operation.
Safety Devices: One cannot say a machinery is complete without any safety devices installed on it.
The deck cargo crane is provided with an emergency stop, overload protection, hydraulic oil filter
and level alarms, brakes etc. as safety devices.

Crane advantage over derricks

Simple operation
Single-man operation, derricks are more
labour-intensive
Clear deck operational views
Clear deck space of rigging
Versatility with heavy loads, and not required to de-rig
360º slew and working arc when compared with limited operating areas for derricks
Able to plumb any point quickly making a faster load/discharge operation
Enclosed cabin for operator, whereas the majority of derrick operators are exposed,
offering greater operator protection and comfort
Cranes are acceptably safer to operate because of their simplicity, whereas derrick rigs can be
overly complicated in rigging and operation
Cranes can easily service two hatches, or twin hatches in the fore and aft direction because of their
360º slew ability.
Derrick rigs are usually designed to service a specific space.

GRAB
A grab is a mechanical device with two or more jaws (sometime clamshell-shaped), used to pick
things up or to capture things. Some types include:
 Roundnose grab
 Clamshell grab
 Orange-peel grab
There are different ways of open/close the grabs:
 electro-hydraulic / diesel-hydraulic
 mechanical by rope(s) (1-rope, 2-ropes, 3-ropes, 4-ropes)
Grabs can be used for:
 dredging
 bulk handling (e.g. loading/unloading ships)
 salvage (e.g. ship-wrecks, oil)

Electro hydraulic grab

Electro hydraulic grab is equipped with an electric motor to power the hydraulic pump. The
hydraulic pump brings hydraulic cylinder into action forcing grab buckets to open and close. Power
is supplied to the electro hydraulic grab via a power-cable that is situated at the crane jib with some
additional equipment, e.g. cable drum, rope drum, guide rollers.

Diesel hydraulic grab, fully radio controlled

A radio controlled diesel hydraulic grab is a crane attachment that is operated independently of
power cables or hydraulic lines; it is completely self-sufficient and is operated via a radio control
device by the crane driver or another person at the loading room. Thus, a radio controlled grab can
be used on any crane, since an external power supply is not necessary. A diesel engine inside the
grab provides the power to drive the hydraulic pump. The crane operator has to send command to
move the buckets via a radio control. The way of control the movements of the buckets / clamshells
is identical with an electro-hydraulic grab. They are fast, reliable and the better alternative solution
comparing to mechanical single rope grabs!

Mechanical rope grab

Mechanical rope grabs can have one rope, two ropes or four ropes. Some rare special cranes need
3- rope grabs. As the name suggests, mechanical grab is operated by means of cable / rope systems
only (“pulley block / lifting block”) and requires no power supply or hydraulic lines. Mechanical
grab is used for loading and unloading of bulk materials in ports, at industrial plants, as well as in
ore smelting and blast furnaces’ operation. It is used in port facilities as well. Here a purely
mechanical grab is a great advantage, because they are mechanical and robust. No electronics, no
hydraulic parts. “Pimped” mechanical grabs with e.g. radio control and hydraulic system loose this
advantage. Mechanical single rope grabs are the oldest grab- system. They are slower with less t/h
and have a higher dead weight compare to motor grabs (diesel hydraulic or electro-hydraulic).
Bale Capacity
Bale capacity is the space available in a ship’s compartment where cargo is loaded in packaged
form e.g. bales, bundles, bags, drums, boxes, etc.
This is the cubic capacity of a cargo compartment when the breadth is taken from the inside of the
cargo battens or from the inner edges of the frames, and the height from the tank top to the lower
edge of the beams and the length from inside of the bulkhead stiffeners or sparring where fitted.

Grain Capacity
This is the total internal volume of a cargo compartment measured from shell plating to shell
plating and from tank top to under deck and an allowance is given for the volume occupied by
frames and beams. This space is not only associated with the carriage of grain, as such, but with
any form of bulk cargo, which would stow similarly, that is to say completely filling the space.
(In Other Words)
The cubic capacity of a cargo space when the length, breadth and depth are measured from the
inside of the ship’s shell plating, all allowances being made for the volume occupied by frames and
beams.
It is obvious that a solid cargo can be stowed only up to the limits of the frames and beams whereas
bulk cargo will flow around such members. Therefore when measuring for general cargo, it is the
bale capacity, which is taken into consideration.
Although both grain and bale capacities are normally used to show the volume or capacity of a ship
to carry cargo, other units of measurement are more appropriate for specific trades, e.g. TEUs for
container ships, lane-metres for Ro-Ro ships, etc.
Safe working load (SWL) – Safe Working Load is the stress that a component of a lifting
appliance can safely bear in normal use. The marine industry uses a factor of one-sixth of the
breaking strain to establish the safe working value.
The SWL is determined by dividing the minimum breaking strength (MBS) of a component by a
safety factor assigned to that type of equipment. The safety factor generally ranges from 4 to 6.
what is the proof load and why proof load test is done?
 Tests should be done using a weight, sufficient to ensure that when it is loaded to SWL. It
will safely hold the load.
 As a gear cannot test for its breaking stresses, it is tested for weight above SWL, but less
than breaking stress.
 That Load is called Proof load.

what are the factors governing proof load? (How do you determine what proof load to be
used?)
The Proof load depends on the component and its size. Every lifting appliance shall be tested with a
test load which shall exceed the SWL. It is given in the ILO Convention 152.
SWL up to 20t : 25% in excess of the SWL
SWL 20t – 50t : add 5t to SWL
SWL greater than 50t : 10% to SWL

Breaking Strength:
It is the stress/strength at which a component will fracture

FACTOR OF SAFETY:
It is defined as the ratio between the strength of the material and the maximum stress in the part.
When the stress in a specific position becomes superior to the strength of the material, the safety
factor ratio becomes inferior to 1, this when there is danger.
Factor of safety( safety margin) is a factor used to divide the breaking strength to obtain SWL

Factory of Safety [FS] = Actual Breaking Strength

--------------------------------------
Normal Working Load

Stowage Factor
Stowage factor is defined as the volume in cubic meters a tonne of that cargo will occupy.
For successful loading, a vessel must utilize every cubic meter of space to the best advantage, with
due regard to the necessary care and attention to conditions of stowage. Thus, the freight earning
capability of the vessel is kept at a maximum. To do this it is necessary to know the amount of
space, which each tonne of a commodity will occupy.
The earning capacity of a ship is determined by the amount of cargo she can carry.
(In Other Words)
The volume occupied by unit weight of cargo, usually expressed as cubic metres per tonne
(m³/tonnes) or cubic feet per ton (cu.ft./ton). It does not take account of any space which may be
lost due to ‘broken stowage’.
Examples of stowage factors are: -
Coal 1.18/1.33 cu.m./tonne.
Maize 1.37 cu.m./tonne.
Rubber in bales. 1.81/1.87 cu.m./tonne
An intelligent knowledge of the use of stowage factors is necessary to all cargo officers in order
that they may make economic use of each available space unit.

Broken Stowage
This is defined as that space in a loaded cargo compartment that is not filled with cargo. It is the
space occupied by dunnage, the space between packages and the space that is left over the last tier
placed in stowage. Broken stowage is expressed as a percentage of the volume of cargo.
It is the space lost between the packages when stowing it in cargo holds.
Two factors contribute to this loss of space, which are:
• Type of the cargo, and
• Shape of the cargo hold.
It is maximum when the packages are large and of irregular shape. Broken stowage on uniform packaged
commodities will average about 10% that on general cargo will average about 25%.
To find the actual volume required to load unit weight break bulk cargo, broken stowage must be
added to stowage factor.
∴ Volume occupied by such a cargo of 1 ton (Corrected SF) = SF + (SF × BS/100)

Load Density & Cargo Density:

Load Density
Load density is the maximum amount of weight that can be loaded safely on a unit area. In metric system it
is expressed as tones/meter². Load density of various decks is provided in stability booklet, capacity plan,
etc. The height of the cargo can be decided with the help of load density of the deck and stowage factor of
the cargo.
Load density of various decks is provided in stability booklet, capacity plan, etc.
Cargo Density
Cargo density is defined as mass of a cargo per unit volume. In metric system its unit is
tonnes/meter³.
Therefore we can say that cargo density is reciprocal of stowage factor.
High density cargoes will have low stowage factor and low density cargoes will have high stowage
factor.
The owner of a ship wants that the space on the ship is completely utilized and also she is loaded
down to her maximum permissible draft. Only in that case he will earn maximum.
Cargoes, which have high stowage factor and less density, will not be able to bring the ship down to
her maximum permissible load line. In other words the ship’s space will get filled up with less
amount of cargo. The owner would then like to charge freight on the volume of cargo loaded. If a
heavy cargo is loaded on the ship, it will bring her to her maximum permissible draft before the
hatches are full. In this case the owner would like to charge the freight based on the deadweight
carried. Based on which the freights are charged, the cargoes are divided into two categories. These
are –
• Deadweight Cargo
• Measurement Cargo
Deadweight cargo is the term applied when the freight is charged per tonne weight. (eg a
cargo of ingots) - cargo having a low stowage factor.
Measurement cargo is the term applied when the freight is charged per unit volume. (eg a
cargo of feathers) - cargo having a high stowage factor.
The decision as to whether freight is charged on weight or volume is negotiable in a particular
contract for carriage (the charter party). The shipowner or manager needs to make a
reasonable profit from his freight income and so cargo which has weight as a more significant
aspect than the volume of space occupied is charged per tonne weight, 'deadweight cargo'.
Alternatively, if the cargo to be carried when stowed occupies all the available cargo
compartment volume before the ship is down to her loadline marks, the shipowner would not
gain a fair profit from a charge made on weight, so the charge is made on volume, 'measurement
cargo'.

The stowage factor is a useful indicator, and cargo with a stowage factor below 1.2 may be
described as deadweight cargo and that with an SF above 1.2 can be said to be measurement
cargo.
A number of calculations can be made based on these definitions, examples of which follow.

Permissible Load Density:

Permissible load density is nothing but the allowable maximum load density for that particular
cargo hold tank top or the main deck or the hatch top.
The strength limits that are to be applied to tank tops are calculated and approved by the
Classification Societies. The maximum limits are expressed in tonnes per square metre and are
included in the ship’s stability manuals and capacity plans.
When preparing cargo loading plans, it is important that the ship is loaded as close as possible to its
maximum deadweight or capacity, but it is equally important to consider not toexceed the
permissible load density at any time.
To calculate the number of tonnes that can be loaded on the tank top without exceeding the limit,
the area of the tank top in square metres is multiplied by the permissible number of tonnes per
square metre. To ensure that the limits are not exceeded, the cargo must be spread evenly over the
area of the tank top.
Maximum permissible load Contd..:
 Point-loading and uneven distribution of cargo weight can, and frequently does, cause
unnecessary damage to decks and hatch-covers.
 Unless the weather-deck has been specially strengthened, it is unlikely to have a maximum
permissible weight-loading of more than 3 tonnes/m2.
 Similarly, unless hatch-covers have been specially strengthened, it is unlikely they will have
a maximum permissible weight-loading of more than 1.8 tonnes/m2.
 The ship’s capacity plan and/or general arrangement plan should always be consulted.
 If the information is not there, try the ship’s stability booklet.
 In the event that specific values are not available onboard the ship, allow no more than2.5
tonnes/m2 for weather-deck areas; and no more than 0.75 tonnes/m2 for hatch covers in
small vessels; 1.30 tonnes/m2 in vessels over 100m in length.
 The adverse effects of point-loading are not always fully appreciated. On the one hand, a6-
tonne machine with a fat-bed area of 3m2 will exert a down-load of 2 tonnes/m2.
 Dunnage should be used to avoid point loads and to spread the load.

For example:
1. A consignment of apples packed in boxes having stowage factor 1.31cu. m/ton to be loaded
in a cargo space having bale capacity equals to 1000cu m. Calculate the total amount in
weight that can be loaded.

Given cargo hold space = 1000 cu m

cargo stowage factor = 1.31

volume
 cargo loaded = stowage factor
1000
= 1 .31
= 763.36 Tons
 Using the above question (1)
Calculate the total amount of cargo to be loaded if 10% broken stowage is allowed.
Nett volume occupied by cargo allowing for 10% broken stowage
1000 cu m
= 1.1 New SF = 1.31+(1.31 x 10/100)
= 909.09 cu m = 1.31 + 0.131 = 1.441 Cu. M/Ton
909 . 09 cu m
 cargo loaded = 1. 31 cu m/ton Cargo Loaded = 1000 / 1.441
= 693.96 Tons = 693.96 Tons
2. A cargo hold has a grain capacity of 3200 Cu. mtrs. and bale capacity of 3100 Cu. Mtrs.

Find the quantity of each of the following commodities which can be loaded in the
compartment:
• Cotton bales, Stowage Factor 1.6 cu.m. per ton and Broken Stowage 10%.
• Iron ore having stowage factor 0.40 cu.m. per ton.
Solution
Space available to load cotton bales = Bale capacity = 3100 cu. m.
Space required to load 1 ton = SF + (SF × BS/100)
= 1.6 + (1.6 × 10/100)
= 1.6 + 0.16 cu.m.
= 1.76 cu.m.
Quantity of cotton bales which can be loaded in the cargo hold
= 3100/1.76 tonnes
= 1761.363 tonnes
Space available to load iron ore = grain capacity
= 3200 cu. m.
Space required to load 1 ton = Stowage factor = 0.40 cu. m.
Quantity of iron ore which can be loaded in cargo hold = 3200/ 0.40
= 8000 tonnes.

3. If load density of the hold in the above example was 10 tonnes per sq. m. and dimensions of
cargo hold is 18 × 15 × 12 m. find the quantity of cargoes in cases A and B.
Maximum quantity of cargo which can be loaded = Area of the tank top × Load density = 18 × 15 ×
10 tonnes
= 2700 tonnes
When the vessel is loading cotton bales although maximum weight which can be loaded in the hold
is 2700 tonnes, same can not fit as the volume of the hold is insufficient and the ship cannot load
the 2700 tonnes.
On the other hand the hold has the cubic capacity to receive 8000 tonnes of iron ore, but load
density does not permit us to load that much cargo.
Hence it can load only 2700 tonnes of iron ore.

Worked example :
4. How many tonnes of following cargoes would fit in a cargo hold 12m x 9m x 3.5m?
a) copper ingots SF = 0.31 BS = 8%
b) Machinery case SF = 1.03 BS = 13%
e) Drums SF = 1.64 BS = 11.2%

Ans: Hold Vol. 13m x 9m x 3.5m = 378m³

a)0.31 + 8% of 0.31 = 0.3348;

cargo quantity = 378/ 0.3348 = 1129.0 t

b) 1.03 + 13% of 1.03 = 1.1639;

cargo quantity = 378/ 1.1639 = 324.77 t

e) 1.64 + 11.2% of 1.64= 1.823;

cargo quantity = 378/ 1.823 = 207.27 t

5. Let us take a simple example. Say load density of tank top of a bul carrier is 12 tonnes/sq
meter. The length of the cargo hold is 30 meters and breadth of the cargo hold is 20 meters.
So how much total cargo we can load on this tank.

Total cargo that can be loaded in this tank = Length x Breath x Load density
So Maximum cargo = 30 x 20 x 12 = 7200 Tonnes.
Now if the stowage factor of the cargo to be loaded is 0.9 m3/Tonne.
So the volume of the cargo that can be loaded in tank will be 7200 x 0.9 m3. That mean we can
load 6480 m3.
We know the length and breadth of the tank, so we can calculate the maximum height to which this
cargo can be loaded.
Maximum Height = 6480 / 600 = 10.8 Meters
So load density helps the ship staff to know to what height a cargo can be loaded.
On tankers, load density is given as to the maximum density of the cargo that can be loaded.
For example, if load density of a tanker ship is given as 1.2 t/m3, it means that we can load the tank
to full if the load density is lesser than or equal to 1.2 t/m3.
Let us say that volume of the tank is 3000 m3. This means that in this tank we can load maximum
3600 tonnes (3000 x 1.2 tonnes). Now it does not matter which cargo we load, we can never load
more than 3600 tonnes of cargo in this tank.
Now if we have to load a cargo of density 1.4 t/m3, we can load only 2571 m3 (3600/1.4 m3) of
this cargo. From the ullage table (or sounding table) we can calculate to what level we have to load
this cargo.

6. A Tween deck is 18m × 15m × 4m and has a permissible load density of 5 t/m2 . Steel billets
of SF 0.35 cum /t and general cargo of SF 4.0 cum /t are to be loaded there in to fill all the
available space. Find the maximum quantity of steel billets that can be loaded and the
quantity of over stowed general cargo so that the load density is not exceeded.
Solution
Given dimensions of the tween deck are 18m × 15m × 4m , PLD = 5t/m2
Volume of the compartment = 18 × 15 × 4 = 1080 m3
Area of the deck = 18 × 15 = 270 m2
Load Density = 5 t/m 2
Maximum amount of cargo that can be loaded in the tween deck = 270 × 5 = 1350 mt
Let x tonnes of steel billets and y tonnes of general cargo are loaded such that
x + y = 1350 -----------------1
y = 1350 - x
Space occupied by steel billets = Weight × S.F. = 0.35 x m 3
Space occupied by gen. Cargo = Weight × S.F. = 4y m 3
Hence 0.35x + 4y = 1080 ----------------2
By solving equation 1 and 2 we get
Substitute the value of y in equation, 2 we get
x = 1183.562 tonnes
y = 166.438 tonnes
Therefore ship can load 1183.562 tonnes of steel billets and 166.438 tonnes of general
cargo to fill up the tween deck completely and not exceeding the load density.

7. A cargo hold Bale capacity 580m³ & grain capacity 635m³ & is filled with maize in bulk,
with SF 1.37³ /t. It is now intended to discharge 125t of maize and load bagged maize in the
same hold. The bags are 0.5m x 0.4m x 0.3m and weigh 50Kg. The space lost between the bags
is 11%. How many tonnes of bagged maize can be loaded?
grain capacity = 635m³ ;
weight of cargo = 635 / 1.37 = 463.50t;
Grain volume available after 125 t of discharge = 125 x 1.37 = 171.25m³
So 171.25 m³ of grain vol. = (580 x 171.25) / 635 = 156.417 m³( bale)

Vol. occupy by each bag after BS = 0.06m³ + 11% of 0.06 = 0.0666m³

So No. of bags can be filled = 156.417m³ ÷ 0.0666 = 2348.60 no.

Each bag weighs = 50 kg. = 0.05t
So weight of bagged maize = 2348.60 x 0.05t = 117.43t

8. Hold / tween deck dimension 8m x 6m x 4m to be filled with steel pipes (SF=1.06 cum/t) and
paint drums(1.85 cum/t). If the permissible load density of tank top is 3.20t / m², find up to
what height steel can be loaded & how many tons of each cargo can be loaded?
Ans:-
Total weight of cargo = 3.20 x 8 x 6 = 153.6t

Hold vol. =(8x6x4) 192 m³:

Let x + y = 153.6 mt ---------------- 1
X – steel pipes, y – paint drums,
Volume occupied by paint drums & steel pipes will be
= wt x S.F ie., 1.06 x & 1.85 y

Therefore (1.06 x )+(1.85 y) = 192 m3 ------------------ 2

Solving equations 1 & 2,
X = 116.66 mt
Y = 36.94 mt
To find out the maximum height to which each cargo can be loaded:
Keeping the height of the cargo as a, V/S.F = WT,
6 X 8 X a / 1.06 = 116.66 mt
a = 2.58 m
The maximum height that the steel pipes can be loaded = 2.58m

9. How many tonnes of following cargoes would fit in a cargo hold 12.5m x 9m x 6.3m?
a) Bicycles SF = 3.10 BS = 14.5%
b) Beer cases SF = 1.95 BS = 7%
e) Granite Slabs SF = 0.48 BS = 11.2%
lf the load density of the above hold was 8.5 t/m2, to what height could you load the above
cargoes, taking into account the broken stowage?
Ans: To find the weight loaded per m2 in the hold , we divide the total weight loaded by the total
area of the hold.
For bicycles, welght / m2 = 199.69 / 12.5 x 9 = 1.775

For beer cases, weight / m2 = 339.68 / 12.5 x 9 = 3.019

For granite slabs, weight / m2 = 1327.74 / 12.5 x 9 = 11.802

we can see that for bicycles and beer cases, the permissible load density of the deck i.e. 8.5 t/m2,
is not exceeded. so we can load these cargoes fully to the maximum height ol the hold. However in
the case of granite slabs the load density of the deck is exceeded if the hold is loaded fully. so the
height of the cargo must be reduced so as to be within the permissible load density. This height can
be found out in two ways :
i. since a load density of 11.802 t/m2 is obtained when cargo is loaded to the maximum height of
6.3m, a load density of 8.5 t/m2 is proportionately obtained when cargo is loaded to a height of 8.5
x 6.3 / 11.802 = 4.537 m.
ii. lf 8.5 tonnes can be loaded on an area of. 1m2, the total weight that can be loaded over the entire
area of the hold = Load Density x Area = 8.5 x (12.5 x 9) = 956.25 tonnes.
The volume that this weight will occupy =
Weight x Stowage Factor = 956.25 x 0.5338 = 510.446 m3.
The height of this cargo will be = Volume / L x B = 510.446 / 12.5 x 9 = 4.537m.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1M89Zpx0EY

Dunnage
Dunnage is defined as a material used between, beneath, at the sides of or on top of cargo stowed
either in a ship’s hold, or on deck or in a container with the aim of protecting the cargo from
damage by chafing or wetness or to help stabilize a stow. If a shipowner does not use dunnage in
the correct manner than he may be held liable for any resulting damage.

Spar Ceiling
Spar ceiling or cargo battens are the permanent dunnage attached to ship's sides. They are made of
timber of size 150mm × 50mm fitted over the side frames. They are fitted horizontally into the
cleats, which are mounted on frames. Vertical distance of 230mm is generally kept between two
consecutive battens. Spar ceiling may also be fitted on the end bulkheads of the compartment.
The tank top of some ships may be covered with the double layer of dunnage. The bottom layer
may be of pieces of wood 50mm × 50mm or 75m × 50mm laid athwart ship, if bilges are at side of
hold, or fore and aft, if bilges at the end of hold, ensuring the free drainage to bilges.
The dunnage is placed 700mm to 1000mm apart. Upper layer consists of boards 25mm × 150mm in
size laid perpendicular to bottom dunnage and placed 150mm to 300mm apart.
Burlap may be spread over them to give a better appearance and to collect droppings.
A permanent wooden ceiling of about 65mm thickness protects tank top in the square of the hatch.
Similar arrangements may be prepared for the tween decks.
The use of dunnage may be summarised as:
 Preventing cargo coming into contact with free moisture/water on the tween deck or tank top.
 Preventing cargo from coming into contact with the steel boundary of the hold thus minimising
damage due to ‘ship’s sweat’.
 Assisting in providing ventilation, thus preventing / reducing ‘sweat’.
 Preventing spontaneous heating by affording good ventilation.
 Aiding distribution of weight over a layer of cargo thus minimising crushing damage to cargo.
 Preventing chafage between cargoes.
 Certain types can prevent pilferage of cargo.
 Aiding in distribution of cargo weight over tank top etc.
 Can be used to separate cargoes
 Prevent cargo from shifting
Examples of Dunnage:
1. Solid plastics 2. Bubble wrap 3. Wood 4. Air pillows 5. Kraft paper
6. Foam 7. Steel 8. Corrugated paper 9. Rubber

Sounding is a term used for taking a measurement of the amount of fluids in the tanks of a ship.
Why Manual Sounding?
On board ship, it is very important to keep the updated record of the quantity of liquids (in all
forms) present in various tanks. A ship is fitted with different types of automatic and hydraulic/
pneumatic/ mechanical sounding measuring systems wherein the level of the liquid can be checked
remotely or locally without manually measuring and calculating the liquid amount inside the tank.
Manual sounding is always preferred by all seafarers (deck and engine crew/ officer) to recheck the
level of the fluid in the tanks, ensuring the tanks will not overflow or run dry in any case.
When to Take Manual Sounding?

Manual sounding is taken by ship’s staff on a daily basis, but the following are the operations and
situations wherein the crew has to take manual sounding without fail:

1. On a daily basis to check the level of all ship’s tanks

2. When Oil transfer operation is going on, for e.g bunkering, sludge or bilge transfer etc.
3. When fresh water is received from the port
4. When OWS is operated, bilge tank sounding is monitored manually
5. When ship is involved in grounding or collision, the ship officer from each department must
check all the tank sounding to assess for any leakages
6. When chief engineer is relieved by the new chief, he/she should check the actual level and oil
quantity present onboard by manually sounding all the tanks
7. Before the ship is reaching a port, all important oil tanks are sounded and quantity cross
checked with sounding records for making the cargo plan
8. When ship is going to a dry dock for making the docking plan
9. When ship is entering Special Areas under MARPOL Annex VI and where fuel quality
change is required
10. Ballast tank sounding before approaching port, canal, channel etc.

Ullage
Ullage The measurement of liquid cargoes in shore tanks is usually made by measuring the actual
depth of liquid in the tank by “dipping”, i.e. lowering a steel tape into the tank and reading the
depth of oil. Since ship’s tanks are nearly full after loading and before discharge, it is simpler to
measure the “ullage” or the space remaining between the top of the oil in the tank and the top of the
tank.

SWEAT

a) “Sweat” is condensation, which forms on all

surfaces in a cargo compartment due to the inability
of the cooled air in the compartment, to hold water
vapour in suspension (warm air can hold much more
water vapour than cool air).

b) Sweat may be differentiated as follows:

i) Ship’s Sweat - exists when water droplets are
deposited onto the ship’s structure in the compartment
(e.g. deckheads, beams, frames, shipside, stringers
etc.) and then fall onto or come in contact with the
cargo.

It occurs when the dew point of the air in the cargo

compartment is more than the temperature of the
outside air/structural parts of the compartment.

It is usually found on voyages from warm places to

colder places.

ii) Cargo Sweat - arises when condensation forms

directly on the body of cargo itself.
It occurs when the temperature of the air in the compartment (or the cargo itself) is lower than the
dew point of the incoming air. It is likely to be found on voyages from cold to warmer places.

c) Prevention of Damage by Sweat

Although intelligent use of dunnage can minimise damage from sweat, it is more prudent to
consider the prevention of damage by the elimination/minimisation of sweat by efficient
ventilation.
Humidity is the amount of water vapour contained in a parcel of air.

Relative Humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour contained in a parcel of air to the
amount of water vapour that will saturate at the same temperature.

Dew point is the temperature at which a parcel of air if cooled, becomes saturated and water vapour
begins to condense out'

The controlling factor for the formation sweat is the relationship between the temperature and
humidity of the air in/outside the compartment. Air having 100% humidity is said to be “saturated
the temperature at which this occurs is called its dew point.

i) When the dew point of the outside air is lower than or equal to the dew point of the air in the
compartment - VENTILATE.

ii) When the dew point of the outside air is greater than the dew point of the air in the
compartment - DO NOT VENTILATE.

Cargo ventilation system helps in the following:

 Prevent cargo and ship sweat

 Supply fresh air to the cargo
 Prevent building up of poisonous gases
 Removing of smell of previous cargo
 Getting rid of heat and moisture given out by some types of cargo

Cargo ventilation on ships is important for both hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic cargoes.
Hygroscopic cargo has natural water/moisture content. This type of cargo is mainly plant products,
which absorb, retain, and release water within the cargo. This water leads to significant heating and
spreading of moisture in the cargo and result in caking or spoiling or cargo.
Non-hygroscopic cargo has no water content; however, they can get spoilt in moist environment.

Introduction To Ship Load Lines

“Load line is a special marking positioned amidships which depicts the draft of the vessel and the
maximum permitted limit in distinct types of waters to which the ship can be loaded.”
As a result of the numerous maritime accidents that have happened at sea due to over-loading of
vessels, the significance of having a standard maximum limit for ships was identified long before.
However, it took many years from then to have an International agreement for the universal
application of Load lines.
It was in 1930, when the first International Load Line Convention took place, after which, it was
periodically amended until the latest one that happened in 2003.
The fundamental purpose of a Load Line is to allot a maximum legal limit upto which a ship can be
loaded by cargo. By prescribing such limits, the risk of having the vessel sailing with inadequate
freeboard and buoyancy can be limited. A vessel should be having sufficient freeboard at all times,
any exceptions made will result in insufficient stability and excessive stress on the ship’s hull. This
is where load lines play an important role, as it makes the task of detecting whether the vessel is
over-loaded and its freeboard tremendously easy and effortless.
All vessels of 24 meters and more are required to have this Load line marking at the centre position
of the length of summer load water line.

All the lines are 25 mm thick and are cut into the shell plating. The upper edge of each load line
indicates its exact level. The top of the deck line indicates where the top of the freeboard deck
meets the outer side of the shell plating.
There are two types of Load line markings:-

1. Standard Load Line marking – This is applicable to all types of vessels.

2. Timber Load Line Markings – This is applicable to vessels carrying timber cargo.

These marks shall be punched on the surface of the hull, making it visible even if the ship side paint
fades out. The marks shall again be painted with white or yellow colour on a dark background /
black on a light background. The complete Load line markings consist of 3 vital parts.

Exactly 540 mm forward of the disk is a vertical line with horizontal lines 230 mm long on each
side of it. On the forward side of vertical line are marked T, S, W and if applicable, WNA.
The upper edge of summer line is at the same level as the upper edge of line of the Plimsoll mark.
The distance between upper edges of S and T and also S and W is 1/48 of Summer Draft of the
ship. If WNA mark is applicable then it is situated exactly 50 mm below the winter mark.
The yellow lines and the letters in the yellow arrows are only labels for the diagram – see their meaning
below.)
A Deck Line – It is a horizontal line measuring 300mm by 25mm. It passes through the upper
surface of the freeboard.
B Summer freeboard (The measurement from the Summer mark S to the main deck of the
ship.)
C These show the Classification Society (Lloyd’s Register) that “classes” the ship. Other
ships may have the letters A B (American Bureau of Shipping) or N V (Det Norske Veritas) or the
initials of other Classification Societies here.
Load Line Disc – It is the 300mm diameter and 25mm thick round shaped disc. It is intersected by
a horizontal line. The upper edge of the horizontal line marks the ‘Summer salt water line’ also
known as ‘Plimsol Line’.
TF Tropical Fresh : Tropical areas where the water is fresh (e.g. the Amazon River.)
F Fresh Water : Areas where the water is fresh (e.g. parts of the St Lawrence Seaway and the
Great Lakes of North America.)
T Tropical Water : Any area inside the tropics (e.g. a ship going from Nigeria to the
Caribbean Sea will pass through tropical water.)
S Summer : Summer zones are marked on a special map of the world according to the
general weather conditions experienced. The entire South African coast is a designated Summer
Zone, even during winter!
W Winter : Winter zones are marked on a special map of the world. These are zones where
stormy conditions can occur at particular times of the year.
WNA Winter North Atlantic : The northern part of the North Atlantic Ocean in winter and in
some areas of the Southern Ocean. These are areas where severe stormy conditions are experienced
regularly.
BALLASTING AND DE-BALLASTING OPERATIONS
Ballasting or de-ballasting is a process by which sea water is taken in and out of the ship when the
ship is at the port or at the sea. The sea water carried by the ship is known as ballast water.

When no cargo is carried by the ship, the ship becomes light in weight, which can affect its
stability. For this reason, ballast water is taken in dedicated tanks called water ballast tanks, (ex:
DB TANKS, TS TANKS, FPT, APT) in the ship to stabilize it. Tanks are filled with ballast water
with the help of high capacity ballast pumps and this process is known as Ballasting.

However, when the ship is filled with cargo, the stability of the ship is maintained by the weight of
the cargo itself and thus there is no requirement of ballast water. The process of taking out ballast
water from the ballast tanks to make them empty is known as de-ballasting.

Ballast and de-ballast operations on ship must be carried out by an experienced and responsible
officer as it is directly related to the stability factor of the ship. A ballast system may differ from
ship to ship but the basics of all ballast systems remain same; filling, removing, and transferring
water from one tank to other to get the required stability for a ship.

Why is Ballast Water Taken in the Tanks?

Let’s assume that the vessel does not have a ballast system. In such cases, the following conditions
may arise:
 The propeller may not fully immerse in water, affecting the engine efficiency of the ship
 The ship may list or trim as the cargo capacity of the ship is not fully reached
 The shear and torsion loads on the vessel may increase the stresses on the ship structure,
leading to bending moments and slamming
  Ballasting of ship helps in reducing ship’s stresses on the hull of the vessel. It also provides
for transverse stability of the ship
 As the propeller is submerged, it aids the propulsion plant in maintaining its efficiency
 Ballast helps in immersing the rudder, supporting the manoeuvrability of vessel and also
reducing the exposed hull surface
 The ship continually uses fuel and water from its tanks leading to weight loss. The ballast
operation helps in compensating for the weight loss.

Getting Familiar with the System

All valves in the ballast system are normally hydraulically operated from the remote operator
station in the ship’s control centre or in the ECR in manual mode or in automatic sequence.

The ballast pump suction and discharge valves, along with other valves, have their fail safe in the
OPEN position so that if any valve malfunction or get stuck, still remains open to carry out ballast
operation.

The overboard discharge valves have their fail safe as fail-stay position

Different Forms of Ballasting and De-ballasting

Ballasting or De-ballasting can be done in five following ways:

 Transferring water between tanks using gravity.

 Ballasting or De-ballasting tanks from sea using gravity.

 Ballasting the tanks using the ballast pump/pumps.

 De-ballasting the tanks using the ballast pump/pumps.

 De-ballasting the tanks using the stripping ejectors.

Note: Double bottom tanks should always be filled by gravity.

Important Points to Consider while Operating Ship’s Ballast System

 Care should be taken to ensure that the tank is not over filled; as this will damage the tanks,
piping system, valves etc.,
 Violation of marpol regulations as well as local pollution prevention violations when the
vessel is at berth.
 Also care has to be taken not to run the pump dry or run the pump with discharge valves
closed.
 Some vessels have automated system, which ensures that the pump will not start until all the
necessary valves are opened.
 Valves can be put in auto mode, which ensures that the valve closes automatically once
ballast tank is filled with required amount of water or once the set point is reached.
 Port and starboard sides are considered two separate systems, each having their own
automatic sequence for ballast /de-ballasting.
  When filling ballast tanks with ballast pumps it should be observed that the motors are not
overloaded (check current in ammeter). If this occurs, the number of opened valves to
ballast tanks shall immediately be reduced (closed) until current is within allowable limit.
Ballast pump motor overload alarm is given for the safety of ballast pump.
 Some times during sea voyage one can get an alarm on the ballast pumps suction pressure
high. At that time just open the suction valve to the sea chest and close them when the
pressure is reduced.
 The water in the heeling tanks should always be half of their total capacity. But if required
the heeling tanks can be used as ballast tanks. Ballast pump is used to empty or fill the
heeling tank.
 Also in some ports the port authorities may ask for a sample of the ballast that the ship is
carrying. In this case the sample has to be taken from the sounding pipe connection. The
locations of all the sounding pipes are provided on the ballast system plan of the ship.

Major Problems Faced During Ship’s Ballasting And De-ballasting Operations

 Ballasting and deballasting operations are common and quite frequent onboard ships. These
operations are mainly carried out while the vessel is in port, during ballast exchange, cargo
transfer and while taking heavy weather ballast. Lot of machinery and manpower is engaged
in these day-to-day operations which require great care and attention while handling.

 It is therefore prudent to discuss the ballasting/deballasting plan during pre-arrival meeting

or cargo work briefings.

 While preparing a ballasting/deballasting plan the critical stages with regards to ship
stability, stresses and change-over of tanks should be clearly identified and discussed.

Improper Familiarisation:

 The officers and crew members responsible for operating the ballast pumps and valves must
be fully conversant with the line up and meaning of various “valve indications” and symbols
provided on the ballast line up diagrams in Cargo control room and Pump room. They
should be able to differentiate between indication of manual valves, hydraulic valves,
manual-hydraulic valves, suction and discharge gauges for pumps and the prime mover for
ballast pumps such as steam, electricity or hydraulic pressure. This helps a lot in executing
the whole operation smoothly.

 Faulty Gauges and Sounding pipes : Most of the Ballast tank gauges work on pneumatic
pressure difference method, where a measured pressure of air and difference of counter
pressure gives the level of ballast in a tank and the reading is displayed in Cargo control
room through a digital or analog reading. These gauges are to be purged regularly and
readings should to be compared with manual soundings to eliminate erratic readings.
Sounding pipes are often found choked with rags or sounding rods or tapes. They must be
clear at all times to get correct manual soundings to ensure the tank is completely empty or
intermediate readings are correct in case the gauges are faulty. This will prevent dry running
of ballast pumps.
 During topping up ballast tanks, if the sighting ports for ballast manholes are kept open, it
can help greatly if the tank reaches the overflow level in case CCR readings mismatch or are
imperfect.
 Not Checking Shore Installations: Before starting a deballasting operation check alongside
the berth, pier or jetty for any electrical fittings or electrically operated shore bollards. Often
vessels were found negligent in checking this and thus eventually the ship owners were
fined heavily for the damage caused to the berth fittings due to ballast pumped out on them.
 Pressure Surges: While carrying out ballasting /de-ballasting operation the pumps in use
are mostly of centrifugal type. To start a centrifugal pump, positive suction pressure must
always be kept in mind. The discharge valve of the pump can be kept upto 30% open to
prevent damage to the valve body or valve seat ring. The discharge pressures and RPMs of
the pump to be increased slowly and gradually to avoid any pressure surges in the lines and
load surges in the engine room as well. Often pressure surges are common causes for
damaging the lines and valves. They even cause the load on boiler or generator to fluctuate
abruptly thereby tripping the plant completely and delaying the operation as a consequence.
During changeover or brief idle periods during operation pumps can be run in sea-to-sea
mode to avoid dry running and over-heating of pump casing or further damage to the pump
seal.
 While taking ballast by gravity during loaded passage, the inboard line to the tank should be
opened up completely, keeping the sea chest valve closed and only then the sea chest valve
should be opened. As in ship’s loaded condition due to deeper draft the sea water comes in
with heavy pressure and can damage the line fittings or valves if any valve is closed in
between.
 While deballasting by gravity the line from the ballast sea chest to the tank must be opened
completely keeping the tank valve closed. Once the line is fully open then the tank valve
should be opened slowly.
  Shallow Waters and Sediment Deposits: Care should be taken while carrying out ballast
operations in areas with low under keel clearance or with muddy bottom. They are the main
reason due to which ballast pump strainers are found choked or huge sediment deposits are
found inside the tanks after deballasting such water. These puddles of mud accumulated in
tanks can be considerable if the tanks are not being inspected and cleaned to remove
sediments regularly. Open Sea Ballast Water exchange can be another effective method in
removal of sediments. Mud and sediments can choke the suction bellmouth inside the tank
and thus retaining excess ballast onboard can be crucial where a vessel is loading to her
draft marks.

 Discharge Pressure in Parallel Suction Lines: Often during ballasting when two ballast
pumps are running together if the suction lines are common, one of the pumps tends to have
better suction than the other. Specially the one with direct suction line will have better
suction than the second pump’s suction line which is a branched one from the main line.
This should be borne in mind and the discharge pressure of the pumps adjusted accordingly
to ensure good suction to both the pumps till the water level in the tank comes down. As the
level falls further good use of trim and list can help pumps retain suction for a longer period
and thus reduce the deballasting time considerably.

 However if pump looses suction it can be run in sea-to-sea mode for some time and as the
suction and discharge pressure builds up the changeover of suction to the tank can be done
to resume de ballasting.

WEATHERTIGHT OR WATERTIGHT
The International Load Line Convention contains principles for assigning minimum freeboard to
ships: limits to how deep vessels are allowed to be loaded to perform a safe voyage. It also includes
regulations on how to construct and equip vessels to avoid ingress of sea water through various
openings. It addresses primarily the safety of the vessel, not the safety of the cargo. The convention
requires hatch covers to be “weathertight”, which may lead to arguments on how tight the hatch
covers really need to be, as the word “watertight” is not used. However, the Load Line Convention
itself states that “weathertight” means that in any sea condition water will not penetrate the ship.
Packaging of General Cargo
General cargo may be presented for shipment with various forms of packaging, such as:
 Bags - made from natural fibres like jute/cotton or from synthetic fibres and paper. Used for
cement, grain, sugar etc. They are liable to bursting at their seams.

Bagged cargoes

There are many examples of bagged cargoes: fishmeal, grain, beans, cocoa, etc. to name but a few.
They may be packed in paper bags like cement, or Hessian sacks, as employed for grain or bean
products, loading taking place either in containers or on pallet slings. Size of bags tends to vary
depending on the product, and are seen as a regular type of package for general cargo vessels.
However, handling bagged cargo is expensive by today’s standards and many of the products lend
more easily and more economically to bulk carriage or container stow. Where bags are stowed they
should be on double dunnage, stacked either bag on bag or stowed half bag as shown below.

Double dunnage Half bag stow Bag on bag stow

Examples of bagged stowage.

When receiving bagged cargo the bags should be seen to be clean and not torn. Neither should they
be bled in order to get a few extra bags into the compartment. Such an action would only increase
the sweepings after discharge and lead to increased cargo claims. Slings should be made up, in or
close to, the square of the hatch. If they are made up in the wings, then bags are liable to tear as the
load is dragged to the centre.
Stevedores should not use hooks with paper bags and bags should not be hoisted directly by hooked
lifting appliances. Shippers frequently provide additional unused bags to allow for residual
sweepings. This allows for all bags being discharged ashore, even torn bags, to ensure that a
complete tally is achieved. Bags containing oil seeds of any type must be stowed in a cool place as
these are liable to spontaneous combustion.

Bale goods

Various types of goods are carried in bales, either in open stow or containerized. They are pressed
tightly into a rectangular bundle and then strapped firmly with metal bands or cord. Bales in open
stow are normally laid on thick single dunnage of at least 50 mm in depth. Bales are expected to be
clean with all bands intact. Any stained or oil marked bales should be rejected at the time of
loading.
All bales should be protected against ships sweat and the upper level of cargo should be covered
with matting or waterproof paper to prevent moisture from the deck head dripping onto the cargo
surface.
Lifting by hooking onto bands should be avoided.
Examples of bale cargoes:

Carpets – Cotton/cotton waste – Esparto grass – Fibres – Oakum – Rubber – Tobacco –

Wood pulp - wool, hair, cloth

Bale Cargo Case Cargo

 Cases - rectangular boxes made from wooden planks nailed and banded. Can be strong or
fragile depending on quality of wood & construction of case. Used for heavier goods like spare
parts etc. or to protect fragile goods.

Case goods

Case goods lend particularly to a general cargo open stow but can be containerized depending on
size. Heavy cases should always be given bottom stow with the lighter cases on top. If the contents
of the case are pilferable, then they should be loaded into a lock-up stow and tallied in and tallied
out.
Slinging of case goods will be directly related to their weight and may be fitted with identified
lifting points. Care should be taken that such lifting points are attached to the load and not just to
the package
Specific case goods, i.e. glass, may have special stowage requirements. This would probably be
marked as ‘Fragile’ or ‘This way up’ and require side, end on stowage. Crated cars or boats would
expect to be loaded on level ground, and generally other crated goods would be treated as case
goods depending on the nature of the contents.
Fork lift truck operations are often employed with the movement and stowage of heavy case goods
both in the warehouse, on the quayside and aboard the vessel. However, the use of fork lift trucks
inside the hold tends to be restrictive with case goods because they are so bulky. The fork lift truck
needs open deck space to allow manoeuvring and as large cases quickly start to fill the
manoeuvring space, landing becomes the only method to continue loading.
Reference:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Th6aOhDp4pY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c7wtltCEzEA
Palletization
To further facilitate quicker dispatch of cargo into/out of the ship, and to allow it to be handled
mechanically by machines such as forklift trucks, small packages of cargo (unit packages) of
uniform size are sometimes consolidated into ‘unit loads’ on ‘pallets’ (double-layered wooden
platforms of standard dimensions capable of being lifted conveniently by fork lift trucks). Special
‘pallet slings’ make the slinging of pallets, onto derrick/cranes, faster and easier. The concept being
to assist the process of cargo handling by reducing the number of occasions when a piece of cargo
has to be manually handled thereby increasing cargo throughout.

A pallet(also called a skid) is a flat transport structure, which supports goods in a stable fashion
while being lifted by a forklift, a pallet jack, a front loader, a jacking device, or an erect crane. A
pallet is the structural foundation of a unit load which allows handling and storage efficiencies.
While most pallets are wooden, pallets can also be made of plastic, metal, paper, and recycled
materials. Each material has advantages and disadvantages.

Palletizing is regarded to be a sure-safe way of dispatching marine cargo consignments. The cargo
placed on pallet is secured with straps and wraps in order to stabilize and prevent any unwanted
movement.
Pre-packed loaded pallets are still widely used around commercial ports and are packed in uniform
blocks to minimize broken stowage. Typical cargoes suitable for loading to pallets are cartons,
small boxes, crates, sacks and small drums.
Palletisation has distinct advantages when compared with open stow, general cargo, break bulk
handling methods:
1. Less handling of cargo
2. Less cargo damage (no hook use and limited pilferage)
3. Faster loading discharge times.

Securing Cargo
Need for solid stow and securing of all cargoes:
Cargo onboard a ship will tend to shift with the motion of the ship. This necessitates the cargo
to be lashed (secured) to the ship structure. However the lashing with ropes/ wire ropes/ iron
restraining bars is not very effective because of the fact that the tightened lashings have a
tendency to work loose with the motion of the ship.
On shore any nut which is fitted tightly on a bolt works loose with vibrations as such - spring
washers are used together with check nuts and split pins to prevent the working loose of
such nuts. This is not practical on shipboard lashings - except for turnbuckles and bottle
screws with restraint bars. Below deck lashings further are not attended to during sailing and
if they work loose it is practically impossible to do a very effective job to re-secure them.
Temporary measures are often adopted and these may not be very effective as stated earlier.
Thus the only way to prevent the lashings from working loose is to stow the cargo very close
to each other and then to shore the cargo with timber.
This would prevent the cargo from acquiring momentum while swaying with the ship and thus
prevent to a large extent the working loose of the lashings.

PRE SLUNG CARGO:

‘Pre-slinging’ of cargo, where slings are left on after loading so as to facilitate quicker discharge at
the other end (by avoiding the building up of sling loads again) is a form of unitization and is used
on some trades.

LOG BOOK ENTRIES :

During cargo work appropriate entries must be made in the Mate's log book to prevent cargo claims
being made later. Entries should include:
1. Inspection of the cargo hold by Surveyor prior to loading.
2. Opening and closing of the hatches.
3. Time of arrival and departure of the stevedore labour on the ship and
the number of gangs.
4. Time of commencement and ceasing of cargo work.
5. Any interruptions or stoppages during cargo work and their reason.
e.g. machinery break down, strikes, inclement weather, shortage of cargo, etc.
6. The hatch numbers being worked.
7. The morning and evening Drafts.

CARGO SECURING METHODS

Goods should be prevented from sliding and tipping in forward, backward and sideways
directions by locking, blocking, lashing or a combination of these methods.
 Blocking
Examples of blocking: front wall, wedges, dunnage bags, chocks and beams.
 Lashings
Examples of lashings are web lashings, loadbinders with chain and fixed winches. The
equipment can be used in different applications e.g. top-over lashings (friction lashing),
direct lashings and loop lashings.
 Locking
Means that the cargo is mechanically locked to the load bearer. One example is twistlock for
containers.
Different kinds of lashings
Web lashings
To use a web lashing, or textile lashing, is one of the most common ways of securing cargo. One
method that is often used is a top-over lashing (friction lashing). When using a top-over lashing the
cargo is pressed down against the load carrier by the tensioning force built up in the lashing,
simplified one could say that the weight is “increased”. This combined “weight” in interaction with
the actual friction between the cargo and the load carrier's surface prevents the cargo from sliding.
This type of lashing is also used to prevent cargo from tipping and/or to wander.
The tensioning force for the current lashing can be found on the marking (label) of the lashing and
is called STF. When using the lashing as a direct lashing or a loop-lashing the strength in straight
pull is used. When doing so the LC, or Lashing Capacity, is used.
Chain lashings
A chain lashing is used in the same way as a web lashing with the distinction that it is more
commonly used as a direct lashing. With a chain lashing in G80 or G100 much higher values for
LC and STF are reached.
Blocking and Bracing
Blocking means that the cargo is stowed against fixed blocking structures and
fixtures on the CTU. Clumps, wedges, dunnage, stanchions, inflatable dunnage bags and
other devices which are supported directly or indirectly by fixed blocking structures are also
considered as blocking.
Blocking is primarily a method to prevent the cargo from sliding, but if the blocking
reaches high enough, it also prevents tipping. Blocking is the primary method for cargo
securing and should be used as far as possible.
The sum of void spaces in any horizontal direction should not exceed 15 cm.
However, between dense rigid cargo items, such as steel, concrete or stone, the void spaces
should be further minimized, as far as possible.

Securing Cargo
Need for solid stow and securing of all cargoes:
Cargo onboard a ship will tend to shift with the motion of the ship. This necessitates the cargo
to be lashed (secured) to the ship structure. However the lashing with ropes/ wire ropes/ iron
restraining bars is not very effective because of the fact that the tightened lashings have a
tendency to work loose with the motion of the ship.

On shore any nut which is fitted tightly on a bolt works loose with vibrations as such – spring
washers are used together with check nuts and split pins to prevent the working loose of such nuts.
This is not practical on shipboard lashings - except for turnbuckles and bottle screws with restraint
bars. Below deck lashings further are not attended to during sailing and if they work loose it is
practically impossible to do a very effective job to re-secure them.

Temporary measures are often adopted and these may not be very effective as stated earlier.
Thus the only way to prevent the lashings from working loose is to stow the cargo very close
to each other and then to shore the cargo with timber. This would prevent the cargo from
acquiring momentum while swaying with the ship and thus prevent to a large extent the
working loose of the lashings.

For bagged cargo if the same is not stowed solidly and thus allowing too much of broken
stowage, would tend to shift with the motion of the ship, thus shifting the centre of gravity
laterally and inducing a list to the ship. This coupled with the heeling of the ship would make
the weather deck of a ship too close to the water line and thus endanger the safety of the
ship.
Bulk cargo on general cargo carriers are therefore saucered with the same cargo, in order to
prevent the cargo from shifting to one side.
Deck cargo due to the high KG is especially vulnerable lateral shifting and the lashings work
loose and also to part lashing. Especially since the transverse momentum gained by such
cargo during the rolling of a ship is liable to part lashings. Thus all deck cargo has to be
definitely shored and then also lashed to deny the cargo from gaining any momentum.
Bagged Rice Cargoes - Humidity & Ventilation - YouTube

Cargo liable to slide during rolling, such as steel rails, should be Stowed fore and aft
All long cargoes such as steel rails, pipes, long steel plates as well as steel coils are stowed
with their ends in the fore and aft direction. This again is necessary due to the fact that most
of theses cargo cannot be individually lashed they rather grouped into bundles and the
bundles are lashed to make many small bundles of pipes or rails as the case may be. This
prevents the individual pipes from sliding and since as mentioned the transverse momentum
is quite large when the ship is rolling, and the pipes are thus prevented from damaging the
sidewalls of the hold. This is severe since repeated banging has resulted in tearing holes in
the shipside plates below the waterline and the ship capsizing due the inflow of water.
If the pipes / rails are stowed in the fore and aft direction this is prevented.
Bundling of long cargo (pipes/ rails):

CARGO CARE ON PASSAGE

The aim of ship’s officers and crewmembers on board should be to prevent damage or deterioration
whilst the cargo is under their care and to deliver it, as far as possible, in as good condition and
order as it was when received aboard. If unacquainted with a certain type of cargo you should
ascertain as to its nature and any necessary precautions.

Therefore, the Master and officers of all vessels require a good working knowledge of the various
kinds of cargo they are likely to carry: their peculiar characteristics, liability to damage, decay, or
deterioration, their measurement, and the usual methods of packing, loading and discharging,
stowage, dunnaging, etc., as the Master is responsible for the safe loading of his vessel and the
proper stowage of the cargo.

The ship as carrier is obliged to care for the cargo in an expert manner to ensure it is discharged in
the same state in which it was loaded.
There are many factors that need to be considered.
Ventilation on Passage
Many cargo claims arise due to lack of ventilation of the cargo, particularly agricultural products. A
common procedure for ventilating hatches at sea is to `crack' them open. Considerable care must be
taken during this procedure as the ships hatch tops are not designed to be opened during any rolling
motion. When such hatches are opened they must not be left in the jacked up position, but should
be lowered onto the compression bars and locked into position.
Self-heating and spontaneous combustion
Many bulk cargoes have a tendency to heat due to the oxidation process taking place during the
voyage, which may lead to fire or explosion if the temperature rises to a level where spontaneous
ignition can take place. Cargoes liable to spontaneous combustion include some types of coal,
concentrates of lead, oil seed cakes (transported in bulk), fishmeal and scrap metal.
Fumigation Monitoring
If the cargo has undergone fumigation, which is required to continue through the passage, checks
should be made to ensure that the seals remain in position and that the fumigants do not leak due to
movement of the vessel in a seaway. Any adverse changes should immediately be recorded in the
logbook and precautionary measures taken to avoid any further damage and aggravation of the
situation.
Temperature Monitoring
Many bulk cargoes are liable to spontaneous combustion or ship or cargo sweat. The only possible
way to obtain an early warning of the start of spontaneous combustion is by monitoring the
temperature of the cargo holds. Many ships are fitted with `temperature ports', ie pipes that are
fitted beside the cargo hold access ladders into which thermometers can be lowered to obtain the
hold temperature. The best practice is to leave the thermometers within the ports and withdraw
them when a reading is desired. However, if the ship is not fitted with temperature ports, the
sounding pipes could also be used to obtain temperatures.
Generation of gases
Many bulk cargoes emit combustible gases in large quantities that may present a fire or explosion
hazard and can corrode the steel structure of a ship.

Oxygen Depletion
Oxidation occurs in many cargoes as a result of chemical reactions taking place within them. This
generates carbon dioxide and other gases harmful to human health. Therefore, when entering any
space containing cargo, enclosed space entry procedures must be followed. Holds containing cargo
should only be entered under exceptional circumstances.
Physical Inspection of Vessel
Hatch covers on a bulk carrier are weathertight, ie they can withstand a certain amount of seawater
on deck and resist leakage into cargo holds. Ship's officers must ensure that the deck, including
hatch covers, is regularly inspected for any signs of leakage, slackening of hatch cover securing
devices and other loose items that may require securing. It is important that drain valves are
inspected to ensure they are free and still in position.

Precautions against heavy weather and safety of personnel

In extreme weather, when damage is more likely to occur, the safety of personnel involved in the
inspection of the vessel should be given priority. In bad weather personnel should only be allowed
on deck in an emergency and during daylight. The comparatively smaller freeboard of bulk carriers
means added precautions should be taken when an inspection is required:
On board, proper records and reports must be kept of cargo damage and how it occurred. Most
ships now carry digital cameras and photographic evidence to back up damage reports can be
invaluable in protecting the interests of the ship. Deck logs, ventilation logs, records of inspection,
maintenance records, letters of protest, draught surveys, should also be available if required.
CARE OF CARGO IN TRANSIT…… Contd
After you have loaded the cargo properly, the care for the cargo during transit before it is
discharged therefore is of paramount importance. You must have a thorough knowledge of the
properties of the cargo and the care and the precautions that need to be taken on the voyage to
maintain it in the same condition as it was when loaded on board.
While at sea, the safety of cargo, safety of the vessel and the safety of the crew onboard are so
interlinked that, all the three need to be kept in mind at all times.
For instance, if the cargo works loose below deck due to heavy weather, it must be attended to
immediately, and not doing so could cause damage to the cargo and consequently damage to the
ship's structure. Care of cargo in transit varies with type of cargo.
If proper care is not taken damage or loss of cargo may take place due to following:
Fire and Explosion
Inadequate Temperature and Pressure control
Inadequate Atmosphere control
Inadequate Moisture control
Water ingress
Lashings if unattended or damaged
Pilferage
Contamination with other cargoes.

Outlined below are a number of points which should be considered when

contemplating the loading of solid bulk cargoes suspected of having a propensity
to shift.
(1) Carry out a visual examination of the cargo and enquire as to the extent and duration of
exposure to moisture (unprotected stowage on wet ground or in wet weather).
(2) Obtain and keep safe ship’s own samples (the quantity should be sufficient for any necessary
tests and be properly labelled and recorded etc). Do not just accept shippers samples, unless these
are taken in your/your representatives’ presence.
(3) Request in advance of the vessel’s arrival, the shippers declarations with regard to FMP,
stowage factor, TML, moisture content, angle of repose, any chemical hazards and details which
may require safety precautions to be taken. If such documentation is not forthcoming it should be
demanded and a letter of protest to shippers and charterers should be issued. The master can and
should refuse to load the cargo if the documentation is still not forthcoming. Remember that each
individual cargo is unique. Details of cargoes previously carried, even if from the same origin,
should not be relied on.
(4) Check the details of the shippers declaration carefully. The details should be accurate at the time
the certificate is issued and the combination of a pre-dated declaration and suspected exposure to
further moisture since the date of the certificate should raise concern. Some ports have rain gauges
to assist in the quantitative assessment of the effects of rainfall on moisture content after certificates
have been issued. If suspicions are raised, the shipper should be requested to perform the necessary
tests. In any event, loading should not commence again until the vessel itself is satisfied that the
cargo can be transported. It may be necessary for the ship to perform its own tests. Do not be led
astray by shippers proclaiming that all is fine and normal and that the cargo quality will be
unaffected. This is not a quality issue, it is a safety issue.
(5) In any event, cargoes with a moisture content above the TML should not be shipped. Remember
that it may only be necessary to reject parts of the cargo, but this should raise concern as to the
safety of the remaining cargo.
(6) The cargo space should be filled as much as is practicable, but always within stability, stress
and deck loading constraints. A part-filled compartment is more prone to shifting and has greater
space in which to allow shifting.
(7) Longitudinal separation (e.g. temporary bulkheads), and overstowing (e.g. bulk bundles) can be
effective in limiting the distance cargo can shift, the shift amount and forces involved. Expert
advice is recommended to ensure that these measures are appropriate. In addition, overstowing may
not be appropriate, and shifting forces are often underestimated thus risking the failure of
longitudinal separation.
(8) Cargo stows should be trimmed level right out to all sides of the cargo compartment. It is
appreciated that trimming has its disadvantages, e.g. increased time and cost at load and discharge
ports. However, it has more important advantages. Apart from reducing the possibility of cargo
shift, weight distribution and stability are improved.
(9) Do not stow other cargoes containing moisture in same compartment.
(10) Do not load during rain. If this cannot be avoided have the moisture content re-tested to ensure
that it complies with point 5 above (it should be noted that some cargoes can be damaged by
exposure to moisture).
(11) If possible, adjacent tanks to the compartment concerned should be empty. If they cannot be
made empty, extra care should be taken to ensure that watertight integrity is intact. This
recommendation also applies for the whole compartment; hatch covers in particular should be
closely examined and tested (hose/chalk/day light tests).
(12) The vessel should not be too stiff in terms of her stability as this will cause the vessel to roll
quickly and perhaps violently. In saying this, the vessel needs an adequate metacentric height
taking into account all the various factors which can lead to a reduction in this during the voyage.
(13) Bilges should be clean and empty, strums or rose boxes should be clear and lumber boards,
where fitted, should be intact. Bilge well grilles should be covered with burlap. The pumps and
bilges should be tested in all respects (particularly alarms and non-return valves) prior to loading.
Soundings are to be taken at regular intervals during the voyage and bilges pumped as necessary.
Concerns as to the effect of cargo weight loss due to moisture removal are understood, but again
there are more important concerns. To protect owners’ position it is recommended that a record is
made of the amounts of moisture removed via the bilges, and this can be done by soundings.

Measures against shifting of bulk cargo

Generally, to prevent cargo shift, bulk cargoes with an angle of repose less than 35° should be
trimmed level to fill spaces within the cargo hold. This is not such a problem in bulk carriers with
wing tanks designed to fill the top spaces within the hold.

Another advantage of trimming cargoes is that it reduces their surface area, reducing the possibility
of spontaneous combustion by cargoes such as concentrates.

Most modern ports now use flexible extending grain chutes capable of rotation to reach all parts of
a hold. At the final stages of loading, bulldozers can be used to trim the cargo.
In most cases, the angle of repose is provided by the shipper before loading. If there is any doubt,
the IMSBC code provides detailed procedures for its calculation.

Deck officer of the Cargo watch/ Cargo officer duties

During the cargo watch, as well as the normal duties expected of an officer of the watch (OOW),
the cargo officer should:
1. monitor the ballasting/deballasting operations
2. monitor the discharge to ensure that the grabs and bulldozers are not causing damage to the
holds, tank tops and frames. Rough or bad grab or ‘dozer’ handling should be reported to
the terminal authority and stopped
3. OOW should remain especially vigilant where cargoes are sensitive to water damage
4. hopper sides and indents paint coating: damaged areas to be repaired
5. attention to tank top damage and indents
6. tank top double bottom or side tank access lid damage. If double bottom lids are removed to
inspect the tanks, they must be properly refitted. The condition and the fitting of the gaskets
must be checked by a competent person, and nuts should be screwed down securely and
pressure-tested before the next cargo is loaded
7. hold ladders, platforms and hand rails should be in a sound and safe condition
8. checks on hold piping, air vent and water ballast sounding lines, and piping protection
brackets
9. bilge wells, including bilge covers, strum boxes, and bilge well valves, including non-return
valves should be in a clear and sound condition. Bilge systems are an increasing cause of
wet damage cargo claims. Non-return valves must be checked to ensure they are fully
operational. They should be included in the planned maintenance system and formally
checked every three to four months, operations permitting. Bilge lines should be blown back
to confirm the effectiveness of the valves
10. bilge high-level alarms should be checked
11. lights and light fittings should be checked as operational. There have been claims, including
some of high value, where the ship and the cargo have been in jeopardy after the hold lights
were left on and/or the lighting wiring was in poor condition, leading to fires in the cargo
hold or the ladder trunking. All hold lighting circuits should be disarmed prior to loading.
12. Make sure Cargo being loaded/discharged in all the holds as per the Cargo Plan.
13. Note the timing of Stevedore Gang boarded the vessel, commence loading/discharging and
Ceased loading/discharging
14. Note the timing of Cargo operation Stoppages.

Shifting Cargo Can Have Numerous Consequences:

The shift in cargo will cause a list if the cargo does not return to its original position with
subsequent vessel movement.
Apart from increased draft concerns, the angle at which the vessel is listed will, if uncorrected,
become that about which the vessel rolls.
This will usually mean that the righting lever for angles of heel towards the side the vessel is listed
will be less than that when the vessel is heeled from her upright position, which in turn means that
the force returning the vessel from angles of heel beyond the angle of list, back to the same angle,
will be less than the force returning the vessel to the upright had she not been listed.
The angle of deck edge immersion will also be closer than that for an upright vessel and if this is
reached stability will also be reduced.
A list will also tend to subject the vessel to greater angles of heel and this may give rise to a domino
effect causing other cargo and objects to break securings and/or to shift.
Solid bulk cargoes that shift from one side of the vessel to the other with the rolling of the vessel,
that is to say, cargoes behaving like a liquid in a part-filled tank, will also give rise to a Free
Surface Effect, and this again will reduce the vessel’s stability in a similar way to that described
above.
The gravest consequence of shifting is capsize of the vessel, and this can happen when multiple
shifts occur with little return of cargo to original positions. This process can be very quick and
obviously disastrous.
SCMarine - Loading in bulk @ jumbo bags for product concentrate potash - YouTube

UNIT 2 CARGO OPERATIONS, DOCK LABOUR

REGULATIONS & HATCH COVERS
Inspection and Preparation of Holds
After unloading of cargo it is very important the responsible officer does a proper inspection
and preparation of Holds. Inspection of hold helps identify for structural damage or defects
in the hold. It also help to know if any damage done by the stevedores, and same can be
mentioned in the stevedore damage report. We will study further about inspection of holds.

Similarly it is important to prepare holds before loading the next cargo. Preparation of holds
depends upon the next cargo, if next cargo is compatible with the last, a good sweep down
and removal of leftover cargo is all that is required. If however, the next cargo is
incompatible with the last or if you are loading sensitive cargoes such as foodstuffs, a more
thorough cleaning may be required.

Why inspection and preparation of holds is important?

Cargo spaces intended to be used for loading should be inspected to ensure that
the compartment intended to be loaded with cargo is clean, dry and ready in all respect
to receive the cargo being offered.

Thorough inspection of holds is needed to:

Avoid contamination
 No residue of the previous cargo to be left
 Holds are Taint free.
 No Visible loose rust which can cause contamination.
Safety
 Holds are safe for stevedores to work.
 Detect physical damage within the hold. It also benefits in raising new
stevedore damage claims.
 Damages to the ship structure, checking for corrosion/ cracks to get an early
warning for parts/ portions/ strengthening structures to be renewed/ repaired.
Prevent Cargo Damage
 which can be caused from operational bilges
 ballast lines and/or
 lack of weather tight integrity of hatch covers
Fire Safety
 Identification of fire hazard for the intended cargo and availability of
firefighting equipment.
So, now we know why it is important, let us see what all you need to inspect.

Items to be inspected
1. Check that the designated compartments are clean and ready to receive cargo.

a. Holds properly swept and cleaned from previous cargo residue.

b. Loose rust scale and loose paint removed.

c. Holds free from all stains.

d. Depending upon charterers’ requirement, holds effectively washed/rinsed & dried.

2. Check that the drainage and bilge suctions are working effectively and that bilge
wells are dry. Bilges to be sweetened for some particular cargoes and covered with
burlap and cemented.

3. No leakage from ballast tanks present.

4. Sounding pipes and air pipes passing from holds are clean and rust free.

5. Ensure that cargo battens (spar ceiling) is in position and not damaged

(Note: some cargoes may require cargo battens to be removed)

6. Check that the hatch lighting’s are in good order. Isolate lights if it poses fire hazard
for the intended cargo.

7. Inspect and ensure all means of access to the compartments are safe.

8. Guard rails and safety barriers should be seen to be in place.

9. Ensure all necessary fixed and portable fire-fighting arrangements are ready
for immediate use. Blow through CO2/Halon lines with compressed air.

10. Inspect Cargo Hold Ventilation system.

11. Inspect and ensure hatch covers are weather tight and that all the securing devices are in
good working condition.
12. If Cargo Hold is meant to take heavy weather ballast then pressure test the lines
for leakage and subsequently blank off the ballast lines.

13. Double Bottom tank manhole covers to be absolutely tight.

14. Cargo securing points/ fixed fittings etc are in good condition.

So once a Hold is inspected let us proceed to prepare a Hold for loading.

Hold Preparation
As per Charter party or as per contract of carriage the owner is required to “… make the
holds, refrigerating and cooling chambers and all other parts of the ship where goods are
carried, fit and safe for their reception, carriage and preservation”.

The owner is required to present his vessel in a state that he is ready to load cargo, that
means the holds are ‘clean and dry’ prior to commencement of loading. If the owner fails to
present his ship in a proper state to receive cargo, he risks to claims amounting to large
sums of money. It is, therefore of utmost important to prepare cargo holds of ship to
loading.

Cargo quality can be affected due to

 Contamination
 Staining
 Water contact
 Inadequate ventilation
To avoid contamination and water contact of cargo it is better to inspect and test the Hatch
Covers and Bilge Suction. Contamination, Staining, Water contact and Inadequate
ventilation can also occur if proper dunnage is not used or laid in the cargo hold.

Ventilation procedure to be followed properly to avoid cargo damage. Read more about
Cargo ventilation here.
Checking weather-tightness of the hatch cover
The two most common leak detection tests are

1. the water hose test

2. the ultrasonic test
Ultrasonic testing is the preferred method because areas of inadequate hatch sealing
are accurately located.

While other method are also used such as, Chalk testing gives only an indication of poor
compression and potential leaks. Chalk testing is not a leak detection test. Light testing is
also effective but is potentially dangerous because personnel are in a closed, dark hold
looking for light infiltration between panels.

Checking Bilge Suction

Neglecting maintenance and testing of hold bilge systems can have serious
consequences, resulting in unnecessary cargo claims due to water contamination.
The bilge suction line in the hold bilge is normally fitted with a perforated strum box
which prevents cargo debris from entering the bilge line. The strum box should be
thoroughly cleaned after each cargo discharge and if possible, dismantled and checked for
damage or corrosion. The end of the bilge suction line must be confirmed as clear, with no
debris fouling the end of the suction pipe.

Hold Bilge Suction Arrangement

 Hold Bilge Suction Filters

Follow Below procedure to test Hold Bilges:

 Test bilge suction by filling bilge well with water and pumping it out.
 Non return valves fitted in the hold bilge pumping systems are to ensure that
water pumped from the hold bilges to the engine room and over-side or into a holding
tank cannot flow back via the bilge line into the hold bilge wells and then into the
cargo hold.
 The easiest way to test the non return valve is to stop the pump (or eductor) and allow
water to flood back into the bilge line up to the non return valve. If no water enters the
hold bilge then the non return valve is working correctly. As prudent seamanship all
non return valves on the bilge line should be overhauled on a regular basis.

Why is there a need for ventilation of cargo spaces?

Most cargoes are loaded in cargo holds which are closed before proceeding to sea to prevent
any external elements like bad weather, water, heat, cold from affecting the cargo inside.
But when the voyage is long, keeping the hatch totally closed, can cause various problems
such as:

1. Deterioration of cargo due to ship/ cargo sweat

2. Cargo damage due to heating of cargo
3. Hazards posed due to presence of a dangerous gases in the hold emitted by
cargo (Toxicity, flammability etc)
4. Accelerated corrosion of the ship's structure
The main objective of merchant shipping is to carry cargo safely from one place to
another. The ship and hence the ship owner is liable if there is any damage to cargo during
transit. For this reason you should know how best to ventilate the compartment to prevent
any damage to the cargo and environment which is safe for crew members to enter
and/or work.

Also, if we do not ventilate the cargo spaces there will be an increase in the temperature
of the hold, especially when the ship is sailing from a colder to a warmer region as the
deck which is exposed to the sunlight will heat up and by conduction the temperature of the
air inside the hold will begin to rise. An increase in the sea water temperature will also
have the same effect on the shipside plating and consequently on the hold temperature.

"Moisture damage" is the source of a significant number of cargo claims, often

involving bagged or bulk agricultural products. Claimants typically allege that failure by the
ship to ventilate correctly resulted in the development of condensation ("sweat"), causing
the cargo to deteriorate.

SWEAT
The air at sea is very humid and it contains a large quantity of water vapour. When
this humid air comes in contact with relatively colder surfaces, the moisture condenses on
the surface. When the air in the hold comes in contact with bulkheads / decks which are
colder than the dew point of the air, the moisture condenses on the bulkheads/ decks
forming ship sweat. Also when the humid air comes in contact with the cool cargo
(temperature lower than the dew point of the air) moisture condenses on the cargo forming
Cargo Sweat.

The amount of water vapour contained in a parcel of air depends on the temperature of
the air. The parcel is said to be saturated if it has the maximum amount of water vapour it
can hold at that temperature. If this parcel is further cooled excess water vapour will
condense in the form of "sweat"

Ships are fitted with either natural or mechanical ventilation systems. In addition
to minimizing the onset and degree of sweat, ventilation may also serve to remove taint
and disperse any gases which some cargoes may emit.

Cargo Sweat
Cargo sweat refers to condensation which may form on exposed surfaces of the cargo as
a consequence of large amounts of warm, moist air being persistently introduced into a
hold containing substantially colder cargo.

Ship’s sweat
Ship’s sweat refers to condensation which forms directly on a vessel’s structure when
the air within a hold, made warm and moist by the cargo, comes into contact with cold
surfaces as the vessel moves into cooler climates. Cargo may be damaged by overhead
drips, by contact with sweat which has formed on the ship’s sides or by condensed water
which may accumulate at the bottom of the hold.

Influencing factors
Saturation
The amount of water vapour that air may contain is highly dependent on its temperature.
A given volume of air is said to be saturated when no more water can be absorbed. If the
air temperature then falls, condensation will occur.

As air rises in temperature so does its saturation moisture content; its capacity to
retain water climbs by ever-increasing amounts. Thus, when hot air is cooled, its potential
for releasing water in the form of condensation is far greater when it is cooling from
higher temperatures than when cooling from lower temperatures.

Apart from periods of fog or rain, ambient air is rarely saturated. Moreover, it will never
be totally dry. Within these two extremes the amount of water retained by the air will
vary according to the prevailing conditions.

Relative humidity
Relative humidity is the actual amount of water vapour in the air compared with
the saturation amount of water vapour in the air at the same temperature and pressure.
The figure is usually expressed as a percentage, with saturated air having a relative
humidity of 100%.

At main deck level, ambient sea air over the open oceans will normally have a
relative humidity in excess of 80%.
Dew point temperature
When an isolated volume of air cools, relative humidity increases as the temperature
falls. Once the temperature has descended, to the level at which saturation occurs, water
begins to condense. This temperature is known as the "dew point".

Dew point temperature may be measured by a variety of methods. Ships generally use
a traditional wet and dry bulb arrangement consisting of two identical mercury
thermometers, one of which has a damp wick covering the bulb. These are normally housed
in a protective marine screen.

The dew point temperature may then be determined by using a "Dew point Table".
This figure is important when considering cargo ventilation requirements.

Wet and dry bulb thermometers

When using traditional wet and dry bulb thermometers, the accuracy of the dew
point temperature will depend on the condition of the equipment. The muslin covering the
wet bulb should be clean, the water in the reservoir should be distilled and the bulb itself
should be wet.

In order to ensure that the readings are correct, the device should always be positioned clear
of any exhaust vents, other draughts and all sources of heat.

Dew point measurement

Theoretically, all decisions regarding cargo ventilation should be based on dew
point temperatures, comparing the dew point of the ambient air with dew point of the air
inside the hold.

Given that most ships are customarily equipped with wet and dry bulb thermometers located
close to the bridge, determining the dew point temperature of the ambient air is usually
straightforward.

However, ascertaining the dew point temperature inside a cargo space is

more problematic. One of the simplest methods is to use a "whirling
psychrometer", swinging the instrument inside the hold until the wet bulb
temperature has stopped falling and remains steady.
All readings should be taken well away from any air inlets, ensuring that only hold air
is tested. Enclosed space entry procedures should always be observed. If access to the holds
is impossible or undesirable, and provided there is no significant air flow, wet and dry bulb
thermometers may be placed in the trunking of an exhaust ventilator or similar pipework
leading from the compartment, allowing the device to be drawn out and read from above
deck.

Ventilation
Once the above information has been obtained, the rules are simple;
Dew point Rule
VENTILATE if the dew point of the air inside the hold is higher than the dew point of the
air outside the hold.
DO NOT VENTILATE if the dew point of the air inside the hold is lower than the dew
point of the air outside the hold.
Three Degree Rule
In many instances it is impracticable to measure hold dew point temperatures accurately,
or at all. In such cases ventilation requirements may be estimated by comparing the
average cargo temperature at the time of loading with the outside air temperature several
times a day. Ventilation may then be carried out on the following basis;

VENTILATE if the dry bulb temperature of the outside air is at least 3°C cooler than
the average cargo temperature at the time of loading.
DO NOT VENTILATE if the dry bulb temperature of the outside air less than 3°C
cooler than the average cargo temperature at the time of loading, or warmer.
In order to apply the Three Degree Rule, it will be necessary for the ship’s staff to take
a number of cargo temperature readings during loading.

The rules for ventilation are simple and are easily illustrated by the
following examples.
Cargo sweat: Consider the following case:

 A ship has loaded steel cargo at Antwerp in January for shipment to

Singapore. Antwerp in January is a winter zone and the temperature is low.
 As the cargo spaces would be sealed after completion of loading, the cargo and the
air temperature inside the hold will be cold.
 During the voyage to Singapore the outside atmospheric temperature will rise as
the ship passes from winter to the tropical zone.
 Compared to the volume of air inside the hold, the volume of air brought into the
hold through the ventilator ducts at any given time is small.
If ventilation is permitted - the warm moist air entering the cold cargo space will be
cooled and if cooled below its dew point will condense on the cold steel cargo surface
causing cargo sweat. This can cause the steel to rust.

Here the solution is to restrict ventilation. Do not ventilate when passing from a
cold area to a warm area, always allow the air and cargo in the hold to warm up
naturally.
Exactly the same phenomenon causes ship's sweat.
 Consider a ship having loaded cargo in a warm region is proceeding towards a
cold region. For example: bagged rice is loaded in Bangkok, in November, for
shipment to Inchon in South Korea.
 At the time of loading, the ambient temperature in Bangkok was 26 degrees C.
The cargo and the air inside the cargo hold is warm and moist and would continue to
remain so for some time after the hold is sealed.
 Air and seawater temperature starts to drop as the voyage progresses.
 As the seawater and the outside air cools the air inside the hold which is in close
contact with the steel plates also cools.
 When this parcel (air inside the hold adjacent to the steel plates) is cooled below its
dew point, water vapour is given out which condenses on the ship's structure forming
"ship's sweat".
 This does not directly cause a cargo problem but when the moisture droplets run
down the beams and drips onto the cargo, which it invariably does, it may result in
cargo damage and subsequent claims.
To prevent this ventilate the compartment freely. The rule is to ventilate when travelling
from a warm tropical zone to a cold winter zone.

"HOT TO COLD, VENTILATE HOLD, COLD TO HOT,

VENTILATE NOT"
Precautions with respect to ventilation:
 It may not be always possible to restrict ventilation for sweat reason alone.
Some cargoes give off odour or obnoxious gases which may damage or taint other
cargoes. Here ventilation may become necessary. In such cases where ventilation has to
be done - AIR SHOULD TO BE PASSED THROUGH DE-HUMIDFYING UNITS.
This will ensure that condensation does not take place inside the hold. De-
humidification is carried out by using chemicals like silica gel or activated alumina
which have a high affinity for water and absorb all the moisture in the air. The same
chemicals can be heated to dry out the absorbed moisture and can be reused.
 During periods of heavy weather, steps should be taken to prevent rain and spray
from entering the cargo spaces. This may mean suspending ventilation until
conditions improve. If so, the circumstances should be logged.
 It is important to appreciate that ventilation should also be carried out during the night
if the readings indicate that ventilation is appropriate. Ambient temperatures are
usually lower at night, therefore the risk of ship’s sweat developing is more likely
during the hours of darkness.
 In addition to ventilating the holds according to the above regimes, it is important
that regular inspections of each compartment are carried out where possible. This need
not involve entry into the cargo space itself - for example ship’s sweat may be seen
forming on the underside of manhole covers. In such instances, and especially at night,
the cargo should be ventilated irrespective of the Dew point or Three Degree
Rules, weather permitting.
 STOWAGE: Given the sensitive nature of many hygroscopic products and the
possibility of sweat, efforts should be made to ensure that such cargoes do not come
into contact with hold steelwork. This is particularly important in the case of bagged
agricultural produce intended for human consumption such as rice, beans and flour.
For bagged cargo, rows of dunnage or bamboo poles should be laid in the direction of the
bilges to aid drainage, not more than 20 cms apart. A second layer should be placed on top
at right angles to the first before covering the whole area with matting.

If the cargo space is not fully fitted with cargo battens, bamboo poles or dunnage should be
positioned crosswise against the frames to keep the bags away from the sides of the ship.
Ideally, they should also be lashed together at the intersections to prevent them from
becoming disturbed during loading. As an extra but not essential precaution, mats may be
placed against this arrangement. In the same context, the top surface of the stow may be
covered with thick kraft paper.
Expert opinion is that biologically stable bagged hygroscopic cargoes do not
require ventilation channels, unless specifically demanded by the IMDG Code (e.g. some
types of seed cake, fishmeal). Nevertheless, for certain commodities many charterers
still require ventilation channels to be built into the stow. If so, the charterers should
be asked for written instructions regarding the number and position of such channels,
and these should be followed accordingly.

 Bunker tanks: Hygroscopic products may be damaged by localized sources of heat.

Incidents have occurred where parts of parcels of grain have been scorched or have
become discolored when lying against hot bunker tanks. As far as possible, the bunkers
used during the voyage should be drawn from tanks situated well away from holds
containing hygroscopic products. If impracticable, bunker tanks adjoining cargo spaces
should be heated only when required, ensuring that the temperature does not rise above
normal operational levels.
Ventilation Procedure of Cargo Space:
It should be noted that indiscriminate ventilation often does more harm than no
ventilation whatsoever. It is also of concern that variation in the angles of ventilators away
from the wind can cause very different rates of air flow within the compartment. The angle
at which the ship’s course makes with the wind also affects the general flow of air to
cargo compartments. In general, the greatest air flow occurs when the lee ventilators are
trimmed on the wind and the weather ventilators are trimmed away from the wind.

 Through ventilation:
In this case air is passed through the entire area of the hold right down to the bottom.
This can be achieved by means of ducts, double layering of the bottom dunnage and use of
side battens to allow free flow of air. The air entering through one set of ventilators reaches
the bottom of the compartment via trunkings, rises upwards through the cargo and
finally exhausts out of another set of ventilators. In case of natural ventilation this is
achieved by turning the leeward ventilator into the wind and the windward ventilator away
from the wind, thereby achieving a greatest air flow rate which is required for through
ventilation.
 Surface ventilation:
Certain cargoes like coal give off flammable gas and generate heat due to
exothermic reaction. If the heat generated over a period of time is sufficiently high, then the
presence of the flammable gas and the atmospheric oxygen in the right proportion could
lead to spontaneous combustion. Hence it is important that the flammable gas is expelled
but at the same time too much oxygen should not be injected into cargo. This is achieved by
only ventilating the cargo on the surface known as surface ventilation.

This is achieved by trimming the windward side natural ventilator to the wind and
the leeward side ventilator away from the wind giving a very easy flow to the wind. If
the ventilator has trunkings which lead to the bottom of the hold - it should be kept shut.
This type of ventilation also helps to control the rise in temperature of both the cargo and
the hold spaces.

Forced ventilation:
If the dew point temperature in the cargo compartment can be retained below
the temperature of the ships structure, i.e. decks, sides, bulkheads and the cargo, there
would be no risk of sweat forming. Such a condition cannot always be achieved without
some form of mechanical (forced) ventilation from fans or blowers. There are several
excellent systems on the commercial market which have the ability to circulate and dry the
air inside the cargo holds. Systems vary but often employ ‘baffle’ plates fitted in the hold
and tween decks so that air can be prevented from entering from the outside when
conditions are unfavourable. Systems re-circulating the compartment’s air can also operate
in conjunction with dehumidifying equipment to achieve satisfactory conditions pertinent to
relevant cargo.

Some cargoes requiring special attention

 Coal cargoes: Most types of coal evolve methane gas on the surface thereby increasing
the temperature of the hold. In combination with oxygen, spontaneous heating can also
take place. Hence for coal cargo no through ventilation should be carried out. Only
surface ventilation to be carried out at regular intervals.
 Grain cargoes: These are subject to germination, depending upon temperature and
the presence of moisture. Through ventilation will therefore be essential.
 Coffee, tea, cocoa: There are very expensive and delicate cargoes likely to be damaged
due to staining, tainting and odour. They should not be stowed with cargoes like sugar,
oils of any kinds, copra or any other cargo which is very hygroscopic. Coffee is
 susceptible to moisture damage. Surface ventilation to remove moisture and odour from
the compartment is advisable.
 Rice: This likely to suffer moisture damage. It heats up quickly and evolves
carbon dioxide. Surface ventilation should be used. With mature grain less ventilation
is required.
 Molasses: Molasses or green sugar ferments giving a rise in temperature. There
is formation of ethyl alcohol, carbon dioxide, glycerol, aldehydes and various other
acids.The acids could affect the ship's steel structure causing corrosion. Through
ventilation is vital.
 Fruit cargo: These require extreme temperature control or else they will be
damaged. Hence refrigeration is usually required with constant monitoring of
temperature. In case of short voyages where fruits may be carried without refrigeration,
surface ventilation for removal of any gases formed, should be adopted.
 Paper cargoes– paper may be carried in many forms from waste paper to
newsprint. The compartment, in whatever form the paper is to be carried, must be in a
dry condition and well ventilated. Newsprint is carried in rolls which are normally
stowed on their ends to avoid distortion, preferably on double dunnage. A ship’s
steelwork would normally be protected with waterproof paper to prevent ships sweat
from damaging the rolls.
 Copra– dried coconut flesh. Liable to heat and spontaneous combustion. It could
taint other cargoes and cause oxygen deficiency in the compartment.Requires good
surface ventilation.
The ventilation requirements for various cargoes are readily available in
Thomas stowage or other similar publications. For bulk cargoes, the shipper will
provide information regarding the cargo and its moisture content in the form of a
"Shippers Declaration".

Why Ventilate
Imagine that assorted cargoes have been loaded in a cargo compartment of your ship and the same
has been completely closed and made weather tight, for a long passage of say, two or three weeks.
What if some of the goods you are carrying require airing or otherwise would get spoilt. Cargoes
could get damaged due to various reasons. Let us find some of these.
Ventilation in a cargo compartment could be necessary for the following reasons:
(a) To reduce the temperature of the air in the compartment and bring it on par with the ambient
temperature.
(b) To prevent damage to the cargoes which have following properties:
(i) Susceptible to heat.
(ii) Likely to decay or ferment.
(iii) Subject to spontaneous combustion.
(iv) Likely to be contaminated by the odours of other cargoes.
(c) To expel the toxic, flammable or unwanted gases given out by the cargo.
(d) To prevent formation of sweat and thus prevent damage to the cargo and rusting of the steel
structure of the ship.
(e) To prevent depletion of oxygen content of the air inside the compartment. This occurs due to the
oxidation of steel structure or steel cargo and formation of rust.
(f) To make the compartment sufficiently safe for any person to enter it for any purpose, and to
make it reasonably habitable for labourers to work there.

Thorough ventilation:
In this case air is passed through the entire area of the hold right down to the bottom. This can be
achieved by means of ducts, double layering of the bottom dunnage and use of side battens to allow
free flow of air. The air entering through one set of ventilators reaches the bottom of the
compartment via trunkings, rises upwards through the cargo and finally exhausts out of another set
of ventilators. In case of natural ventilation this is achieved by turning the leeward ventilator into
the wind and the windward ventilator away from the wind, thereby achieving a greatest air flow
rate which is required for thorough ventilation.

Surface ventilation:
Certain cargoes like coal give off flammable gas and generate heat due to exothermic reaction. If
the heat generated over a period of time is sufficiently high, then the presence of the flammable gas
and the atmospheric oxygen in the right proportion could lead to spontaneous combustion. Hence it
is important that the flammable gas is expelled but at the same time too much oxygen should not be
injected into cargo. This is achieved by only ventilating the cargo on the surface known as surface
ventilation.

THOROUGH SURFACE
This is achieved by trimming the windward side natural ventilator to the wind and the leeward side
ventilator away from the wind giving a very easy flow to the wind. If the ventilator has trunkings
which lead to the bottom of the hold - it should be kept shut. This type of ventilation also helps to
control the rise in temperature of both the cargo and the hold spaces.
Forced ventilation:
If the dew point temperature in the cargo compartment can be retained below the temperature of the
ships structure, i.e. decks, sides, bulkheads and the cargo, there would be no risk of sweat forming.
Such a condition cannot always be achieved without some form of mechanical (forced) ventilation
from fans or blowers. There are several excellent systems on the commercial market which have the
ability to circulate and dry the air inside the cargo holds. Systems vary but often employ ‘baffle’
plates fitted in the hold and tween decks so that air can be prevented from entering from the outside
when conditions are unfavourable. Systems re-circulating the compartment’s air can also operate in
conjunction with dehumidifying equipment to achieve satisfactory conditions pertinent to relevant
cargo.

The Protection of the Cargo

Cargo should be transported in a safe and efficient manner from load port to destination. It is in
interest of all parties involved that the cargo is delivered in a proper condition.

In order to achieve this all efforts must be made to protect the cargo against damages that may
occur due to:

• Moisture – due to improper ventilation causing ship or cargo sweat,

• Water – through leaky hatch covers trunk ways, ventilators or ingress of water from other places,

• Contamination with other cargo,

• Not following instructions given by the shipper,

• Packing getting damaged while in care of vessel,

• Temperature sensitive cargo being heated or cooled above/below acceptable limits,

• Shifting of cargo because of improper and/or insufficient lashing, and

• Improper loading causing cargo to collapse.

Duties of the Officer On Cargo Watch (dry cargo vessels)

Cargo Officers will have a variety of duties before, during and after cargo operations begin. He/she
should be aware that monitoring the cargo movements and ensuring parcels remain in good
condition is protecting the owners’ interests. Extensive ship keeping activities also go along with
loading and discharging the vessel’s cargo.

Prior to cargo operation

1. Check that the designated compartments are clean and ready to receive
cargo.
2. Check that the drainage and bilge suctions are working effectively.
3. Ensure that cargo battens (spar ceiling) is in position and not damaged
(some cargoes require cargo battens to be removed).
4. Make sure the relevant hatch covers are open and properly secured in
the stowed position.
5. Check the rigging of derricks and/or the cranes are operating correctly.
6. Check that the hatch lighting’s are in good order.
7. Order engineers to bring power to deck winches.
8. Inspect all lifting appliances to ensure that they are in good order.
9. Inspect and ensure all means of access to the compartments are safe.
10. Guard rails and safety barriers should be seen to be in place.
11. Ensure all necessary fire-fighting arrangements are in place.
12. Check that the ship’s moorings are taught.
13. Note the draughts fore and aft.
14. Check that the gangway is rigged in a safe aspect.

During cargo transfer/operation

1. Note all starting and stopping times of cargo operations for reference into the log book.
2. Note the movement of cargo parcels into respective compartments for entry onto the stowage
plan.
3. Refuse damaged cargo and inform the Chief Officer of the action.
4. Monitor the weather conditions throughout operations.
5. Note any damage to the ship or the cargo-handling gear and inform the Chief Officer
accordingly.
6. Maintain a security watch on all cargo parcels and prevent pilferage.
7. Tally in all special and valuable cargoes and provide lock-up stow if required.
8. Maintain an effective watch on the gangway and the vessels moorings.
9. Ensure that appropriate dunnage, separation and securing of cargo takes place.
10. Monitor all fire prevention measures.
11. Check the movement of passengers’ baggage (passenger-carrying vessels).
12. Make sure all hazardous or dangerous cargoes have correct documentation and are given correct
stowage relevant to their class (International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code).
13. Inspect compartments and the transit warehouse at regular intervals to ensure cargo movement
is regular.
14. Inform Chief Officer prior to loading heavy lifts.
15. After discharge operations, search the space to prevent parcels being overcarried.
16. Ensure that the local by-laws are adhered to, throughout.
17. Note the draughts on the completion of loading/discharging.

After cargo operations

1. Close up hatches and lock and secure access points.
2. Inform engineering department to shut down power to deck winches.
3. Secure all lifting appliances against potential damage or misuse.
4. Enter the days working notes into the deck log book.
5. Inform the Chief Officer that the deck is secure and the current draughts.

Segregation and Separation

Certain cargo may contaminate due to the presence of other cargoes in the vicinity and therefore
need to be segregated either by means of proper dunnaging or by loading in a separate
compartment. Contamination of cargo means degradation of the quality of cargo carried. Once the
cargo has been loaded on board it becomes the responsibility of the ship's staff to maintain the
quality and quantity of cargo. If these two are not maintained the cargo may not be accepted and
claim on ship owners for the loss or damage to the cargo. Some cargoes may be affected due to
strong smells of other cargoes and should be loaded well away of such cargoes. Other cargoes
contain pungent smell and may affect other cargoes. Deodorizing of the compartment becomes
necessary if such cargoes have been loaded in them previously.
Dirty Cargoes are those that give stains, strong smells, fumes or dust e.g. oils, paints and animal
products.

Clean Cargoes are those that do not give stains, smell or dusts e.g. finished products of timber,
steel, etc.

Separation
Separation may be required for the different grades of cargo or different parcels of the same cargo.
Method of separation depends on the type of cargo e.g. bales are separated by rope yarns; steel rails
are separated by marking them with paint or wire strands; boxes and bagged cargo are separated
with the help of burlap; colour coding of bags is done to separate same cargo for different ports.

Precautions for Segregation and Separation

• Dirty cargoes should be segregated from clean cargoes.

• Odorous cargoes should be separated from sensitive cargoes.

• Light and fragile cargoes should not be loaded along with heavy cargoes.

• Dangerous cargoes have their own segregation table and should be stowed strictly as per the IMO
guidelines.

• Block stowage should be given to same type of cargo carried for two different ports to avoid over-
carriage.

• Markings, separation nets or other means of identifying the cargoes for different ports should be
used in the cargo holds and reflected on the cargo plan.

• Detailed information should be obtained from various publications for segregation and separation
to avoid any damage to cargo.

Certain cargoes may get contaminated due to the presence of other cargoes in the vicinity and
therefore need to be segregated either by means of proper dunnaging or by loading in a separate
compartment. Contamination of cargo means degradation of the quality of cargo carried. Once the
cargo has been loaded on board it becomes the responsibility of the ship’s staff to maintain the
quality and quantity of cargo. If these two are not maintained the cargo may not be accepted and
claim on ship owners for the loss or damage to the cargo. Some cargoes may be affected due to
strong smells of other cargoes and should be loaded well away of such cargoes. Other cargoes
contain pungent smell and may affect other cargoes. Deodorizing of the compartment becomes
necessary if such cargoes have been loaded in them previously.

Dirty Cargoes are those that give stains, strong smells, fumes or dust e.g. oils, paints and animal
products.
Clean Cargoes are those that do not give stains, smell or dusts e.g. finished products of timber,
steel, etc.

Pilferage
Pilferage may be defined as minor theft arising as a result of suitable opportunity. Certain cargo is
liable to be broached and pilfered if a suitable opportunity is given. Once the cargo has been loaded
on board, it becomes the responsibility of the ship’s staff to ensure that no pilferage takes place.

(i) Precautions to Prevent Pilferage

• Anti-Pilferage watches should be maintained during loading/discharging operation and meal
hours. Shore watchman may be employed under supervision of Officer.
• Circumstances permitting, all labour should be compelled to leave during meal hours, which is
also an additional precaution against fire.
• Cargo subjected to pilferage should be loaded during daytime.
• Correct documentation of cargo should be provided and used.
• Unsound and suspicious packages should be rejected.
• Strapping and securing should be sufficiently strong.
• Accurate and reliable tally of cargo should be carried out.
• Tamper proof seals should be used where appropriate.
• Adequate lighting of main deck and cargo spaces to be maintained during night.
• Expensive cargoes, where possible, to be kept under lock and loaded/discharged under direct
supervision.
• Ventilators should be covered with wire mesh.
On completion of cargo work, hatches to be properly closed and locked. If the hold is open, cargo
liable for pilferage should be quickly overstowed.

Hold Preparation
Hold cleaning sequence should be followed to prepare for the next cargo.

Remove all residues of the previous cargo.

• Remove or stack the dunnage.

• Carry out hold inspection and any repairs necessary.

• Sweep down the holds, and t’ween decks.

• Clean the hold bilges.

• Wash down the holds with SW.

 • Wash down the holds with FW, if required.

• Ensure the hatch coamings are clean and free of cargo residue.

• Check the hatch coaming drains and ensure that they are clear.

• Hose test the hatch covers, to ensure that they are weathertight.

• Dry out holds, ensuring the bilges are dried.

• Ensure that bilge sounding pipes are clear.

• Check bilge suctions.

• Sweeten bilges if required.

• Check hold ventilation systems

• Fumigate the cargo spaces, if required.

Remove Cargo Residues/ Dunnage.

Although general cargo consists of bales, bags, bundles etc, spillages and breakages invariably lead
to some amount of cargo residue being present in the hold after discharge has been completed.
Cargoes in solid bulk form will of course always result in some residue being left in the cargo hold
after the main discharge operations have been completed. It is important to remove as much cargo
residue as possible prior to washing the holds. Some cargoes such as salt, are soluble in water and
may be washed through the bilges without any problem, other cargoes such as fertiliser and some
grains may also be readily washed through the bilges without any problem.

The residues of cargoes such as cement, iron ore, or coal may block the bilges or be difficult to
remove by washing alone due to their density, care should be taken to remove as much residue of
this type of cargo before washing begins. The extent to which stevedores ‘trim’ the cargo towards
the end of discharge will depend on the stipulations of the ‘charter party’., on some occasions it
may be necessary to send the crew into the holds to ensure the most efficient discharge of all cargo.

It is particularly important to:

• Ensure that as much cargo as possible is removed from hatch coamings, frames,
ledges, shedder plates, and hold access ladders

• Where possible ensure the crew keep up with the stevedores discharge operations,
as there is usually more chance of persuading them to remove cargo residue after
discharge has been completed.

• Have regard to the safe movement of personnel at all times.

Any residue remaining after the completion of discharge operations will have to be removed by the
crew. On a ‘geared’ vessel this may be achieved relatively easily, if not then the residues will have
to be removed using a ‘mucking winch’, which is a portable electric or air driven winch which can
be attached to the hatch coaming. Where there is a relatively large amount of residue, it may have
to be left in the hold, and removed at the next loading port. Due to the potential costs involved,
every effort should be made to avoid this scenario. Any cargo residue not discharged ashore with
the main cargo must be disposed of in accordance with the pollution regulations.

Any dunnage, should where possible be removed from the holds on completion of discharge of the
cargo for which it was used. Some dunnage may be suitable for use with a subsequent cargo, if so,
this should be retained on board, otherwise the dunnage should be landed ashore for disposal. In
some cases dunnage may be an integral part of the cargo and will be removed with the cargo. The
‘charter party’ may stipulate whose responsibility it is to discharge and dispose of the dunnage. In
some instances ‘port regulations’ may prohibit the landing of timber dunnage, because of forestry or
other quarantine regulations. Where possible discussion with the stevedores or other local officials,
may be necessary in order to avoid delays.

Hold Inspections/ Repairs.

The inspection of holds and other cargo spaces, is a continuous process which should commence
during the discharge operation, when frames, coamings, tank top ceilings, and spar ceilings may be
damaged by discharge equipment. Any damage observed during discharge should be recorded and
brought the attention of the stevedores, it is usual for the ‘charter party’ to specify that damages
should be repaired by the stevedores prior to the vessel leaving the discharge port.

In cases where the vessel is on a ‘time charter’, and some ‘voyage charters’ there may be ‘on hire’
and ‘off hire’ condition surveys.

The following should be checked:

• Hold access ladders.

• Frames.

• Protection around air pipes, sounding pipes.

• Tank top ceiling.

• Spar ceiling.

• Ballast tank access hatches.

Sweep Down.
If the crew have been in the holds sweeping up as the stevedores complete discharge operations,
there may be no need for a final sweep down, however where this is not possible for operational
reasons, it should be completed before washing down the holds.

Bilges.
Prior to washing down it is good practise to check that the bilge suctions are clear. Some of the
previous cargo residues may have collected in the bilge wells, and with some cargoes it may be
necessary to ensure that this is removed before commencing the wash down. It may also be
necessary to ensure that the bilges are re-sealed with burlap to ensure that residues to not block the
bilge suctions.

Washing.
The three most common methods are:

• Hand held hoses.

• Portable water cannon.

• Fixed washing installations

Hand Held Hoses:-

These should not be the ships fire hoses, it is usual on well-run ships to have at least one set of
heavy duty wash down hoses specifically for hold cleaning. The wash down hoses

will normally be fed from the ships fire main, and led into the hold either via the access or if
weather and sea conditions permit via the open hatch ways.
Portable Water Cannons.
These are usually mounted on tripods, and may be air assisted. They produce a high pressure water
jet which is useful for removing cargo from ledges, and shedder plates.

Fixed washing Installations:

These are mounted in recesses in the deck head, and are similar to the type of tank washing
machines used in tankers. This type of system is generally found in large bulk carriers. The
machines can be programmed in the same way as the machines used in tankers starting with a top
wash and then moving down the bulkheads, with the final cycle covering the tank top.

With all systems the usual procedure is to start with the hatch coamings, and then move down the
bulkheads, finishing with the tank top, and washing all residues towards the bilges. It is desirable
for the vessel to have a good stern trim, and a slight list of 1° – 2° so that the water only collects in
one area of the hold. Another advantage of this is that if the bilge becomes blocked the list can be
reversed, and the blocked bilge cleared.

If washing is carried out in port or on a river berth it is unlikely that pumping the bilges will
be permitted.

When carrying out hold cleaning at sea, it is preferable to have the hatch covers open, this may only
be done if the weather and sea conditions permit, if the hatch covers are fully opened it is important
to ensure that they are correctly secured in the open position.

When loading some cargoes, the ‘charter party’ will require that the holds are rinsed with FW. This
is usually done on completion of the main washing and cleaning procedures, using fresh water from
a double bottom or peak ballast tank.

Hose Testing.
It may be a requirement of the ‘charter party’ for the vessels hatch covers to be hose tested to ensure
that they are weather tight, prior to loading the cargo. Further information can be found in the
section titled Hatch Covers.
Drying.
If possible the holds may be dried by leaving the hatch covers open, and letting air flow through
them. However this may not be possible due to weather conditions, or time constraints. Any
remaining water such as may collect in indentations in the tank top plating, should be swept into the
bilges, or mopped up. Where available, forced draft ventilation may be used.

Bilges.
On completion of the cleaning operations, the hold bilges should be thoroughly cleaned, all cargo
residues should be removed especially grains and animal feeds, which will smell exceedingly
unpleasant if left to rot. Strum boxes must be removed, cleaned and replaced, the bilges should be
flushed through with fresh water to ensure that the suctions are clear. Particular attention should be
paid to ensuring that the bilge sounding pies are clear. The bilges should then be ‘sweetened’ to
remove any taint. Bilge plates should be wrapped in burlap and carefully replaced to ensure that
there are no gaps which will allow free flowing cargoes to fill the bilge wells.

Fumigation.
If any infestation by insects is discovered in the cargo holds, the ship owner must be informed
immediately. Fumigation of the holds may then be required prior to loading the next cargo, if
fumigation is required consult the relevant IMO publication, “Recommendations on the Safe Use of
Pesticides in Ships”, and relevant “M” notices

The need for separation and marking of cargo

Cargo for different ports must be kept separated for easy identification to aid
correct discharge. Stevedore labour in many countries may be illiterate and may
not understand any port name or markings on the cargo.

Separation of consignments:
There may be many shippers shipping the same type of cargo to the same destination.
Hence to retain the identification of each consignment as described in the bills of lading
they are kept separated from the other.

Separations are also placed to prevent one cargo from chafing or damaging a more fragile
cargo.

Non-compatible cargoes need to be kept separate; hence there will be a need to segregate
dangerous cargoes, cargoes liable to contamination by odour tainting or fragile cargoes as
failure to observe such requirements could give rise to a most hazardous situation involving
toxics or flammable gas being given off as a by-product.

Incompatible materials – are those materials which may react dangerously when mixed and
are subject to recommendations for segregation.

Stowage of cargo and distribution on board, as per discharge ports is important in order
to control trim, list and stresses of the vessel during various stages when cargo is
discharged at subsequent ports.

Stowage of cargo and distribution on board, as per discharge ports is important in order
to control trim, list and stresses of the vessel during various stages when cargo is
discharged at subsequent ports.

General Precautions while planning stowage of Dangerous Cargo

 Dangerous cargoes in packaged form are preferably given deck stowage
(depending upon the special requirements if any for the IMDG goods class).
 The dangerous goods are preferably stowed away from living quarters, in
well ventilated spaces. These are further stowed in sheltered areas protected
from weather and away from hot surfaces and bulkheads.
 Marine Pollutants are not stowed on deck in order to avoid loss overboard.
 Poisonous/ toxic cargoes are stowed clear of food items/ edible cargoes and areas where
crew normally works.
Segregation of different Cargoes with reference to Dry, Wet and
Delicate Goods
Dirty cargoes should never be carried in the same compartment as clean cargoes. A general
comparison of dirty cargoes would include such commodities as oils, paints or animal
products, whereas clean cargoes would cover the likes of foodstuffs or fabrics.

Delicate cargoes shall be suitably marked as fragile and shall be so stowed that these are
handled with care. Same shall not be stowed in the same compartment where heavy cargoes
are stowed.

The stowage of hides must be away from dry goods and iron work. They have a pungent
odour and should be stowed well away from other goods that are liable to spoil. They
should not be over-stowed.

Cocoa – stow away from heat and from other cargoes which are liable to taint.

Coffee – requires plenty of ventilation and susceptible to damage from strong

smelling goods.

Copra – dried coconut flesh. Liable to heat and spontaneous combustion. It could taint other
cargoes and cause oxygen deficiency in the compartment.

Dried blood – used as a fertilizer and must be stowed away from any cargoes liable to taint
(similar stow for bones).
Expeller seed – must be shipped dry. It is extremely high risk to spontaneous combustion
and must not be stowed close to bulkheads, especially hot bulkheads.

Flour – easily tainted. The stow must be kept dry and clear of smelly goods.

Quebracho extract – this is a resin extract used in the tanning industry. Bags are known to
stick together and should be separated on loading by wood

Soda ash – should be stowed away from ironwork and foodstuffs, and must be kept dry.

Sugar – also carried as bulk cargo. Bagged green sugar exudes a lot of syrup.
Stowage should be kept clear of the ship’s side as the bags are susceptible to tearing as
the cargo settles. Dry refined sugar and wet or green sugar must not be stowed together.
Cover steelwork with brown paper for bulk sugar and keep dry.

Fibres – such as jute, hemp, sisal, coir, flax or kapok are all easily combustible. A strict no-
smoking policy should be observed at all stages of contact. Bales must be kept away from
oil and should not be stowed in the same compartment as coal or other inflammable
substances or other cargoes liable to spontaneous combustion.

Dried fruits – these include: apricots, currents, dates, figs, prunes, raisins and sultanas. May
be shipped in cases, cartons, small boxes or even baskets. However carried, they must be
stowed away from cargoes which are liable to taint. Dried fruits tend to give off a strong
smell and generally may contain drugs and insects which could contaminate other cargoes,
especially foodstuffs.

Garlic and onions – shipped in bags, cases or crates and these give off a pungent odour and
must be stowed clear of other cargoes liable to taint. They are also liable to germinate and
rot in moist environment.

Separation between parcels of cargo and methods of separation

In order to carry goods safely, the vessel must be seaworthy and the cargo spaces must be in
such a condition as not to damage cargo parcels by ships sweat, taint or cause any
other harmful factor. To this end the Chief Officer would cause a cargo plan to be
constructed to ensure that separation of cargoes are easily identifiable and that no
contamination of products could take place during the course of the voyage.

Separation of cargoes – it is often a requirement when separate parcels of the same

cargo are carried together that a degree of separation between the units is essential.
Depending on the type of goods being shipped will reflect the type of separation method
employed.

Examples of separation materials include colour wash, tarpaulins, burlap, paper

sheeting, dunnage, chalk marks, rope yarns or polythene sheets. The idea of separation is to
ensure that the cargo parcels, although maybe looking the same, are not allowed to
become inadvertently mixed.

Cargoes can be loaded together in the same hold or tween deck using various forms
of separation material:
 1. Thin netting (different colours are available) usually synthetic.
2. Ropes (different colours are available).
3. Paint (Water-soluble as it may damage the cargo, for example: timber)
4. Marking pens (very suitable for cartons and cased goods).
5. Chalk (but beware as this may be easily erased)
6. Layers of dunnage (flatboard or plywood).
7. Construction of bulkheads from timber or occasionally, steel plate.
8. Separation cloth like Burlap.
9. Plastic sheet (but make sure restriction of ventilation will not harm the cargo)
10. Use of markings (for example: bags marked on one side can be separated by stowing
them mark up/ mark down).
Separation between parcels of cargo for different consignees or different ports of
discharge is often required. This is achieved using any of the means discussed above as
suitable. It shall be borne in mind that the cargoes for the designated port are clearly
identified. Discharge of cargo in any other port than the destination is likely to result in
huge costs.

Cargo stowage plan guideline for general cargo ships

Plans showing the disposition of all cargo loaded should always be prepared. The value
of full and accurate plans cannot be over emphasised. Inaccurate plans may cause delay
and costly, unproductive employment of stevedores. During the passage cargo plans
should be carefully checked with any error likely to affect the intended discharge pattern
communicated to agents/stevedores at the discharge port(s).

The plan should be large and whilst not necessarily to scale, should be sufficiently
approximate so as to indicate the comparative volume of a stow in any compartment.
This may be the only means of conveying to agents and others at discharging ports the
proportion and quantity of cargo in any hold destined for that port. Pillars, beams,
lockers and positions of doors should be shown and it is good practice to indicate the
number and type of derricks/cranes of each hatch and the length and breadth of each
unless the ship is well known to the agent or stevedore. The position of cargo should be
shown accurately in relation to these features. Suitable details should be advised:
whether cargo is on pallets, whether stowed by forklift trucks, whether or not pre-slung,
etc.
Where mechanical handling equipment has been used, indication of the exact flow of
traffic used to achieve the stow may be useful to facilitate discharge. Notes on how any
particularly awkward cargoes have been loaded can be of considerable assistance during
discharge.

With a mixed general cargo it is not possible to show the marks of various packages on
the plan, but in the case of substantial consignments the marks, quantities and position
should be shown. Where practical, identification of individual Bills of Lading in the
stow can be extremely useful. Fuller details, particularly of tonnages, should be given in
relation to overstowed cargo, always indicating whether such tonnages are weight or
measurement.

To facilitate discharge planning it is essential that a copy of the plan reaches the
discharging ports ahead of the ship and modern communications technology makes this
easily achievable.

Bulk carrier plans must contain the total tonnage of each commodity loaded into each
hatch.

Container plans are drawn up and delivered by the container terminal, usually under the
direction of a central authority for a particular service. The number and weight of each
container must be recorded together with any specific information need by the Master,
e.g. IMDG cargo, temperature controlled, tank, etc.

Container transport

Planning and control of cargo handling

All cargoes should be stowed and secured in a manner that will avoid exposing the ship
and persons on board to unnecessary risk. The safe stowage and securing of cargo
depends upon proper planning, execution and supervision by properly qualified and
experienced personnel. Advance planning, exchange of information, and continuous ship
to shore communication are all critical. Key factors will include:

1) Terminal/ cargo data for the ship.

2) Stowage and loading/ unloading plans

3) Communication before and during cargo operations.

4) Monitoring of stevedoring

5) Monitoring the ship's condition and

6) Checking for hull damage

Preparation for cargo handling

Cargo and port information: To plan stowing, loading and discharge , the cargo terminal
should provide the ships staff well in advance with :

1) Cargo characteristics, amounts and properties.

2) Availability and any special sequence required.

3) Characteristics of loading/unloading gears,number,

Cargo stowage plan guideline for general cargo ships
Plans showing the disposition of all cargo loaded should always be prepared. The value
of full and accurate plans cannot be over emphasised. Inaccurate plans may cause delay
and costly, unproductive employment of stevedores. During the passage cargo plans
should be carefully checked with any error likely to affect the intended discharge pattern
communicated to agents/stevedores at the discharge port(s).

The plan should be large and whilst not necessarily to scale, should be sufficiently
approximate so as to indicate the comparative volume of a stow in any compartment.
This may be the only means of conveying to agents and others at discharging ports the
proportion and quantity of cargo in any hold destined for that port. Pillars, beams,
lockers and positions of doors should be shown and it is good practice to indicate the
number and type of derricks/cranes of each hatch and the length and breadth of each
unless the ship is well known to the agent or stevedore. The position of cargo should be
shown accurately in relation to these features. Suitable details should be advised:
whether cargo is on pallets, whether stowed by forklift trucks, whether or not pre-slung,
etc.
Where mechanical handling equipment has been used, indication of the exact flow of
traffic used to achieve the stow may be useful to facilitate discharge. Notes on how any
particularly awkward cargoes have been loaded can be of considerable assistance during
discharge.

With a mixed general cargo it is not possible to show the marks of various packages on
the plan, but in the case of substantial consignments the marks, quantities and position
should be shown. Where practical, identification of individual Bills of Lading in the
stow can be extremely useful. Fuller details, particularly of tonnages, should be given in
relation to overstowed cargo, always indicating whether such tonnages are weight or
measurement.

To facilitate discharge planning it is essential that a copy of the plan reaches the
discharging ports ahead of the ship and modern communications technology makes this
easily achievable.

Bulk carrier plans must contain the total tonnage of each commodity loaded into each
hatch.

Container plans are drawn up and delivered by the container terminal, usually under the
direction of a central authority for a particular service. The number and weight of each
container must be recorded together with any specific information need by the Master,
e.g. IMDG cargo, temperature controlled, tank, etc.

Container transport

Planning and control of cargo handling

All cargoes should be stowed and secured in a manner that will avoid exposing the ship
and persons on board to unnecessary risk. The safe stowage and securing of cargo
depends upon proper planning, execution and supervision by properly qualified and
experienced personnel. Advance planning, exchange of information, and continuous ship
to shore communication are all critical. Key factors will include:

1) Terminal/ cargo data for the ship.

2) Stowage and loading/ unloading plans

3) Communication before and during cargo operations.

4) Monitoring of stevedoring

5) Monitoring the ship's condition and

6) Checking for hull damage

Preparation for cargo handling

Cargo and port information: To plan stowing, loading and discharge , the cargo terminal
should provide the ships staff well in advance with :

1) Cargo characteristics, amounts and properties.

2) Availability and any special sequence required.

3) Characteristics of loading/unloading gears,number,

4) Range of movement loading/unloading rates.

5) Depth of water alongside and fairway

6) Water density at berth and any air draft restrictions

7) Maximum sailing draught and minimum draught for safe manoeuvring

8) Terminal requirements/ procedures for moving ship.

9) Relevant local port restrictions ( bunkering/ deballasting etc.)

To minimise cargo shift it is recommended cargo in holds to be trimmed. The ships
master should be aware of the possibility of harmful effects from corrosive and high
temperature cargoes, and cargoes which may liquefy if the moisture content exceeds a
certain limit.

The amount and type of cargo and intended voyage will dictate the proposed cargo and
or ballast stowage plan for departure. The officer in charge should always refer to ships
approved loading manual to determine a cargo load distribution consistent with the
structural loading limits imposed.

If cargo needs to be distributed differently from the loading manual, calculations must
always be made to determine , for any part of the voyage , that SWSF, SWBM, block
loaded cargo weights and local loading limits are not exceeded.

Ballasting must be considered to ensure : correct synchronisation with cargo operations ;

loading rates and imposed structural / operational limits; simultaneous ballasting/de-
ballasting of symmetrical port/starboard tanks.

Stress and displacement calculations must be commensurate with the number of cargo
pours and loading sequence to ensure that SWSF/SWBM , cargo weights and
tanktop/local loading limits remain within limits.

At all times , hull stress limits should be kept below permissible limits.

For each step of the cargo operation, the cargo loading/unloading plan should give a
clear indication of :

1) Cargo quantity and corresponding hold numbers.

2) Amount of water ballast and corresponding tank/hold to be discharged/loaded.

3) Ships draft and trim at completion of each stage.

4) Calculated SWSF and SWBM at completion of each cargo.

5)Estimated time for completion of each cargo.

6) Assumed rates of loading/unloading

7) Assumed rates of ballasting/ deballasting

8) Allowances for any necessary cargo operation stoppages

Cargo ships guideline

The MS (Carriage of Cargoes) Regulations 1999 (SI 1999/336) (regulation 6) specifies

that the owner and master must ensure that:

• cargo and cargo units carried on or under deck are loaded, stowed and secured so as to
prevent as far as practicable, throughout the voyage, damage or hazard to the ship and
the persons on board, and loss of cargo overboard;

• appropriate precautions are taken during loading and transport of heavy cargoes or
cargoes with abnormal physical dimensions to ensure that no structural damage to the
ship occurs and to maintain adequate stability throughout the voyage;

• appropriate precautions are taken during loading and transport of cargo units on board
ro-ro ships, especially with regard to the securing arrangements on board such ships and
on the cargo units and with regard to the strength of the securing points and lashings;

• cargo on ships required to carry a Cargo Securing Manual is stowed and secured
throughout the voyage in accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual; and

• cargo on board all ships having ro-ro cargo spaces and required to carry a Cargo
Securing Manual is stowed and secured in accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual
before the ship leaves the berth.
Where packaged goods have been packed into or onto a cargo unit, the shipper or
forwarder of the goods must ensure that: • the cargo is packed and secured so as to
prevent, throughout any voyage, damage or hazard to the ship and the person on board;
and

• if the cargo unit is a container, it is not loaded to more than the maximum gross weight
indicated on the Safety Approval Plate attached to the container in accordance with the
IMO International Convention for Safe Containers (CSC 1972).

Fuel oil stored in side and double bottom tanks often requires heating to maintain
viscosity required for pumping. Heat transfer into adjacent cargo holds can cause
problems, the effects ranging from 'toasting' and moisture migration in bulk cargoes to
explosion of IMDG cargoes in over-heated containers. Until now, courts have generally
regarded the breach as falling within the ship's 'error of management (Hague Visby
rules,) so owners could avoid liability. However, when the Rotterdam Rules are
introduced, the error-of-management defence will be removed such that owners can be
held liable for over-heating damage to cargo.

Bagged cargo handling various technics

4) Range of movement loading/unloading rates.

5) Depth of water alongside and fairway

6) Water density at berth and any air draft restrictions

7) Maximum sailing draught and minimum draught for safe manoeuvring

8) Terminal requirements/ procedures for moving ship.

9) Relevant local port restrictions ( bunkering/ deballasting etc.)

To minimise cargo shift it is recommended cargo in holds to be trimmed. The ships

master should be aware of the possibility of harmful effects from corrosive and high
temperature cargoes, and cargoes which may liquefy if the moisture content exceeds a
certain limit.

The amount and type of cargo and intended voyage will dictate the proposed cargo and
or ballast stowage plan for departure. The officer in charge should always refer to ships
approved loading manual to determine a cargo load distribution consistent with the
structural loading limits imposed.

If cargo needs to be distributed differently from the loading manual, calculations must
always be made to determine , for any part of the voyage , that SWSF, SWBM, block
loaded cargo weights and local loading limits are not exceeded.

Ballasting must be considered to ensure : correect synchronisation with cargo operations

; loading rates and imposed structural / operational limits; simultaneous ballasting/de-
ballasting of symmetrical port/starboard tanks.

Stress and displacement calculations must be commensurate with the number of cargo
pours and loading sequence to ensure that SWSF/SWBM , cargo weights and
tanktop/local loading limits remain within limits.

At all times , hull stress limits should be kept below permissible limits.

For each step of the cargo operation, the cargo loading/unloading plan should give a
clear indication of :

1) Cargo quantity and corresponding hold numbers.

2) Amount of water ballast and corresponding tank/hold to be discharged/loaded.

3) Ships draft and trim at completion of each stage.

4) Calculated SWSF and SWBM at completion of each cargo.

5) Estimated time for completion of each cargo.

6) Assumed rates of loading/unloading

7) Assumed rates of ballasting/ deballasting

8) Allowances for any necessary cargo operation stoppages

Cargo ships guideline

The MS (Carriage of Cargoes) Regulations 1999 (SI 1999/336) (regulation 6) specifies

that the owner and master must ensure that:

• cargo and cargo units carried on or under deck are loaded, stowed and secured so as to
prevent as far as practicable, throughout the voyage, damage or hazard to the ship and
the persons on board, and loss of cargo overboard;

• appropriate precautions are taken during loading and transport of heavy cargoes or
cargoes with abnormal physical dimensions to ensure that no structural damage to the
ship occurs and to maintain adequate stability throughout the voyage;

• appropriate precautions are taken during loading and transport of cargo units on board
ro-ro ships, especially with regard to the securing arrangements on board such ships and
on the cargo units and with regard to the strength of the securing points and lashings;

• cargo on ships required to carry a Cargo Securing Manual is stowed and secured
throughout the voyage in accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual; and

• cargo on board all ships having ro-ro cargo spaces and required to carry a Cargo
Securing Manual is stowed and secured in accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual
before the ship leaves the berth.

Where packaged goods have been packed into or onto a cargo unit, the shipper or
forwarder of the goods must ensure that: • the cargo is packed and secured so as to
prevent, throughout any voyage, damage or hazard to the ship and the person on board;
and

• if the cargo unit is a container, it is not loaded to more than the maximum gross weight
indicated on the Safety Approval Plate attached to the container in accordance with the
IMO International Convention for Safe Containers (CSC 1972).

Fuel oil stored in side and double bottom tanks often requires heating to maintain
viscosity required for pumping. Heat transfer into adjacent cargo holds can cause
problems, the effects ranging from 'toasting' and moisture migration in bulk cargoes to
explosion of IMDG cargoes in over-heated containers. Until now, courts have generally
regarded the breach as falling within the ship's 'error of management (Hague Visby
rules,) so owners could avoid liability. However, when the Rotterdam Rules are
introduced, the error-of-management defence will be removed such that owners can be
held liable for over-heating damage to cargo.

What is a cargo plan

A ship’s cargo plan shows the distribution as well as the disposition of all parcels of
cargo aboard the vessel.The plan is formulated usually from the workbooks of the ‘deck
officers’, a fair copy being produced before departure from the final port of loading.
This allows copies of the plan to be made before the vessel sails.The copies are
forwarded to agents at ports of discharge to allow the booking and reservation of labour,
as appropriate.
It is important to plan in advance, both at the shore terminal and offshore to aid effective
cargo securing. The objective of pre-planning is the safe and practical restraint of cargo
carried on the deck of offshore support vessels so that personnel, ship and cargo may be
reasonably protected at all stages of carriage, and during cargo operations offshore.

The cargo plan should include relevant details of cargoes, i.e. total quantity, description
of package, bales, pallets etc., tonnage, port of discharge, identification marks and
special features if and when separated. The port of discharge is normally ‘highlighted’ in
one specific colour, reducing the likelihood of a parcel of cargo being overcarried to the
next port. Cargoes which may have an optional port of discharge are often double-
coloured to the requirements of both ports.

Additional information, such as the following, generally appears on most plans:

 i) Name of the vessel.

 ii) Name of the Master.
 iii) List of loading ports.
 iv) List of discharging ports, in order of call.
 v) Sailing draughts.
 vi) Tonnage load breakdown.
 vii) Hatch tonnage breakdown.
 viii) Voyage number.
 ix) Total volume of empty space remaining.
 x) List of dangerous cargo, if any.
 xi) List of special cargo, if any.
 xii) Statement of deadweight, fuel, stores,water etc.
 xiii) Details of cargo separations.
 xiv) Recommended temperatures for the carriage of various goods.
 xv) Chief officer’s signature.

The plan provides at a glance the distribution of the cargo and shows possible access to
it in the event of fire or the cargo shifting. Its most common function is to limit
overcarriage and the possibility of short delivery at the port of discharge. It also allows
cargo operations, stevedores, rigging equipment, lifting gear and so on to be organised
without costly delays to the ship.

All cargo should be stowed having due regard to the order of discharge. When planning
the position of cargo and the order of loading and unloading, the effects that these
operations will have upon access and the safety of personnel should be considered. The
following points should be taken into account:

 i) cargo information, including gross mass of the cargo or cargo units and any
special properties detailed on board or in the shipping documents, should be
recorded and used in planning;
  ii) wherever practicable, where more than one port is involved for loading or
unloading, cargo should be loaded in layers rather than in tiers, so as to avoid the
development of high vertical walls of cargo;
 iii) care should be taken not to overstow lighter cargoes with heavier cargoes
which may lead to a collapse of the stow;
 iv) wherever practicable, cargo should be stowed so as to leave safe clearance
behind the rungs of hold ladders and to allow safe access as may be necessary at
sea;
 v) the need to walk across or climb onto deck cargo, where this may involve an
approach to an unprotected edge with risk of falling, should be minimised;
 vi) care should be taken to avoid large gaps next to cargo where it is stacked
against corrugated bulkheads.

Deck cargo should be stowed in accordance with the statutory regulations, and kept clear
of hatch coamings to allow safe access. Access to safety equipment, fire fighting
equipment (particularly fire hydrants) and sounding pipes should also be kept free. Any
obstructions in the access way such as lashings or securing points should be painted
white to make them more easily visible. Where this is impracticable and cargo is stowed
against ship's rails or hatch coamings to such a height that the rails or coamings do not
give effective protection to personnel from falling overboard or into the open hold,
temporary fencing should be provided .

General Stowage

Charter Parties normally call for the cargo to be loaded under the supervision and/or
responsibility of the Master who must ensure that the stowage is safe and does not
endanger his ship. The charterer, of course, may have time considerations foremost in
his mind and not be as concerned about a safe stowage as the Master. However, should
the Master be dissatisfied with the stow for any reason, loading should be stopped and
the matter brought to the attention of the superintending stevedore and the charterer's
representative. Tallies and mates receipts must accurately record the quantity and
condition of the cargo. To issue a Bill of Lading that does not accurately reflect the
condition of a cargo is fraud .

When loading in several ports, the stowage is likely to be carried out by different
stevedoring companies and, unless supervised by the Master and his officers, there may
be a tendency for the stevedores to choose easily accessible stows for their cargo. The
loading stevedore may have despatch at his end more in mind than speed of operation at
the port of discharge. Thus, if left without firm guidance and control, he may find it to
his advantage to confine to one or two holds cargo which would discharge twice as fast
if stowed in three or four.

Stowage should aim at distributing the cargo for any particular load or discharge port
equally in every hold, such that all the cargo handling equipment is employed to full
capacity throughout loading and discharging operations. It is best to ensure that the
"heavy" hatch does not have to remain working for extensive periods after all other
hatches are finished and have been battened down, with the added restriction, probably,
of only one gang and one hook being able to get access to the space being worked.
Where foodstuffs and fine goods are stowed (i.e. goods such as carpets, clothes, etc.,
which may be easily damaged or take on taint) only clean nail-free dunnage should be
used and stowage should be found in separate compartments away from such obnoxious
commodities as creosote, aniline, essential oils, petroleum, copra, hides, manures, cassia,
certain chemicals, turpentine, newly sawn or most kinds of timber, green fruit, onions,
etc.

Weighty packages such as cases of machinery, railway bar or plate iron, blocks of
stones, ore billets, ingots or pigs of metal, etc., should always be stowed on the tanktop
or floor with lighter cargo on top. As a general rule, fragile and light packages should be
stowed in `tween deck spacesthe deck of such being, if necessary or advisable, covered
with weighty goodswhere they will not be subjected to excessive top weight.

The nature of the packages sometimes calls for them to be kept in a certain position, i.e.
coils and rings on the flat, etc. Avoid stowing bale and light goods on top of cargo which
has life and spring, or against bulk head stiffeners, deck beams, brackets, frames,
stanchions or other projections, using plenty of dunnage to protect them from contacting
such projections and rough surfaces.

Each tier should be kept as level as possible (with packages of uniform size it should be
perfectly level). Packages should not be stowed in such a manner or position that they
tilt either way, as will occur at the turn of the bilge or with the rise in floor in the fore
part of the forward hold, etc. Properly placed dunnage or bridging will ensure that this
does not occur.

Broken Stowage

Any break in stowage or broken stowage caused by the presence of pillars, stanchions,
brackets, web frames, etc., for the filling of which certain packages are not available, or
space which is unsuitable to receive a package of cargo, should be packed firmly with
suitable dunnage or airbags, in order to prevent movement of cargo in a seaway and to
afford a stable and level platform for the next tier.

The loss of valuable cargo space, where the nature of the cargo justifies economy, is best
avoided by:

1. Compactness of stowage.
2. Selecting packages which, by the nature and value of their contents and their
construction, are suitable for filling broken stowage. Reels of barbed wire, bales
of binder twine, coils of small wire, for example, are very useful for this purpose.
3. Always keeping a supply of such packages, or of low freighted goods, ready at
hand in the holds, for use when wanted.
4. Stowing casks and drums upright rather than on their sides.
5. Nesting and/or stowing pipes "bell and cantline". Blocking in spaces left between
large cases with smaller packages. Care should be taken that these packages
cannot become crushed.
6. Special selection of cargo suitable for filling beam spaces, i.e. cargo which is not
liable to chafe or damage by sweat, if moist or heated cargo is carried in the same
 compartment, or refrigerated cargo in the compartment above. It should be borne
in mind that 68% of the hold capacity in `tween decks may be contained between
the deck beams.

CARGO PLAN

What is a cargo plan?

A ship’s cargo plan shows the distribution as well as the disposition of all parcels of cargo aboard
the vessel.The plan is formulated usually from the workbooks of the ‘deck officers’, a fair copy
being produced before departure from the final port of loading. This allows copies of the plan to be
made before the vessel sails.The copies are forwarded to agents at ports of discharge to allow the
booking and reservation of labour, as appropriate.

It is important to plan in advance, both at the shore terminal and offshore to aid effective cargo
securing. The objective of pre-planning is the safe and practical restraint of cargo carried on the
deck of offshore support vessels so that personnel, ship and cargo may be reasonably protected at
all stages of carriage, and during cargo operations offshore.

The cargo plan should include relevant details of cargoes, i.e. total quantity, description of package,
bales, pallets etc., tonnage, port of discharge, identification marks and special features if and when
separated. The port of discharge is normally ‘highlighted’ in one specific colour, reducing the
likelihood of a parcel of cargo being overcarried to the next port. Cargoes which may have an
optional port of discharge are often double-coloured to the requirements of both ports.

Additional information, such as the following, generally appears on most plans:

 i) Name of the vessel.

 ii) Name of the Master.

 iii) List of loading ports.

 iv) List of discharging ports, in order of call.

 v) Sailing draughts.

 vi) Tonnage load breakdown.

 vii) Hatch tonnage breakdown.

 viii) Voyage number.

 ix) Total volume of empty space remaining.

  x) List of dangerous cargo, if any.

 xi) List of special cargo, if any.

 xii) Statement of deadweight, fuel, stores,water etc.

 xiii) Details of cargo separations.

 xiv) Recommended temperatures for the carriage of various goods.

 xv) Chief officer’s signature.

The plan provides at a glance the distribution of the cargo and shows possible access to it in the
event of fire or the cargo shifting. Its most common function is to limit overcarriage and the
possibility of short delivery at the port of discharge. It also allows cargo operations, stevedores,
rigging equipment, lifting gear and so on to be organised without costly delays to the ship.

All cargo should be stowed having due regard to the order of discharge. When planning the position
of cargo and the order of loading and unloading, the effects that these operations will have upon
access and the safety of personnel should be considered. The following points should be taken into
account:

 i) cargo information, including gross mass of the cargo or cargo units and any special
properties detailed on board or in the shipping documents, should be recorded and used in
planning;

 ii) wherever practicable, where more than one port is involved for loading or unloading,
cargo should be loaded in layers rather than in tiers, so as to avoid the development of high
vertical walls of cargo;

 iii) care should be taken not to overstow lighter cargoes with heavier cargoes which may
lead to a collapse of the stow;

 iv) wherever practicable, cargo should be stowed so as to leave safe clearance behind the
rungs of hold ladders and to allow safe access as may be necessary at sea;

 v) the need to walk across or climb onto deck cargo, where this may involve an approach to
an unprotected edge with risk of falling, should be minimised;

 vi) care should be taken to avoid large gaps next to cargo where it is stacked against
corrugated bulkheads.

Deck cargo should be stowed in accordance with the statutory regulations, and kept clear of hatch
coamings to allow safe access. Access to safety equipment, fire fighting equipment (particularly
fire hydrants) and sounding pipes should also be kept free. Any obstructions in the access way such
as lashings or securing points should be painted white to make them more easily visible. Where this
is impracticable and cargo is stowed against ship's rails or hatch coamings to such a height that the
rails or coamings do not give effective protection to personnel from falling overboard or into the
open hold, temporary fencing should be provided .

What are contents of Cargo Securing Manual or CSM ?

1.1 Ship Data. ...

2.1 Specification of Fixed Cargo Securing Devices. ...

3.1 Handling and safety instructions. ...

4.1 Bulk Carriers. ...

Appendix I – Log for maintenance of cargo securing equipment.

Appendix II – Manual procedure for calculation of lashings.

Appendix III – Applicable Annexes from the CSS Code.

1 Contents

1 Contents

2 General

2.1 Ship Data

2.2 Definitions

2.3 General Information

2.4 Principal sources of danger

3 Securing Devices and Arrangements

3.1 Specification of Fixed Cargo Securing Devices

3.2 Specification of Portable Cargo Securing Devices

3.3 Inspection and Maintenance Schemes

4 Stowage and Securing of cargo

4.1 Handling and safety instructions

4.1.1 General principles of cargo securing

4.1.2 Safe handling of cargo securing devices

4.1.3 Evaluation of forces acting on cargo units

4.1.4 Forces acting on typical cargo units

4.1.5 Calculation of forces in semi- and non-standardised lashing arrangements

4.1.5.1 MSLs for different securing devices

4.1.5.2 Safety factor

4.1.5.3 Simplified method – Rule of thumb 15

4.1.5.4 Ship Specific Example based on Alternative Method – using IMO LASCHONTM 16

4.1.5.5 Ship Specific Accelerations from IMO LASCHONTM 19

4.2 Application of portable securing devices

5 Supplementary Requirements for General Cargo/Container vessel

5.1 Bulk Carriers

5.1.1 Extracts from various Timber Deck Codes

5.2 Container Carriers

5.2.1 Handling and Safety Instructions

5.2.2 Stowage and Securing Instructions

5.2.2.1 Stowage and Securing Plan (not included in this model manual)

Appendix I – Log for maintenance of cargo securing equipment

Appendix II – Manual procedure for calculation of lashings

Appendix III – Applicable Annexes from the CSS Code

ANNEX 6 Safe stowage and securing of coiled sheet steel

ANNEX 7 Safe stowage and securing of heavy metal products

ANNEX 8 Safe stowage and securing of anchor chains

ANNEX 9 Safe stowage and securing of metal scrap in bulk

ANNEX 11 General guidelines for the under-deck stowage of logs

ANNEX 12 Safe stowing and securing of unit loads

Appendix IV – LASHCONTM IMO USER

1 General

1.1 Introduction

1.2 System requirements

1.3 User requirements

2. User guide

2.1 Input sequence

2.2 Input data

2.3 Calculation methods

2.4 Special features of Lashcon IMO

2.5 Program assumptions

Appendix V – Certification for fixed cargo securing devices

Appendix VI – Certification for portable cargo securing devices

General Stowage

Charter Parties normally call for the cargo to be loaded under the supervision and/or responsibility
of the Master who must ensure that the stowage is safe and does not endanger his ship. The
charterer, of course, may have time considerations foremost in his mind and not be as concerned
about a safe stowage as the Master. However, should the Master be dissatisfied with the stow for
any reason, loading should be stopped and the matter brought to the attention of the superintending
stevedore and the charterer's representative. Tallies and mates receipts must accurately record the
quantity and condition of the cargo. To issue a Bill of Lading that does not accurately reflect the
condition of a cargo is fraud .

When loading in several ports, the stowage is likely to be carried out by different stevedoring
companies and, unless supervised by the Master and his officers, there may be a tendency for the
stevedores to choose easily accessible stows for their cargo. The loading stevedore may have
despatch at his end more in mind than speed of operation at the port of discharge. Thus, if left
without firm guidance and control, he may find it to his advantage to confine to one or two holds
cargo which would discharge twice as fast if stowed in three or four.

Stowage should aim at distributing the cargo for any particular load or discharge port equally in
every hold, such that all the cargo handling equipment is employed to full capacity throughout
loading and discharging operations. It is best to ensure that the "heavy" hatch does not have to
remain working for extensive periods after all other hatches are finished and have been battened
down, with the added restriction, probably, of only one gang and one hook being able to get access
to the space being worked.

Where foodstuffs and fine goods are stowed (i.e. goods such as carpets, clothes, etc., which may be
easily damaged or take on taint) only clean nail-free dunnage should be used and stowage should be
found in separate compartments away from such obnoxious commodities as creosote, aniline,
essential oils, petroleum, copra, hides, manures, cassia, certain chemicals, turpentine, newly sawn
or most kinds of timber, green fruit, onions, etc.

Weighty packages such as cases of machinery, railway bar or plate iron, blocks of stones, ore
billets, ingots or pigs of metal, etc., should always be stowed on the tanktop or floor with lighter
cargo on top. As a general rule, fragile and light packages should be stowed in `tween deck spaces-
the deck of such being, if necessary or advisable, covered with weighty goodswhere they will not
be subjected to excessive top weight.

The nature of the packages sometimes calls for them to be kept in a certain position, i.e. coils and
rings on the flat, etc. Avoid stowing bale and light goods on top of cargo which has life and spring,
or against bulk head stiffeners, deck beams, brackets, frames, stanchions or other projections, using
plenty of dunnage to protect them from contacting such projections and rough surfaces.

Each tier should be kept as level as possible (with packages of uniform size it should be perfectly
level). Packages should not be stowed in such a manner or position that they tilt either way, as will
occur at the turn of the bilge or with the rise in floor in the fore part of the forward hold, etc.
Properly placed dunnage or bridging will ensure that this does not occur.

Broken Stowage

Any break in stowage or broken stowage caused by the presence of pillars, stanchions, brackets,
web frames, etc., for the filling of which certain packages are not available, or space which is
unsuitable to receive a package of cargo, should be packed firmly with suitable dunnage or airbags,
in order to prevent movement of cargo in a seaway and to afford a stable and level platform for the
next tier.

The loss of valuable cargo space, where the nature of the cargo justifies economy, is best avoided
by:
 1. Compactness of stowage.

2. Selecting packages which, by the nature and value of their contents and their construction,
are suitable for filling broken stowage. Reels of barbed wire, bales of binder twine, coils of
small wire, for example, are very useful for this purpose.

3. Always keeping a supply of such packages, or of low freighted goods, ready at hand in the
holds, for use when wanted.

4. Stowing casks and drums upright rather than on their sides.

5. Nesting and/or stowing pipes "bell and cantline". Blocking in spaces left between large
cases with smaller packages. Care should be taken that these packages cannot become
crushed.

6. Special selection of cargo suitable for filling beam spaces, i.e. cargo which is not liable to
chafe or damage by sweat, if moist or heated cargo is carried in the same compartment, or
refrigerated cargo in the compartment above. It should be borne in mind that 68% of the
hold capacity in `tween decks may be contained between the deck beams.

The shipper is responsible for providing all necessary information to enable the ship owner or ship
manager to ensure that;

• The commodities to be are compatible or that they can be adequately segregated.

• The cargo is suitable for the ship.

• The ship is suitable for the cargo.

• The cargo can be safely stowed and secured on the board the ship and carried under all
expected conditions.

• The Master should be supplied with adequate information to enable him to plan for the
loading, stowage and carriage of the cargo.

Hatch Covers

Introduction

For many years hatch covers comprised of wooden boards, laid athwart ships supported by steel
beams and overlaid with three layers of tarpaulin secured by battens and wedges were the standard.
The first steel hatch covers were basic steel plates, that were lifted into place by the ships derricks,
and were secured by screw down cleating arrangements. These lids were heavy and inflexible and
could only be used to cover relatively small openings. Modern steel hatch covers have evolved
over that last 60 years from these basic lift on lift off steel plates into a variety of designs, and
complex mechanisms which require carefully operation and maintenance.

Leaking

It is generally accepted that leaking hatch covers are a principal cause of cargo wetting. Hatches
leak for a variety of reasons, but mainly because of poor maintenance or failure to close them
properly. Leaking or badly maintained hatch covers can lead to more serious consequences than
wet cargo – flooding, accelerated corrosion or even loss of the ship. It has been found that there is
a degree of confusion throughout the industry as to whether hatches are constructed to be watertight
or weather tight.

A watertight hatch cover; is a cover designed to prevent the passage of water in either direction
under a head of water for which the surrounding structure is designed.

A weather tight hatch cover; is a cover designed to prevent the passage of water into the ship in any
sea condition.

Hatch covers are constructed to be weather tight, which means that, in any transient condition,
water will not penetrate into the ship through the covers or the double drainage system. However, it
is apparent that minor leakage into a cargo hold during a hatch cover test is often erroneously
considered to be within a weather tight standard; in practice, no leakage is the requirement.

Hatch Covers and their Function

The purpose and function of a hatch cover and its coamings is to provide a structural weather tight
barrier to prevent the ingress of water into a cargo hold. Hatch covers are a moveable structure
designed to a weather tight standard. Typically they are lightweight steel structures, modern design
methods using finite element technology enable more efficient material distribution which results in
lighter (thinner) structures.

Construction from high tensile steel results in even thinner plate being used. For this reason these
lightweight structures must be ‘handled with care’. Prevention of corrosion is essential – safety
margins are finite.

Rigorous inspection, regular maintenance and prompt repair of damaged covers, securing
arrangements and supports is essential to maintain modern hatch covers and ensure that they are ‘fit
for purpose’ and, in particular:

• To maintain sufficient strength to resist green seas landing on hatches in extreme weather;
• To maintain a barrier against ingress of water during normal seagoing weather conditions.

Failure to maintain hatch covers correctly can lead to the physical loss of a cover in extreme
weather, hold flooding and possible foundering. Minor leakage can cause cargo damage and, if it
continues over a prolonged period, damage to the ship’s internal structure. Long-term structural
decline can lead to structural collapse and total loss.

Hatches

Any hatch covering must be of sound construction and material, fit for purpose, free from patent
defect and properly maintained.

The Master must ensure that:

• A hatch covering is only used if it can be removed and replaced without endangering
personnel;

• A hatch is not used unless the covering has been completely removed or properly secured;

• Only an authorised person operates a power-operated hatch covering, except in the event of
an emergency.

Types of Hatch cover

Folding Hatch Covers:

Hydraulically operated, they may be fitted on both the weather deck and t’ween deck hatchways.
The simplest arrangement comprises two “slab” hatch lids connected by hinges. A wheel at the
leading edge of one hatch lid allows the sections to ‘peak’ and then fold. When closed the lids are
secured to the hatch coaming by cleats at the sides and ends. The cleats or ‘dogs’ may be manually
or hydraulically operated, but in either case care must be taken to ensure that all cleats are properly
engaged, and released prior to the hatch covers being operated. The controls are usually situated at
the centre of the hatch coaming, and are operated from the main deck. This type of hatch cover is
found on feeder container ships, multi-purpose ships, and smaller bulk carriers. When closed the
lids are secured, and a weather tight seal is made.

Side Rolling Hatch Covers:

Generally found on large dry bulk carriers and OBO’s. Where this type of hatch cover is used on
ballast holds, the securing arrangements will have to be adequate to ensure that the structure is
strong enough to withstand ‘sloshing’ of the ballast as the vessel is moving in a seaway.
Piggy Back Hatch covers:

Found on a variety of vessel types mainly smaller coastal vessels such as bulk carriers, general
cargo and container ships.

Single Pull Hatch covers:

Found on a variety of ships, they are operated by a ‘Hauling Wire’.

Basic Advice

There are procedures which will help to keep your ship’s hatch covers in good condition.

The following advice can be considered best practice.

• Carry out regular inspections of hatch covers, hatch beams and coamings to check for;

• General levels of corrosion.

• Localised corrosion at welded connections.

• Cracks in joints and weld metal.

• Distortion of plating and stiffeners.

• Excessive corrosion.

• Cracks in main structural joints.

• Significant areas of indentation, other than localised mechanical damage.

• Rectify any steel to steel faults before renewing rubber packing.

• Replace damaged or missing sections of rubber packing immediately. The minimum length
of packing replaced must be at least 1 metre.

• Keep hatch coaming tops and double drainage channels clean and free of debris.

Basic Maintenance.

The following are basic maintenance items for hatch covers, however as designs may vary
considerably the “manufacturer’s instruction” should be followed.

• Ensure that all cleats and wedges are in serviceable condition and correctly adjusted.

• Keep hauling wires and towing chains correctly adjusted.

• Attach locking pins or chains to open hatch covers.

• Ensure that wheels, cleats, hinge pins, hauling wires and chain tension equipment is well
greased.
• Test hydraulic oil for contamination and deterioration.

• Ensure that hydraulic systems are kept topped up with the correct grade of hydraulic oil.

• Check that the hydraulic system is oil “tight”.

• Engage t’deck hatch cover cleats when the panels are closed.

• Ensure hatch coaming drains are clear.

Hatch Testing

Hose Testing.

It may be a requirement of the ‘charter party’ for the vessels hatch covers to be hose tested to
ensure that they are weather tight, prior to loading the cargo.

The two most effective ways of doing this are either by hose testing, or by ‘ultra sonic’ testing, the
procedure for hose testing is as follows.

• Ensure that the hatch coaming drainage channels are clean and free of cargo residues.

• Check that the hatch coaming drains are clear of cargo residues.

• Ensure that the hatch cover drainage channels are clean and free of cargo residues.

• Close the hatch covers and batten them down, ensuring that all securing devices are
correctly fitted.

• Using a fire hose direct the jet along each joint, both across the top of the hatch cover and
the sides. An observer in the cargo hold will be able to detect any ingress of water.

• Mark any areas where an ingress of water is suspected.

Ultrasonic Testing.

The hatch cover is closed and battened down, an ultrasound generator is placed in the hold, and the
operator moves around the hatch cover joints with an ultrasound receiver.

This is the most efficient way of determining that the hatch cover is weather tight, but it does
require specialised equipment and a trained operator.

One advantage of using this type of equipment is that it can also be used if the hold is full of or
partially full of cargo.

Chalk Testing.
With the chalk test the hatch cover compression bars along the hatch coamings and cross joints are
‘well chalked’, the hatch covers are then closed, and battened down. When the hatch covers are re-
opened any areas of sealing rubber which do not have distinct chalk marks have not been
satisfactorily compressed and therefore a water tight seal has not been achieved. It must be noted
that this test is not definitive, but it may give an indication that the hatch cover is not weather tight.
This test is considered as a compression test and not a test for weather tightness

Any defects should be immediately remedied.

Powers of Inspectors – Dock Worker Rules 1990

An Inspector may at any port for which he is appointed:

1. Enter, with such assistance, (if any), as he thinks fit, any ship, dock, warehouse or other
premises, where any dock work, is being carried on, or where he has reason to believe that
any dock work is being carried on;

2. Make examination of the ship, dock, lifting appliance, loose gear, lifting device, staging,
transport equipment, warehouse or other premises, used or to be used, for any dock work;

3. Require the production of any testing muster roll or other document relating to the
employment of dock workers and examine such document;

4. Take on the spot or otherwise such evidence of any person which he may deem necessary

5. Take copies of registers, records or other documents or portions thereof as he may consider
relevant in respect of any offence which he has reason to believe has been committed or for
the purpose of any inquiry;

6. Take photograph, sketch, sample, weight measure or record as he may consider necessary
for the purpose of any examination or inquiry;

7. Hold an inquiry into the cause of any accident or dangerous occurrence which he has reason
to believe was the result of the collapse or failure of any lifting appliance loose gear,
transport equipment, staging non-compliance with any of the provisions of the Act or the
regulations;

8. Issue show-cause notice relating to the safety, health and welfare provisions arising under
the Act or the regulations;

9. Prosecute, conduct or defend before any court any complaint or other proceedings, arising
under the Act or the regulations;

10. Direct the port authority, dock labour board and other employers of dock workers for
getting the dock workers medically examined if considered necessary.
Cargo Record Book
Regulation 9 of Annex II to MARPOL 73 states that the Cargo Record Book must be completed, on
a tank-to-tank basis, whenever any of the following operations are carried out:

I Loading.

2 Discharging.

3 Cargo transfer.

4 Transfer of residues to a slop tank.

5 Tank cleaning.

6 Transfer from slop tank.

7 Ballasting of cargo tanks.

8 Transfer of dirty ballast water.

9 Any permitted discharge into the sea.

Any discharges of cargo into the sea for the purposes of securing the safety of a ship or saving life
at sea, or discharges resulting from damage to a ship or its equipment, or the discharge of anti-
pollution mixtures containing noxious substances, must also be recorded in the book.

Each operation entry should be signed by the officer in charge of the operation and the Master is
required to sign each page. The book is liable to be inspected at any time while the vessel is in port.

UNIT 3
GENERAL HAZARDS AND PRECAUTIONS WHEN LOADING/CARRYING
BULK CARGOES ONBOARD SHIP:
1. Cargo shift: Cargo shift has always remained as one of the greatest dangers on bulk carriers.
This problem is greater for ships carrying grain cargoes. Grain settles by about 2% of its volume.
Because of this settling, small void spaces exist on the top of grain surface. These void spaces
permit the grain to shift. The free flowing characteristics of grain reduce the stability of any ship
carrying it. Trimming is undertaken to reduce the danger of cargo shifting. Rolling can also cause
shifting of cargo from one side to the other and reduce her positive stability resulting in the vessel
to capsize.

2. Cargo falling from height: Cargoes like iron ore, quartz and steel scraps are high density cargo.
There is a possibility of cargo falling from height during cargo operations. Cargo may either fall
from the conveyor belt of the shiploader or from the discharging grab on to the deck of the ship.
People working on deck can get injured badly if hit by the sizeable lumps of the bulk cargo. It can
be as bad as death. Cargo operation should always be monitored by responsible officers and care
should be taken that no unwanted personnel are present on the working area of the deck. Persons
who are involved in the cargo operation should wear protective clothing including hard hats, safety
shoes and highly visible vests.

3. Dust from working cargo: Dust is one of the most common hazards in bulk carriers. Many bulk
cargoes are dusty by nature. Dust particles are small enough to be inhaled and if inhaled can have
disastrous effects on health. Anyone working on the deck can be exposed to high levels of dust.
Dust can cause sneezing and irritation of the eyes. Where possible it is always best to avoid
exposure to cargo dust however if exposure cannot be avoided protective face masks should be
worn. Those involved in cargo operation and need to be present on deck when a dusty cargo is
being loaded or discharged and anyone sweeping cargo with a brush or with air should wear a
suitable respirator. Filters should be renewed when soiled. Deck machinery should be properly
protected as they can be adversely affected by dust.

4. Cargo Liquefaction: Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which solid bulk cargoes are abruptly
transformed from a solid dry state to an almost fluid state. Many common bulk cargoes such as iron
ore fines, nickel ore and various mineral concentrates are examples of materials that may liquefy.
Liquefaction occurs as a result of compaction of the cargo which results from engine vibrations,
ship’s motion and rolling and wave impact that further causes cargo agitation.

Liquefaction results in a flow state to develop. This permits the cargo to slide and shift in one
direction thus creating free surface effect and reducing the GM thereby reducing stability. Shippers
declaration should be thoroughly examined by the chief officer before loading any bulk cargo. He
must make sure that the moisture content of the cargo to be loaded should not exceed the
transportable moisture limit to avoid liquefaction during the voyage. Often shippers declaration turn
out to be faulty. Spot checks can also be carried on board ships to check the moisture content.
5. Structural damage: Heavy cargoes place high loads on the structure and structural failure is
therefore probable. High density cargoes occupy a small area for a large weight that is they have a
low stowage factor. It is therefore important that the tank top has sufficient strength to carry heavy
cargoes like iron ore, nickel ore, bauxite etc . The load density of the tank top should never be
exceeded. Tank top strength is provided in the ship’s stability booklet. Exceeding the maximum
permissible cargo load in any of the holds of a ship will lead to over stressing of local structure.
Overloading will induce greater stresses in the double bottom, transverse bulkheads, hatch
coamings, hatch covers, main frames and associated brackets of individual cargo holds. Poor
distribution of and/or inadequate trimming of certain cargoes can result in excessive bending and
sheer forces.

6. Oxygen depletion: Sea transportation of bulk cargoes of an organic nature such as wood, paper
pulp and agricultural products may result in rapid and severe oxygen depletion and formation of
carbon dioxide. Thus apparently harmless cargoes may create potentially life threatening
conditions. The cargo holds and communicating spaces in bulk carriers are examples of confined
spaces where such toxic atmospheres may develop. Several fatal accidents can occur when people
enter unventilated spaces. The IMSBC code lists the following cargoes as potentially oxygen
depleting: coal, direct reduced iron, sponge iron, sulphide concentrates, ammonium nitrate based
fertilisers, linted cotton seed. Various gaseous products are formed including carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and hydro carbons. Entry of personnel into enclosed spaces
should be permitted only when adequate ventilation and testing of the atmosphere is done with
appropriate instruments. Emergency entry may be undertaken with SCBA. Some cargoes also use
up oxygen within the cargo space. The main examples are rusting of steel swarf cargoes. Some
grain cargoes may also deplete the oxygen content in the cargo space.

7. Corrosion: Some cargoes like coal and sulphur can cause severe damage due to corrosion.
Cargoes of sulphur in bulk are normally subjected to exposed storage and are thus subjected to
inclement weather thereby resulting in the increase of moisture content of the cargo. Wet sulphur is
potentially highly corrosive. When sulphur is loaded, any retained free water filters to the bottom of
the holds during the voyage, from where it is pumped out via the bilges. Some water remains on the
tank top and reacts with sulphur. This leads to the release of sulphuric acid resulting in the
corrosion of the ship’s holds. Pond coal which is reclaimed after having been abandoned and
dumped in fresh water ponds usually have high moisture content and sulphur content. This type of
coal may be liable to react with water and produce acids which may corrode parts of the ship.

8. Contamination: Preparation of cargo holds for the next intended carriage is a critical element of
bulk carrier operations. A lack of proper preparation can lead to claims related to cargo quality such
as contamination, water ingress or cargo loss. Residues and dust of previous cargo can contaminate
the presently loaded bulk cargo and can cause cargo stains that are not acceptable. Cement when
contaminated by residues of previous cargo reduces its binding capacity. Unrefined sugar if stored
near or above dry, refined sugar can damage it by the draining syrup. Water ingress may result from
leaking hatch covers, back flow through bilge systems, leaking manhole lids and inadequate
monitoring. Cargoes like salt can absorb moisture and dissolve into a liquid. Sugar can ferment in
the presence of moisture. The bilges should be pumped out regularly during the voyage.

9. Fire: Bulk cargoes are deemed to present a great deal of fire hazards. Many bulk cargoes have a
tendency to heat due to the oxidation process taking place during the voyage. Common cargoes like
coal, sulphur, cotton, fishmeal are liable to spontaneous heating. Coal also emits methane which is
a flammable gas. When mixed with air it can form an explosive mixture. Dust created by certain
cargoes may constitute an explosion hazard. Sulphur dust can readily ignite causing an explosion.
Friction between cotton bales can cause spontaneous combustion and produce heat. Fire
precautions should be strictly observed on bulk carriers.

The ship as carrier is obliged to care for the cargo in an expert manner to ensure it is discharged in
the same state in which it was loaded. The IMSBC code should be consulted for the safe stowage
and shipment of solid bulk cargoes. Suitable precautions and good seamanship should be adopted to
minimise and overcome the hazards of bulk cargoes.

Preparation of holds before loading Bulk cargoes

1. Inspect hold for suitability prior loading.

2. Ensure that bilge wells, strainer plates, sounding pipes, bilge suctions etc. are tested and
satisfactory.

3. Protect deck machinery against dust.

4. Accommodation air-conditioning system to be screened and put on recirculation.

5. Sound bilges before and atter loading.

6. while loading high density cargo the cargo should not fall directly into the empty hold as the tank
top may get damaged. A few slings of cargo should be gently lowered at first.

7. With a high GM, for a given transverse shift of cargo, the list will be less for a stiff ship than for
a tender ship. Because of this, the entire cargo is to be loaded in the lower hold only.

However, if the lower hold tank top gets overstressed or if the vessel tends to become too stiff then
some minimum amount of cargo may be put in the t'ween deck.

8. Bulk cargoes are loaded at a high rate so deballasting, loading sequence, trim, list, gangway,
moorings etc. must all be attended to.
9. Bulk material may cause oxygen depletion in a cargo space. Entry of personnel into enclosed
spaces should not be permitted until adequate ventilation and testing of the atmosphere is done with
appropriate instruments. Emergency entry may be undertaken only with self-contained breathing
apparatus and protective clothing.

10. Dust created by certain cargoes may constitute health as well as an explosion hazard. Use of
dust masks, ventilation and hosing down rather than sweeping are methods to combat this hazard.

Ships
1 Ships nominated for bulk loading should be suitable for the intended cargo. Suitable ships should
be:

.1 weathertight, and efficient in all respects for the normal perils of the sea and the
intended voyage;

.2 provided with an approved stability and loading booklet written in a language understood by the
ship’s officers concerned and using standard expressions and abbreviations. If the language is
neither English nor French nor Spanish, a translation into one of these languages should be
included;

.3 provided with hatch openings of sufficient size to enable the cargo to be loaded, stowed and
unloaded satisfactorily; and

.4 provided with the hatch identification numbers used in the loading manual and loading or
unloading plan. The location, size and colour of these numbers should be chosen so that they are
clearly visible to the operator of the loading or unloading equipment.

2 It is recommended that all ships which are required to carry out stress calculations should have on
board an approved loading instrument for the rapid calculation of such stresses.

3 All propulsion and auxiliary machinery should be in good functional order. Deck equipment
related to mooring and berthing operations, including anchors, cables, mooring lines, hawsers and
winches, should be operable and in good order and condition.

4 All hatches, hatch operating systems and safety devices should be in good functional order,
and used only for their intended purpose.

5 List indication lights, if fitted, should be tested prior to loading or unloading and proved
operational.

6 Ship’s own cargo handling equipment should be properly certificated and maintained, and used
only under the general supervision of suitably qualified ship’s personnel.

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME SOLID BULK CARGOES (IMSBC) CODE

Puepose:

The primary aim of this Code is to facilitate the safe stowage and shipment of solid bulk cargoes by
providing information on the dangers associated with the shipment of certain types of solid bulk
cargoes and instructions on the procedures to be adopted when the shipment of solid bulk cargoes is
contemplated.
The Code is mandatory under the provision of the SOLAS Convention from 1 January 2011.

Format for the properties of cargoes not listed in this Code and
conditions of the carriage
Tentative bulk cargo shipping name (in capital letters)

DESCRIPTION (Describe the cargo)

CHARACTERISTICS (Fill the following table)

HAZARD (Clarify the hazard of carriage of the cargo.)

(Determine the following types of requirements. If no requirement is necessary, write
“No special requirements”)

STOWAGE & SEGREGATION

HOLD CLEANLINESS
WEATHER PRECAUTIONS
LOADING
PRECAUTIONS
VENTILATION
CARRIAGE
DISCHARGE
CLEAN-UP
(Specify the emergency procedures for the cargo, if necessary.)

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

FORM FOR CARGO INFORMATION

for Solid Bulk Cargoes
In recent years the shipping world has experienced a number of incidents which have been
attributed to liquefaction of cargoes of iron ore fines and nickel ore, which are frequently presented
for loading in a dangerous condition.

At the beginning of 2015, the dangers of shifting cargoes were once again in the news due to the
loss of the 10-year-old Bahamas flag bulk carrier Bulk Jupiter, which was carrying bauxite when it
rapidly sank leading to 18 fatalities, an incident which was thought to be caused by the cargo
liquefying. The issue of liquefaction remains high on the UK Club’s Loss Prevention agenda.

Solid bulk cargoes such as unprocessed mineral ores and refined mineral concentrates have certain
characteristics that, although they may appear to be in a dry, granular state upon loading, may
contain enough moisture to become fluid under the compaction and vibration that occur during a
voyage. The resulting cargo shift can be sufficient to capsize a vessel.

The International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes Code (IMSBC Code) sets out the internationally
agreed provisions for the safe stowage and shipment of solid bulk cargoes, including cargoes that
might liquefy.

The IMSBC Code classifies cargo into Group A, B and C cargoes.

Group A – cargoes which may liquefy if shipped at a moisture content exceeding their
Transportable Moisture Limit (TML).

Examples of Group A cargoes: Mineral concentrates, Nickel ore, Coal,

Group B – cargoes which possess a chemical hazard which could give rise to a dangerous situation
on a ship.

Examples of Group B cargoes: Coal, Direct reduced iron (DRI), Metal sulphide concentrates,
Ammonium nitrate-based fertilisers, Wood products transported in bulk

Coal is most commonly a Group B cargo, but can also be classed as both A and B.

Group C – cargoes which are neither liable to liquefy (Group A) nor possess chemical hazards
(Group B). Cargoes in this group can still be hazardous.

Examples of Group C cargoes: Iron ore and high density cargoes, Sand and fine particle materials,
Cement

Definitions and terminology employed with bulk cargoes

Angle of repose – the natural angle between the cone slope and the horizontal plane when bulk
cargo is emptied onto this plane in ideal conditions. A value is quoted for specific types of cargoes,
results being obtained from use of a ‘tilting box’. The angle of repose value is used as a means of
registering the likelihood of a cargo shift during the voyage. An angle of repose of 35° is taken as
being the dividing line for bulk cargoes of lesser or greater shifting hazard and cargoes having
angles of repose of more or less than the figure are considered separately (Figure 4.1).
 Fig. 4.1 Angle of repose.

Bulk density – is the weight of solids, air and water per unit volume. It includes the moisture of the
cargo and the voids whether filled with air or water.

Cargoes which may liquefy – means cargoes which are subject to moisture migration and
subsequent liquefaction if shipped with a moisture content in excess of the transportable moisture
limit.

Concentrates – these are the materials that have been derived from a natural ore by physical or
chemical refinement, or purification processes. They are usually in small granular or powder form.

Conveyor system – means the entire system for delivering cargo from the shore stockpile or
receiving point to the ship.

Flow moisture point – is that percentage of moisture content, when a flow state develops.

Flow state – is a state which occurs when a mass of granular material is saturated with liquid to
such an extent that it loses its internal shear strength and behaves as if the whole mass was in liquid
form.

Incompatible materials – are those materials which may react dangerously when mixed and are
subject to recommendations for segregation.

Moisture content – is that percentage proportion of the total mass which is water, ice or other
liquid.

Moisture content of a sample is the percentage weight of the water contained in the total weight of the
sample. MC = (Weight of water / Total weight of sample) X 100%
----------

Moisture migration – is the movement of moisture contained in the bulk stow, when as a result of
settling and consolidation, in conjunction with vibration and the ship’s movement, water is
progressively displaced. Part or all of the bulk cargo may develop a flow state.
Pour – means the quantity of cargo poured through one hatch opening as one step in the loading
plan, i.e. from the time the spout is positioned over a hatch opening until it is moved to another
hatch opening.

Transportable moisture limit – the maximum moisture content of a cargo that may liquefy at a
level which is considered safe for carriage in ships other than those ships which, because of design
features of specialized fittings, may carry cargo with a moisture content over and above this limit.

Trimming – a manual or mechanically achieved adjustment to the surface level of the form/shape
of a bulk stow in a cargo space. It may consist of altering the distribution or changing the surface
angle to the point, perhaps of levelling some or all of the cargo, following loading.

What can be done to prevent liquefaction?

1. Sampling and Testing

The TML test of any cargo to be loaded should be conducted within 6 months to the date of loading
for homogenous material where no change in physical characteristics would be expected. Moisture
Content (MC) testing and sampling should not be carried out more than 7 days prior to the date of
loading. These timings are the mandatory intervals between sampling and loading and must be
strictly adhered to. If it has rained during these periods, further re-sampling / testing is required.

The IMSBC Code details a number of tests to obtain the flow moisture point (FMP) of a cargo,
dependant on its characteristics as described in Appendix 2, from which the TML is calculated as a
percentage of FMP.

Other issues with sampling and testing:

 Not enough competent surveyors or independent labs in certain countries

 Access to stockpiles of ship’s appointed independent surveyors restricted in certain areas
 Access to full depth sampling of stockpiles often restricted.

How are these issues addressed?

 Signed certificates of TML and MC must be issued by an entity recognised by the

Competent Authority (CA) who is to be independent from the shipper.

The reality is, however, that even though they are supposed to be independent they are appointed by
the shipper and are often biased in favour of them.

 The Shipper should facilitate access to the stockpiles for sampling and inspection of the
cargo including access to the full depth of the stockpile. In practice, however, this is often
impractical.

2. Charterparty Provisions

Carriers can ensure cargo inspection, sampling and testing prior to loading is a contractual right
provided for in the charterparty. This can be done by incorporating the BIMCO ‘Solid Bulk Cargo
Which May Liquefy’ clause, which is available on both the BIMCO website and the UK P&I
Club’s website. Alternatively, Members can seek legal advice in order to draft and incorporate a
commercially suitable clause.

Members must notify the Club at the earliest opportunity if they intend to load nickel ore from
Indonesian or Philippine ports.

3. Precautionary Measures Pre-Loading / Loading

Potential disasters could be prevented if the risks associated with transporting mineral ores and
concentrates are properly appreciated and mitigated. The lack of understanding of the problem by
the parties involved, and incorrect or inconsistent implementation of the IMSBC Code in load ports,
has contributed to significant loss of life in the past.

Follow these steps when carrying Group A cargoes to reduce the risk of liquefaction:

 Ensure the shipper has supplied the required cargo information, including the TML and the
actual moisture content in advance of loading
 Carefully check shipper’s cargo declaration and stated moisture content
 Consider appointing a surveyor in advance of loading to check the stockpile, take samples
and arrange tests prior to loading
 Try to obtain access to lab testing if possible
 Only accept the cargo if the actual moisture content is less than its TML
 Carry out visual monitoring during loading. If there are any indications of high moisture
content (surface water, cargo splatter on bulkheads and so on), stop loading and seek further
advice
 Consider trimming the cargo to reduce the likelihood of cargo shift as required by the
IMSBC Code (that is, when there is a risk of a wet base developing)
 Take measures to prevent water or other liquids entering the cargo space during loading
(and throughout the voyage) e.g. hatch cover tightness
 Conduct can-tests of samples at regular intervals at loading.

However, members should be aware that a negative can- test result does not necessarily mean the
cargo is safe for shipment as stipulated in s.8.4.2 IMSBC Code Amendment 02-13 which states: ‘If
samples remain dry following a can test, the moisture content of the material may still exceed the
Transportable Moisture Limit’

As such, it is recommended that if the can-test fails or there is a suspected failure members should:

i. Stop loading;

ii. Issue a Letter of Protest; and

iii. Seek further advice from P&I Club. May require surveyor / reputable cargo expert involvement
and further lab testing

4. Precautionary Measures During the Voyage

Even when the Members are satisfied of the condition of the cargo having been loaded, it is still
recommended that the following measures are taken in order to minimise any potential liquefaction
during the voyage:

 Regular visual checks of the cargo surface to check for accumulation of free water in the
cargo if possible. This should only be done if it is safe to enter hold as mineral concentrates
will deplete oxygen levels.
 Daily take cargo hold bilge soundings
 Ventilation of cargo, as and when appropriate (depending on what cargo and what is
advised in the IMSBC Schedule).

However, regular visual cargo surface inspections may not provide a true representation of the
cargo condition. In addition, if there is free water, though the cargo might be expected to drain it
can hold the moisture towards the bottom of the hold and develop a wet base.

If when following the above steps the cargo appears to be liquefying during the voyage members
are recommended to:

i. Contact the P&I Club;

ii. Contact nearest Coastal State Authority;

iii. Consider calling at the nearest port or place of refuge. Master to consider taking measures to
reduce ship’s vibration / motion;

v. Consider whether it is possible to discharge or dry out the cargo (this can, however, take months
and lead to a possible hire dispute); and

vi. Consider the use of third party cargo stabilisation specialists.

Where next?

Liquefaction remains a serious concern for the industry. Although this has been acknowledged by
attempts to further classify cargo in the IMSBC Code Amendments, there still remains a
considerable degree of ambiguity as to which cargoes can exhibit liquefactive properties while tests
can be inconclusive. Furthermore, political, economic and commercial interests and pressures have
been shown to make any significant progress difficult.

Ship masters should ensure that they are fully satisfied with the condition of the cargo prior to
accepting it for loading and that all conditions as per the IMSBC Code are duly met at all times.
Members should be aware that it is not the role of the club to formalise a standard for approved or
rejected cargoes. It is the members’ responsibility to comply with their obligations under the
IMSBC Code and to also take any necessary measures to ensure the safe carriage of the cargo.
Failure to comply with the provisions of the Code may prejudice club cover.

As such, members should remain extra vigilant when loading any cargo that is susceptible to
liquefaction, paying particular attention on any possible inaccurate cargo declarations and moisture
content certificates. Given the potential disastrous ramifications of loading a liquefied cargo, if in
doubt, do not load it.
Can test can save lives
Over the past decade, at least 100 seafarers are known to have lost their lives due to incidents which
have been attributed to bulk cargoes liquefying at sea.
Excessively wet cargoes in their ships' holds can turn quickly to an uncontrollable fluid when under
way, resulting in catastrophic capsizes with little warning. Most of the deaths were on ships
carrying seemingly solid nickel ore cargoes, but the risk is equally great where cargoes of iron and
aluminium ore (bauxite) as well as coal contain undetected and unsafe levels of moisture

More tragic still is that the deaths could have been prevented if a simple test had been carried out
and acted upon before the ships left port.

The so-called 'can test' is exactly what it says: put some cargo in a can, bang it on the ground for a
minute and see if the contents start to flow.

If they do, stop the loading and get some proper laboratory tests done - regardless of what it says on
the cargo documentation.

BLU Code and BLU Manual

The Code of Practice for the Safe Loading and Unloading of Bulk Carriers (BLU Code) was
developed with the aim of preventing accidents or loss of ships carrying solid bulk cargoes as a
result of improper loading and unloading practices.

PURPOSE OF BLU CODE:

The purpose of the Code is to assist persons responsible for the safe loading or unloading of bulk
carriers to carry out their functions and to promote the safety of bulk carriers.
The Code primarily covers the safety of ships loading and unloading solid bulk cargoes, excluding
grain, and reflects current issues, best practices and legislative requirements. Broader safety and
pollution issues such as those covered by the SOLAS, MARPOL and Load Line Conventions are
not specifically included in the Code. This Code of Practice for the Safe Loading and Unloading of
Bulk Carriers has been developed by the International Maritime Organization to minimize losses
of bulk carriers.

It is recommended that a copy of this Code be made available to every ship, charterer and bulk
loading or unloading terminal so that advice on operational procedures is readily available and
respective responsibilities are identified.

The recommendations in this Code provide guidance to shipowners, masters, shippers, operators of
bulk carriers, charterers and terminal operators for the safe handling, loading, and unloading of
solid bulk cargoes. The recommendations are subject to terminal and port requirements, or national
regulations. Persons responsible for the loading or unloading of bulk carriers should also be aware
of such regulations and requirements.

CONTENTS OF BLU CODE ARE:

Section 1 – Definitions
Section 2 – Suitability of ships and terminals
Section 3 – Procedures between ship and shore prior to the ship’s arrival
Section 4 – Procedures between ship and terminal prior to cargo handling.
Section 5 – Cargo loading and handling of ballast
Section 6 – Unloading cargo and handling of ballast
Appendix 1 – Recommended contents of port and terminal information books
Appendix 2 – Loading or unloading plan
Appendix 3 – Ship/shore safety checklist
Appendix4 – Guidelines for completing the ship/shore safety checklist
Appendix5 – Form for cargo information

Ship/Shore safety checklist

The purpose of the Ship/Shore Safety Checklist is to improve working relationships between ship and
terminal, and thereby to improve the safety of operations. Misunderstandings occur and mistakes can be
made when ships' officers do not understand the intentions of the terminal personnel, and the same
applies when terminal personnel do not understand what the ship can and cannot safely do. Completing
the checklist together is intended to help ship and terminal personnel to recognize potential problems,
and to be better prepared for them.

SHORE SAFETY CHECKLIST

CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE SAFE LOADING OR UNLOADING OF DRY BULK CARGO
CARRIERS

Date

Port Terminal/Quay

Available depth of water in berth .. Minimum air draught*…

Ship's name

Arrival draught (read/calculated) …. Air draught …..

Calculated departure draught …. Air draught …..

The master and terminal manager, or their representatives, should complete the check

list jointly. Advice on points to be considered is given in the accompanying guidelines.

The safety of operations requires that all questions should be answered affirmatively

and the boxes ticked. If this is not possible, the reason should be given and agreement

reached upon precautions to be taken between ship and terminal. If a question is considered to be not
applicable write "N/A", explaining why if appropriate.

SHIP □ TERMINAL 

1. Is the depth of water at the berth, and the air draught, adequate for the cargo operations to be
completed? □ 

2. Are mooring arrangements adequate for all local effects of tide, current, weather,

traffic and craft alongside? □ 

3. In emergency, is the ship able to leave the berth at any time?

□

4. Is their safe access between the ship and the wharf?

Tended by ship/terminal (cross out as appropriate) …………..

□

*The term air draught should be construed carefully: if the ship is in a river or an estuary, it

usually refers to maximum mast height for passing under bridges, while on the berth it usually refers to
the height available or required under the loader or unloader.

5. Is the agreed ship terminal communications system operative?

Communication method …. □ 

Language ……………..

Radio channels phone numbers …………..

6. Are the liaison contact persons during operations positively identified?

Ship contact persons ………..

Shore contact person(s) ………..

Location ……………

□

7. Are adequate crew on board, and adequate staff in the terminal, for emergency?

□

8. Have any bunkering operations been advised and agreed?

□

9. Have any intended repairs to wharf or ship whilst alongside been advised and agreed?

□

10. Has a procedure for reporting and recording damage from cargo operations been

agreed?

□

11. Has the ship been provided with copies of port and terminal regulations, including

safety and pollution requirements and demands of emergency services?

□

12. Has the shipper provided the master with the properties of the cargo in accordance
with the requirements of chapter VI of SOLAS?

□

13. Is the atmosphere safe in holds and enclosed spaces to which access may be required, have
fumigated cargoes been identified, and has the need for monitoring of atmosphere been agreed by ship
and terminal?

□

14. Have the cargo handling capacity and any limits of travel for each loader/ unloader

been passed to the ship/ terminal?

Loader ………..

Loader ………..

Loader ………

□

15. Has a cargo loading or unloading plan been calculated for all stages of loading/

deballasting or unloading/ballasting?

Copy lodged with ………………….

□

16. Have the holds to be worked been clearly identified in the loading or unloading

plan, showing the sequence of work, and the grade and tonnage of cargo to be

transferred each time the hold is worked?

□

17. Has the need for trimming of cargo in the holds been discussed, and have the

method and extent been agreed ?

□

18. Do both ship and terminal understand and accept that if the ballast programme becomes out of step
with the cargo operation, it will be necessary to suspend cargo operation until the ballast operation has
caught up?

□

19. Have the intended procedures for removing cargo residues lodged in the holds while unloading been
explained to the ship and accepted?

□

20. Have the procedures to adjust the final trim of the loading ship been decided and agreed ?
Tonnage held by the terminal Conveyor system …………….

□

21. Has the terminal been advised of the time required for the ship to prepare for sea on completion of
cargo work?

□

SHIP TERMINAL

THE ABOVE HAS BEEN AGREED:

Time ……… Date ……………

For ship ……. for terminal ……….

Rank ……… Position/Title ……….

Material Safety Data Sheet

A ship has to carry different types of cargo which includes oil cargo, chemical cargo, and cargo in
gaseous form. These types of goods are hazardous for marine environment as well as for the health of
seafarer. Apart from carrying cargo, the ship carries different types of chemicals and solutions which
are used for several marine operations. A Material Safety Data Sheet is provided for such cargo and also
for chemicals carried onboard which are used for maintenance purpose.

Hazards on board Ship

Goods present on board ship that can be hazardous to the ship and its crew are:

 Different hazardous goods like fuel oil, lube oil, chemicals, LNG, LPG etc.

 Cargo carried in containers under IMDG code.

 Fuel oil and lube oil carried as a bunker are also hazardous in nature and can harm humans and
environment

 For maintenance and operational purpose, different kinds of chemicals are used onboard which
can be hazardous. They are mostly used as cleaning agents, for water treatments, for dosing in
fuels and as an additive in sanitation systems.

Purpose of MSDS
 MSDS is carried onboard for ensuring the safety of marine environment and seafarers.

 MSDS provides useful and accessible information on the product carried on board, either as a
cargo or for operational purposes.

 MSDS is to be carried out for all individual hazardous material carried on board along with
proper personal protective equipments (PPE) so that in the time of emergency, appropriate
procedures and swift response can be achieved in that situation.

Legislative Requirements
As per SOLAS regulation 5-1 complying with ISM code, Merchant ships are mandates to carry MSDS
onboard, if ships are carrying a MARPOL Annex I Cargo or bunker onboard.

Table of Contents
Introduction

1. Product and Company Identification

2. Hazards Identification

3. Composition, Information on Ingredients

4. First Aid Measures

5. Fire Fighting Measures

6. Accidental Release Measures

7. Handling And Storage

8. Exposure Controls, Personal Protection

9. Physical And Chemical Properties

10. Stability And Reactivity

11. Toxicological Information

12. Ecological Information

13. Disposal Considerations

14. Transport Information

15. Regulatory Information

16. Other Information

Special precautions for handling bulk coal - IMSBC code guideline

Loading bulk coal: Actions if temperature of COAL cargo is rising - Cargo Work - YouTube

Coal is a potentially hazardous cargo and serious incidents continue to arise. In some instances it
would appear that those on board were not entirely familiar with the risks, and on other occasions
the coal was not carried in accordance with regulatory requirements or best practice.
One example involved a crew member who was using a rotary wire brush on deck to remove
patches of rust from the hatch coaming of a closed hold containing coal, possibly creating a source
of ignition. While operating the equipment an explosion took place inside an adjacent hold, blowing
the hatch covers upwards and propelling the crew member over the ship’s rail into the sea. He
suffered serious injuries as a result.
In another case a vessel with a cargo of Indonesian coal on board saw smoke rising from one of the
holds while anchored outside the discharge port. The vessel had been asked to ventilate the holds
just prior to berthing.
However, in the absence of firm orders the vessel’s crew decided to ventilate the holds anyway in
case they were instructed to berth at short notice. The vessel did not berth until several days later
during which time the cargo in several holds began to self-heat.
On another occasion a deck rating on board a vessel carrying coal was asked to take samples from
inside a cargo hold and collapsed at the base of a vertical ladder leading from the main deck.
Another deck rating entered the hold to assist him but collapsed in the same location, as did two
more crew members in succession. Although all four crew members were eventually rescued, one
lost his life and the others required hospital treatment for respiratory injuries.
IMSBC Code
The International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes (IMSBC) Code contains a detailed schedule
regarding the carriage of coal, describing the particular hazards associated with this cargo and
specifying the precautionary measures to be taken. The IMSBC Code classifies coal as Group B (ie
cargoes which possess a chemical hazard which could give rise to a dangerous situation on a ship).
Additionally, the IMSBC Code classifies coal as Group A (ie cargoes which may liquefy if shipped
at a moisture content in excess of their transportable moisture limit) if 75% or more of the material
consists of fine particles under 5mm in size.
The requirements of the IMSBC Code schedule for coal should be read, understood and closely
followed.

Cargo Declaration
The shipper’s cargo declaration should be scrutinised carefully to determine which hazards are
associated with the coal to be loaded. However, in some parts of the world it should be borne in
mind that the cargo declaration may not necessarily be accurate. For example, declarations
regarding coal cargoes from Kalimantan province, Indonesia, often state incorrectly that there is no
self-heating risk. All coal cargoes from Kalimantan should be treated as being liable to self-heat. In
the event of doubt, Members may forward a copy of the cargo declaration to the Managers for
comment.

Potential Hazards
Methane (CH4)
Some coal cargoes produce methane, a non-toxic gas which is flammable at concentrations of
between 5% and 16% in air. Ventilation should be carried out to ensure that the methane content of
the atmosphere inside the cargo holds is always less than 20% of the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
for methane.
If coal with a methane hazard is to be loaded, all sources of ignition (eg smoking, hot work, naked
flames, activities that may produce sparks) should be prohibited on deck, within the cargo spaces
and inside enclosed spaces adjacent to the cargo holds. Since methane is lighter than air, it should
also be remembered that methane gas may build up inside deck houses and other compartments if
they contain access hatches or other cargo hold openings which are not gas tight.
Self-Heating, Oxygen Depletion and Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Some coal cargoes may self-heat due to oxidation. This process produces carbon monoxide, an
extremely toxic, odourless and colourless gas which also depletes the amount of oxygen in the
atmosphere. Since introducing fresh air into the cargo spaces will increase the risk of
combustion,self heating coal should be ventilated only if it becomes necessary to dissipate the
accumulation of methane gas. Any ventilation carried out in such circumstances should therefore be
kept to a minimum.

If self-heating coal reaches a temperature of 55°C or over it may spontaneously combust.

Temperature probes (thermocouples) may be placed within the body of the cargo to aid the early
detection of self-heating but their limitations need to be understood. Self-heating is often localised
and a temperature probe may not detect cargo nearby which has begun to self-heat as coal is
thermally insulating.
Occasionally encounters situations where crew members are over-reliant n temperature probes and
assume that all is well if the readings are less than 55°C which may not necessarily be the case.
Monitoring the level of carbon monoxide as required by the IMSBC Code is a far more accurate
means of detecting self-heating at an early stage.
Coal should only be accepted for shipment if the temperature of the cargo is less than 55°C.
Once a cargo hold has been loaded and the hatch covers have been closed, the amount of carbon
monoxide inside the compartment should be monitored closely to determine whether or not self
heating is taking place.
If the level of carbon monoxide in any cargo space reaches 50 ppm or exhibits a steady rise over
three consecutive days, a self-heating condition may be developing. Should such a situation arise
the IMSBC Code lists the action to be taken thereafter.
Breathing air with an oxygen content of less than 12% can lead to unconsciousness. Less than 6%
may result in death. The speed with which personnel may be overcome by oxygen depletion can be
rapid, to the extent that they may collapse before they realise what is happening. Although exposure
to carbon monoxide gas can be fatal even at low concentrations, it is often the lack of oxygen that is
the main cause of such incidents.
As with methane, carbon monoxide is lighter than air and may accumulate inside enclosed spaces
such as deck houses with cargo hold access arrangements inside which are not gas tight. No one
should be permitted to enter the cargo holds or adjacent compartments until the atmosphere has
been tested and found to be safe. Enclosed space entry procedures should always be followed.
Given the importance of monitoring gas levels in cargo holds and adjacent enclosed spaces, it is
essential that the vessel’s gas detectors are in full working order, calibrated correctly and not
overdue for servicing. Any crew member responsible for operating such equipment should be fully
trained and familiar with its use.
In the event of potential hazards such as the presence of toxic or flammable gas or reduced oxygen
levels, the entrances to cargo holds and adjacent enclosed spaces should be locked shut and warning
notices prohibiting access should be posted.
Liquefaction
If the shipper’s cargo declaration states that the coal is Group A in addition to Group B, the
accompanying certification and test reports providing the moisture content and transportable
moisture limit (TML) of the cargo should be checked carefully to verify that the moisture content is
less than the TML. The IMSBC Code requires the shippers to arrange for the moisture
content to be determined not more than seven days prior to loading, repeating the test if significant
precipitation is experienced between the time of testing and loading.

The shippers are also required to ascertain the TML not more than six months prior to loading, or
earlier if the composition or characteristics of the cargo change in the interim.
The vessel should also carry out regular “can” tests throughout loading in accordance with the
guidance set out in Section 8.4 of the IMSBC Code. As an additional precaution it may also be
prudent to carry out “can” tests even if the coal has not been declared as Group A, particularly if it
appears to be wet or damp or if the proportion of fine particles seems to be high.
If a “can” test results in the appearance of free moisture or fluid conditions, the Managers should be
contacted immediately as further laboratory tests and expert advice may be required.
Sulphur
Coal from certain locations may have a high sulphur content. If the coal or the cargo holds are wet,
the sulphur and water may react to produce sulphurous acid which is corrosive and may damage
hold steelwork, particularly if the coatings are not in good condition. The reaction also produces
toxic gas and hydrogen. The IMSBC Code requires the shippers to declare the sulphur content of
the cargo, therefore they should be asked to provide such information if they fail to do so.

In order to monitor the possible corrosive effects of carrying high sulphur coal, the vessel should be
provided with a means of measuring the pH value of cargo hold bilge water from outside the cargo
spaces.

CONCENTRATES
PROPERTIES OF CONCENTRATES
Cargoes which may liquefy includes concentrates, certain coals and other materials listed in
Appendix A At a moisture content above the TML, shift of cargo may occur as a result of
liquefaction. Such cargoes appear to be in a relatively dry, granular state when loaded. But due to
compaction and vibration on the voyage, the moisture migrates to the surface. In the resulting fluid
state, cargo may flow to one side of the ship with a roll. But all cargo will not return with the roll
the other way. Thus the ship may progressively list dangerously and capsize.
HAZARDS OF CONCENTRATES
1. High density 2. Dry shift (below TML) 3. Wet shift (above TML) 4. Spontaneous combustion
PRECAUTIONS WHEN CARRYING CONCENTRATES :
1. General cargo vessels may carry concentrates only when cargo is at or below the TML. However
concentrates having moisture content greater than TML may be carried with prior approval of the
administration provided that special divisions are fitted to reduce the shift of cargo. These divisions should
not be constructed of wood and should be sufficient in strength to restrain the immense forces generated by
the movement of high density bulk cargoes. The ship's structure bounding such cargoes may also have to be
strengthened. Cargoes with moisture content> TML may be carried in specially constructed cargo ships with
permanent boundaries arranged to reduce the shift of cargo to an acceptable limit.
2. Wet cargoes or liquids should not be loaded in the same compartment as concentrates.
3. Cargo work should not be carried out during rain. Entry of water, rain, spray etc into the hatches at sea
should be prevented. ·
4. To decrease the effect of oxidation the cargo should be trimmed reasonably level on completion
irrespective of the angle of repose, to reduce the surface area.
5. Some concentrates such as sulphides are subject to oxidation and spontaneous combustion if the moisture
content is very low. In such cases, water may be used only as a spray to cool the cargo and bring up the
moisture content. However, a flow state should not be allowed to develop.
6. Shipper must produce a certificate from a competent laboratory stating the FMP, lllMl, and MC. Test
samples to be taken from the stock pile nearest to the shipping point.
7. In case the stock pile is exposed to precipitation then test samples must be taken just prior to loading.
8. When delivery of cargo is by road; rail or barge-an,d entry of water into the vehicle is suspected, then
random checks at the surface and at half depth should be made of one in five vehicles.

SPOT CHECK ON BOARD - To determine Flow Moisture Point

Half fill a can (e.g. beer can) with a sample of the concentrate. Bang the tin sharply against a solid table or
on deck from a height of about 20 cm. Repeat the same about 25 times at or one or two second intervals. If
free moisture appears on the surface or a flow state develops, get a laboratory analysis of the concentrate
done to check the FMP, TML and MC before any further loading.

SPOT CHECK ON BOARD - To determine Angle of Repose

Place a rough sheet of paper e.g. Sandpaper on a horizontal table which is not subject to movement or
vibration. Take about 3 litres of the bulk cargo in a conical flask and pour about two-thirds of it on the rough
paper to form a cone. Now pour the balance carefully from a few millimetres above the cone top so as to
form a symmetric cone. This can be done by revolving the mouth of the flask around the cone peak as the
material is being poured. The angle that the cone slope makes with the horizontal is the angle of repose as
measured by a protractor around the cone 90deg. apart.

Grain Cargoes
Principle of the grain rules

The loading and transporting of grain is governed by Chapter VI of SOLAS 74, 'Carriage of Grain',
generally referred to as the 'IMO Grain Rules'.
The basic requirement of the rules is that it must be demonstrated by calculation that at all times
during a voyage the ship will have sufficient intact stability to provide adequate residual dynamic
stability after taking into account the adverse heeling effects caused by an assumed pattern of grain
movements within the void spaces lying directly above the grain.
The foreword further states that the provision of temporary grain fittings to reduce the effects of
grain shift, e.g. shifting boards, bagged grain, bundling, etc., 'depends entirely upon achieving the
correct relationship between the intact stability characteristics of the ship and the heeling effects
of a possible grain shift within the various compartments of the ship'. The IMO Grain Rules
stipulate the minimum level of acceptable stability for the carriage of grain in terms of initial
metacentric height, angle of heel due to assumed grain shift, and residual dynamic stability.

A synopsis of the schedule is given below:

I All free grain surfaces should be levelled to minimize the effect of the grain shifting. In any filled
compartment the bulk grain must be trimmed so as to fill all the spaces under the decks and hatch
covers. All free grain surfaces in partly filled compartments must be level.
2 Throughout the voyage the intact stability characteristics must meet at least the following criteria:
(a) the angle of heel due to the shift of grain must not be greater than 12°;
(b) in the statical stability diagram, the net or residual area between the heeling arm curve and the
righting arm curve up to the angle of heel of maximum difference between the ordinates of the two
curves shall, in all conditions of loading, be not less than 0.075 metre-radians;
(c) the initial metacentric height, after correcting for the FSE of liquids in tanks, must not be less
than 0.3 m. The ship must be upright before proceeding to sea.
3 In both filled and partly filled compartments, longitudinal or transverse divisions may be
provided to reduce the adverse heeling effect of grain shift or to limit the depth of cargo used for
securing the grain surfaces. Saucering may also be used to reduce the adverse heeling effects of
grain shift.
4 The surface of bulk grain in any partly filled compartment should be secured by overstowing or
by strapping or lashing. The arrangements mentioned in 3 and 4 must be in accordance with the
procedures specified in the IMO Grain Rules.
Lower holds and tween deck spaces directly above may be loaded as one compartment provided
that, in calculating transverse heeling moments, proper account is taken of the flow of grain into the
lower spaces.

Document of Authorisation
In accordance with the Merchant Shipping Grain Regulation ; every ship which is to carry grain
must have on board a 'Document of Authorisation'.
This document takes the form of a booklet of stability information which includes grain loading
conditions and other information which indicates that the ship meets the relevant SOLAS
requirements for carrying grain. Every booklet must be stamped by the Administration of the
county in which the ship is registered, or by a Certifying Authority on its behalf. The stamp should
bear the statement that the requirements can be met and it gives the authority for the ship to be
loaded with bulk grain in accordance with those requirements.

Grain

The IMO definition of grain states that, 'the term "grain" includes wheat, maize (corn), oats, rye,
barley, rice, pulses, seeds and processed forms thereof, whose behaviour is similar to that of grain
in its natural state'.

What are the hazards of Grain?

The Grain mainly has two hazards, namely Settling and Shifting. Both these factors affects the
stability of the vessel.

Two crucial things are required to be considered for Carriage of Grain –

 The ship should have a valid Document of Authorization
 The ship should have an approved Grain Stability Booklet/Grain Loading Manual
Document of Authorization
 Document of authorization shall be issued to a ship which is permitted to be loaded in
accordance with the regulations of the Grain Code and is authorized to carry grain in bulk
 It shall be incorporated in the Grain Stability Booklet/Grain Loading Manual.
 A ship can’t load grain without DoA unless Master demonstrates to the satisfaction of the
Administration that the ship is under loaded condition complies to the regulation of the
Code.

Grain Loading Booklet

 Grain loading manual or Grain Stability Booklet are Class Approved information booklets
which gives the ship’s officer various information with respect to Grain Loading onboard

 Following are the contents of Grain Loading Booklet —

1. Ship’s particulars, lightship displacement & KG values

2. Table giving values Free Surface Correction
3. Capacities and Centre of Gravity of Hold Compartments
4. KN Curves and angle of flooding tables, where less than 40 degrees, at all degrees of heel
5. Curves or tables of hydrostatic properties suitable for the range of operating drafts
6. Cross curves of stability at 12 and 40 degrees
7. Curves/tables of volume/vertical centre of volumetric and assumed heeling moments for
every compartment, including the effects of the temporary fittings.
8. Tables/curves of maximum permissible heeling for varying displacements
9. Details of scantlings or any temporary fittings
10. Loading instructions in the form of notes
11. A worked example for Master.
12. Typical service, loaded departure and arrival conditions

Methods of securing grain

The Department of Transport has published a Grain Notes Guidance Booklet which indicates the
type of information that should be provided with a carriage of grain submission. The booklet also
describes the various methods by which grain is secured.

Longitudinal divisions

These may be provided in both filled compartments and partly filled compartments. The divisions
must be grain-tight and constructed to IMO specifications.

In a filled compartment the division shall:

(a) in a tween deck extend from deck to deck;

(b) in a hold extend downwards from the underside of the deck or hatch covers a distance of at least
0.6 m below the grain surface after the surface has been assumed to shift through an angle of 15°.

In a partly filled compartment the division shall extend from one-eighth of the maximum breadth of
the compartment above the level of the grain surface and to the same distance below the surface.
When the division is used to limit the depth of overstowing, the height of the centreline division
shall be at least 0.6 m above the grain level.

The specifications for grain fittings are given in Part C of the IMO rules. The rules should be
consulted before divisions are constructed but some pertinent details are outlined below.
General specifications All timber used for grain fittings should be of good sound quality and of a
type and grade which has been proved to be satisfactory for the purpose. Plywood, of an exterior
type bonded with waterproof glue and fitted so that the direction of the grain in the face plies is
perpendicular to the supporting uprights or binder, may be used provided that its strength is
equivalent to that of solid timber of the appropriate scantlings. Materials other than wood or steel
may be approved for divisions provided that proper regard has been paid to their mechanical
properties.

Uprights

The depth of housing for each upright should not be less than 75 mm. This applies to the housing at
both the upper and lower ends. If an upright is not secured at the top, the uppermost shore or stay
should be fitted as near to the top as is practicable. If arrangements are made for inserting shifting
boards by removing a part of the cross-section of an upright, the arrangements should be such that
the local level of stresses is not unduly high. If uprights are formed by two separate sections, one
fitted on each side of a division and interconnected by through bolts at adequate spacing, the
effective section modules should be taken as the sum of the two moduli of the separate sections. If
divisions do not extend to the full depth of the hold such divisions and their uprights should be
supported or stayed so as to be as efficient as those which do extend to the full depth of the hold.

Divisions loaded on both sides/Shifting Boards (Filled/Partly

Filled)
I Shifting boards should be not less than 50 mm thick, grain-tight, and where necessary supported
by uprights.

2 The maximum unsupported span for shifting boards of various thicknesses is given in a table, e.g.
the maximum unsupported span for a 60 mm thick shifting board is 3.0 m.

3 The ends of all shifting boards should be securely housed with a 75 mm minimum bearing length.

4 Divisions formed with materials other than wood should have an equivalent strength to wooden
shifting boards.

5 The section modules (cross-section size) of steel and wood uprights are determined by formulae
which are given in the rules.
6 Uprights should be spaced to correspond with the maximum permitted unsupported span for the
shifting boards.

7 If wood shores are used they must be in a single piece, securely fixed at each end, and heeled
against the permanent structure of the ship (except directly against the side plating). The minimum
size of the shores is given in the rules.

8 Stays must be as near horizontal as possible, well secured at both ends, and made of steel wire
rope. The size of the wire should be determined on the basis that the divisions and uprights are
uniformly loaded at 500 kg/m2• The breaking load of the wire must exceed this by at least two-
thirds.

The requirements for divisions which are loaded on one side only are found by the use of tables
which are contained in Part C.

Saucering ( Filled)
Except in the case of compartments containing oil seeds, a longitudinal division beneath a
hatchway in a filled compartment may be replaced by a saucer of bagged grain or other suitable
cargo. The bulk grain beneath the hatchway should be trimmed in the form of a saucer and the
following points should be observed:

1 The depth of the saucer, measured from the bottom of the saucer to the deck line, shall not be less
than: 1.2 m in ships whose moulded beam does not exceed 9.1 m; and 1.8 m in ships whose
moulded beam is 18.3 m or greater. In ships of moulded beam between 9.1 and 18.3 m the depth
should be found by interpolation.

2 The top, or mouth, of the saucer should be formed by the hatchway, i.e. hatch side girders or
coamings and hatch end beams. The saucer and the hatchway above should be completely filled
with bagged grain or other suitable cargo which is laid down on a separation cloth or its equivalent.
The bags must be stowed tightly against adjacent structures and portable hatchway beams if the
latter are in place.
Bundling ( Filled)
As an alternative to filling the saucer with bagged grain or other suitable cargo a bundle of bulk
grain may be used. The grain is trimmed in the form of a saucer as described above and the
following procedure should then be carried out:

1 The saucer should be lined with a tarpaulin or other acceptable material which has a tensile
strength of not less than 274 kg per 5 cm strip. The material must be provided with suitable means
for securing at the top, e.g. strong eyelets and suitable lashings.

2 The saucer should then be filled with bulk grain and the top secured, usually carried out by lacing
the eyelets together and forming a tight compact bundle. The top of the saucer must be coincidental
with the bottom of the beams when they are in place and suitable general cargo or bulk grain may
be placed between the beams on top of the saucer to ensure a tight, compact stow.

If more than one sheet of material is used to line the saucer the sheets must be joined at the bottom
by sewing or by a double lap.
Acceptable material of a strength less than 274 kg per 5 cm strip may be used but it must not have a
tensile strength of less than 137 kg per 5 cm strip.
If such material is used, athwartship lashings must be placed inside the saucer directly on top of the
grain at intervals of not more than 2.4 m. The lashings must be long enough to be drawn up tight
and secured at the top of the saucer.
Dunnage which must not be less than 25mm thick (or other suitable material of equal strength) and
between 150 and 300 mm wide should then be placed fore and aft over the lashings. The purpose of
the dunnage is to prevent the lashings cutting or chafing the material which is placed on top of the
dunnage to line the saucer.
The bundle is then drawn up tight and secured as previously described.
Saucering and bundling can only be carried out in filled compartments and the procedures are
similar, except:

for saucering bagged grain must be used

in bundling bulk grain is used

In some ports the trimming of grain to form a saucer is done manually and the personnel
conducting the operation should be made aware of the dangers of oxygen deficiency which may be
caused by the grain 'breathing'. All organic materials consume oxygen and some grains can quickly
use up the oxygen in confined spaces. 'Enclosed space procedures' should be adapted for the
trimming operation and, if necessary, the personnel should wear some form of air supply apparatus.
Accidents have occurred in which men trimming grain have collapsed and died as a result of
oxygen deficiency.

Partly filled compartments

The movement of grain in a partly filled compartment may be considered to be eliminated if the
grain is overstowed or strapped.

Overstowing (Filled/Partly Filled)

I The surface of the grain must be trimmed level.

2 A separation cloth (or equivalent) or a platform is laid on top of the grain. A platform consists of
wooden bearers spaced not more than 1.2m apart with 25 mm wooden boards laid on top not more
than 100 mm apart.

3 Bagged grain is tightly stowed on top to a height of not less than one-sixteenth of the breadth of
the free grain surface or 1.2 m, whichever is the greater. (Instead of bagged grain, other suitable
cargo which exerts the same pressure may be used.) The bagged grain must be in securely closed,
well filled, sound bags.
Strapping or lashing(Filled/Partly Filled)
I The grain is trimmed so that the surface is very slightly 'crowned', i.e. the surface is slightly higher
in the middle than around the edges.

2 The grain is covered by separation cloths and/or tarpaulins which overlap by at least 1.8 m.

3 Two solid floors of 25 mm timber, 150--300mm wide, are laid on the separation. The top floor
runs longitudinally and is nailed to the athwartships bottom floor. Alternative approved floors may
also be laid.

4 Timber bearers, 25 x 150 mm, are nailed to the top floor. The bearers extend over the full breadth
of the compartment.

5 The floors are secured by lashings spaced not more than 2.4 m apart and which lie on the bearers.
The lashings are made of 19mm diameter steel wire rope, or 50 x 1.3mm doubled steel strapping
(having a breaking load of at least 5000 kg), or chain of equivalent strength. The lashings are set
tight by 32 mm turnbuckles but winch tighteners with locking arms may be used with steel
strapping. Eyes in lashing wire must be formed by at least four clips on each eye and the ends of
steel strapping must be secured by not less than three crimp seals on each end.

6 The lashings will have been placed in position prior to the completion of loading by being
positively attached to framing at points approximately 450 mm below the anticipated final grain
surface by means of either a 25 mm shackle or a beam clamp of equivalent strength.

7 The lashings must be regularly inspected during the voyage and re-set where necessary.
Securing with wire mesh(Filled/Partly Filled)
When, in order to eliminate grain heeling moments in partly filled compartments, strapping or
lashing is utilized, the securing may, as an alternative to the method described above be
accomplished as follows:

1. The grain shall be trimmed and levelled to the extent that it is very slightly crowned along the
fore and aft centreline of the compartment.

2. The entire surface of the grain shall be covered with burlap separation cloths, tarpaulins, or the
equivalent. The covering material shall have a tensile strength of not less than 1,344 N per 5 cm
strip.

3. Two layers of wire reinforcement mesh shall be laid on top of the burlap or other covering. The
bottom layer is to be laid athwartships and the top layer is to be laid longitudinally. The lengths of
wire mesh are to be overlapped at least 75 mm. The top layer of mesh is to be positioned over the
bottom layer in such a manner that the squares formed by the alternate layers measure
approximately 75 mm x 75 mm. The wire reinforcement mesh is the type used in reinforced
concrete construction. It is fabricated of 3 mm diameter steel wire having a breaking strength of not
less than 52 KN/cm2 welded in 150 mm x 150 mm squares. Wire mesh having mill scale may be
used but mesh having loose, flaking rust may not be used.

4. The boundaries of the wire mesh, at the port and starboard side of the compartment, shall be
retained by wood planks 150 mm x 50 mm.

5. Hold-down lashings, running from side to side across the compartment, shall be spaced not more
than 2.4 m apart except that the first and the last lashing shall not be more than 300 mm from the
forward or after bulkhead, respectively. Prior to the completion of the loading, each lashing shall be
positively attached to the framing at a point approximately 450 mm below the anticipated final
grain surface by means of either a 25 mm shackle or beam clamp of equivalent strength. The
lashing shall be led from this point over the top of the boundary plank described in A 18.1.4, which
has the function of distributing the downward pressure exerted by the lashing. Two layers of 150
mm x 25 mm planks shall be laid athwartships centred beneath each lashing and extending the full
breadth of the compartment.

6. The hold-down lashings shall consist of steel wire rope (19 mm diameter or equivalent), double
steel strapping (50 mm x 1.3 mm and having a breaking load of at least 49 kN), or chain of
equivalent strength, each of which shall be set tight by means of a 32 mm turnbuckle. A winch
tightener, used in conjunction with a locking arm, may be substituted for the 32 mm turnbuckle
when steel strapping is used, provided suitable wrenches are available for setting up as necessary.
When steel strapping is used, not less than three crimp seals shall be used for securing the ends.
When wire rope is used, not less than four clips shall be used for forming eyes in the lashings.

7. During the voyage the hold-down lashings shall be regularly inspected and set up where
necessary.

GRAIN LOADING STABILITY BOOKLET

Table of contents

1 Principal particulars

2 Abbreviations in this booklet

3 Introduction

4 Regulations to be observed

4.1 Trimming of grain

4.2 Intact Stability Requirements

4.3 Method of grain loading calculation

5 Grain loading calculation using allowable grain heeling moment

6 Grain loading calculation using stability curve

7 Actual heeling moment calculation

8 Table of allowable heeling moment

9 Calculation of heeling angle & residual dynamical stability

10 Stability and trim calculation form.

11 Grain stability calculation form

12 Calculation of residual dynamical stability area

13 Capacity table of cargo holds

14 Summary table of heeling moments for filled holds

15 Tank arrangement

16 Capacity table of tanks

17 Freeboard tables

18 Arrangement of draught marks

19 Hydrostatics

20 LK values

21 Tables of volumetric shifting moment at partly filled compartment

22 Angle of flooding table

23 Results of Heeling Experiment

How to reduce the grain heeling moment?

In order to reduce or eliminate the adverse heeling effect of grain shift, the following methods may he
used:

1. a) Shifting Board (F+P)

2. b) Over stowing (F+P)

 3. c) Strapping and Lashing (F+P)

4. d) Bundling (F)

5. e) Saucering (F)

Information regarding ship's stability and grain loading

Information in printed booklet form shall be provided to enable the master to ensure that the ship complies
with this Code when carrying grain in bulk on an international voyage. This information shall include that
which is listed below.

Information which shall be acceptable to the Administration or to a Contracting Government on behalf of the
Administration shall include:

. 1 ship's particulars;

.2 light-ship displacement and the vertical distance from the intersection of the moulded baseline and
midship section to the centre of gravity (KG);

.3 table of liquid free surface corrections;

.4 capacities and centres of gravity;

.5 curve or table of angle of flooding, where less than 40°, at all permissible displacements;

.6 curves or tables of hydrostatic properties suitable for the range of operating draughts; and

.7 cross curves of stability which are sufficient for the purpose of the requirements in and which include
curves at 12° and 40°.

Information which shall be approved by the' Administration or by a Contracting Government on behalf of

the Administration shall include:

.1 curves or tables of volumes, vertical centres of volumes, and assumed volumetric heeling moments for
every compartment, filled or partly filled, or combination thereof, including the effects of temporary fittings;

.2 tables or curves of maximum permissible heeling moments for varying displacements and varying vertical
centres of gravity to allow the master to demonstrate compliance with the requirements of A 7.1; this
requirement shall apply only to ships the keels of which are laid on or after the entry into force of this Code;

.3 details of the scantlings of any temporary fittings and, where applicable, the provisions necessary to meet
the requirements of A 7, A 8 and A 9;

.4 loading instructions in the form of notes summarizing the requirements of this Code;

.5 a worked example for the guidance of the master; and

.6 typical loaded service departure and arrival conditions and where necessary intermediate worst service
conditions.

Grain heeling moments

The stability calculations are based on the assumption that the centre of gravity in a filled compartment is at
the volumetric centre of the whole cargo space. In the stowage arrangements covered by this Manual a filled
compartment means any compartment which after loading and trimming is filled with bulk grain to the
maximum possible extent, i.e. to the top of the hatch coaming. All necessary and reasonable trimming shall
be performed to minimise the effect of grain shifting.

The grain heeling moment for each cargo hold is presented in section 8. For partly filled holds the adverse
effect of the vertical shift of grain surface is taken into account by an addition of 12% and for filled holds the
adverse effect of the vertical shift of grain surface is taken into account by an addition of 0%.

All additional is incorporated in the presented shifting moments. The table is presented with ullage reference
from the top of the hatch coaming and/or height reference above the tank top.

Max. allowable heeling moments In addition to the intact criteria and the damage criteria, the vessel shall
comply with the rules for maximum heeling moment due to grain shift, SOLAS 1974, Chpt. VI.

• The metacentric height, after correction for free surfaces, is to be 0.30 m or greater.

• The angle of heel due to grain shift shall be 12 degrees or less.

• In the statical stability diagram, the net or residual area between the heeling arm curve and the GZ curve up
to the angle of heel where the maximum difference between the two curves occur, or up to 40 degrees of
heel or up to the angle of flooding, whichever is less of the three, shall be 0.075 mrad or more.

These criteria have been taken into account in the preparation of the table of maximum permissible heeling
moment due to grain shifting, see section 9 of this Manual.

The table is presented for draught, trim and KG values covering the vessels operating range. In short, when
the vessel is carrying grain, the master has to ensure that the sum of the heeling moment due to grain shift is
smaller than the value obtained from the limiting tables in section 9.

Finally the vessel has to comply with the intact and damage stability criteria according to the Stability
Information Manual.

Volumetric/Grain heeling moment is the volume of shift of cargo under an assumed angle of heel Since
amount by which Grain cargo is supposed to shift cannot be calculated hence heeling moments are based on
an assumption that Grain will shift by certain amount thus being based on assumption named as Assumed
volumetric Heeling moments.

calculation

one is a method using the Table or the Curves of Allowable.

Grain Heeling Moment and the other is to obtain directly the heeling angle and residual dynamical stability
from the stability curve, the latter being more accurate in particular.

Measures to reduce GHM

By use of longitudinal divisions – these are required to be grain tight and of an approved scantling.

By means of a saucer and bundling bulk – a saucer shape is constructed of bulk bundles in the hatch square
of a filled compartment. The depth of the saucer being established between 1.3 and 1.4 m depth dependent
on the ships beam, below the deck line.

By over stowing in a partly filled compartments – achieved by trimming the surface level flat and covering
with a separation cloth then tightly stowing bagged grain to a depth of one-sixteenth the depth of the free
grain stow.

To ensure adequate stability

●The angle of heeling of the vessel which arises from the assumed ‘shift of grain’ must not exceed 12°.

●When allowing for the assumed shift of grain, the dynamical stability remaining, that is the residual
resistance to rolling on the listed side, must be adequate.

●The initial GM, making full allowance for the free surface effect of all partially filled tanks must be
maintained at 0.3 m or more.

●The ship is to be upright at the time of proceeding to sea

Carriage of grain safe procedure - bulk carriers recommended guideline

Fig: Bulk cargo - Angle of repose

Carrying Grain: One of the most difficult and dangerous cargoes to carry in bulk are grain
cargoes. Most grains have an angle of repose (slip angle) of about 15-18° from the horizontal,
which means that if the ship rolls more than 15° the cargo will shift. Then this happens the ship will
develop a large list, lying on her side and still rolling will obviously cause a greater shift of cargo
which in turn will capsize the vessel.
Most authorities therefore request that the master proves that his ship is capable of remaining stable
even if the grain cargo shifts. This is done by the compiling of the Grain Loading Form which fully
outlines the ships stability at the worse condition on passage.
Because grain cargoes are liable to shift, heavy emphasis is placed on the stability of ships that
carry them. The main reason is the variation in the types of grain, including its size and its ability to
develop a free flow state when loaded in bulk.
Each ship carrying grain has to provide grain specific stability information, including grain heeling
moments, to the terminal. This section looks at various problems, methods and precautions that
must be taken when carrying grain cargoes. Grain cargoes carried in bags are not considered as
bulk cargo.

The bulk carriers' grain loading manual contains Volumetric Heeling Moments (VHM), which are
values based on an assumed surface grain shift of 15° (for a full compartment) and 25° (for a
partially full compartment).
1. To avoid shifting of cargo, the grain surfaces must be reasonably trimmed:
a) Filled compartment, trimmed the cargo should be trimmed so that all spaces under deck and
hatch covers are filled to the fullest extent possible.
b) Filled compartment, untrimmed the cargo should be trimmed within the hatchway but may be
left at its natural angle of repose on the surrounding area of the hatchway. The same can be applied
for a filled compartment, trimmed if:

o dispensation is granted from trimming by the authority issuing the Document of

Authorisation on the basis that the cargo can flow freely to underdeck empty areas
through feeder ducts, perforated decks, etc, or

o The compartment is designated a `Specially Suitable Compartment', in which case

exemption may be granted from trimming the compartment ends.

2. If the cargo is stowed only in the lower compartment, the lower compartment hatch covers should be
secured in the approved manner.

3. If the cargo is stowed in the upper compartment above a tween deck whose covers are not grain- tight, the
covers should be made grain-tight using sealing tape, tarpaulins or separation cloths.

4. In partly filled compartments, the surface of bulk grain should be secured by over-stowing except in cases
where heeling moments due to grain shift have been calculated and taken into consideration for stability of
the vessel.

5. Longitudinal divisions may be fitted to reduce heeling moments due to shift of grain in filled
compartments, trimmed, filled compartments, untrimmed and partly filled compartments, provided that each
division:
a. Is made grain-tight.
b. Is constructed according to the Grain Code standards.
c. Extends from deck to deck in tweendecks.
d. Extends downwards from the underside of the hatch covers.

6. The Master shall ensure that the ship:

a. Before loading, can comply with intact stability criteria at all stages of the voyage.
b. Is upright before proceeding to sea.
c. Has all the paperwork completed and onboard.

Fumigation requirement

Charterers and shippers may require the cargo to be fumigated. If this is to be done during the
voyage or before or after loading, full and clear instructions should be received from the charterers
and shippers. These instructions should refer to product data sheets and the correct procedures and
safety advice, application dangers, method of handling, and requirements for personal protective
equipment and monitoring equipment. Refer to IMO Recommendations on the Safe Use of
Pesticides on Ships. Always carry out a risk assessment.

A qualified fumigator should be engaged by the charterers when fumigation is to be done in port.

All spaces should be padlocked and sealed to prevent anyone from entering the space. No-one
should enter a space that has been fumigated until after it has been thoroughly ventilated. It is
recommended that an expert chemist declares whether the space is safe to enter. If the cargo
requires ventilation after fumigation, advice should be sought from fumigation experts in respect to
crew safety.

Fig: Fire consequence

Fuel oil tanks precautions

 masters and officers must be aware of the location of the heated fuel oil tanks

 masters and officers should monitor the tank top temperature above the fuel oil tanks as this
can affect the integrity of certain cargoes – particularly grain cargoes

 fuel oil temperatures can be monitored on the fuel oil transfer pumps

 masters and chief engineers should manage the fuel oil onboard to reduce heat damage to
cargoes loaded in holds above heated fuel oil tanks

 heat only fuel oil tanks in use

Failed pipes onboard ship carrying grain often cause, or contribute to, many serious claims. Bagged grain on
a small bulk carrier was damaged after water escaped from an air pipe running between a ballast tank and the
cargo hold. The pipe had a corrosion crack where it connected to the tank top and water escaped through the
crack when the ballast tank was overfilled. The ship was 20 years old, but nothing had ever been done to
protect the pipe from corrosion; not even a lick of paint. Cost – $220,000. Repairs to the pipe would have
cost less than $150.

Measures against spontaneous combustion :

Some grade of grain cargos are carried in a damp condition and may cause spontaneous combustion to
occur. The centre of these cargos will have very little ventilation to allow for cooling effect, therefore the
natural heat generated can build up to such a degree that combustion takes place. Due to the restriction of
oxygen, the cargo will only smolder until part of the cargo is removed, then admitting additional air will
cause the cargo to burst into flames.

The only possible way to obtain an early warning of the start of spontaneous combustion is by monitoring
the temperature of the cargo holds. Many ships are fitted with `temperature ports', ie pipes that are fitted
beside the cargo hold access ladders into which thermometers can be lowered to obtain the hold temperature.
The best practice is to leave the thermometers within the ports and withdraw them when a reading is desired.
However, if the ship is not fitted with temperature ports, the sounding pipes could also be used to obtain
temperatures. Whichever method is used for measuring temperature:
1. The thermometers should be reset before introducing them into the pipes

2. the thermometers should be left in the pipes for some time (2-3 minutes at least)

3. the temperature should be measured at least 2-3 height levels within the hold

4. the temperature should not be measured solely at the surface of cargo as it is likely to be
quite different from that at the bottom of the cargo hold.

Modern bulk carriers may be fitted with permanent temperature sensors providing
continuous readings. It is important to maintain records of all temperature
observations and ensure readings are taken at the same times and at regular intervals.
This makes it easy to establish a pattern for any irregularities in the observed
behaviour.

A block hold loading condition refers to the stowage of cargo in a block of two or
more adjoining cargo holds with the cargo holds adjacent to the block of loaded
cargo holds empty, In many cases, block hold loading is adopted when the ship is
partly loaded. Part loaded and block hold loading conditions are not usually
described in the ship's loading manual unless they are specially requested to be
considered in the design of the ship. When adopting a part loaded condition, to avoid
over-stressing of the hull structure, careful consideration needs to be given to the
amount of cargo carried in each cargo hold and the anticipated sailing draught.
CODE OF SAFE PRACTICE FOR SHIPS CARRYNG
TIMBER DECK CARGOES, 1991
Purpose

The purpose of this Code is to make recommendations on stowage, securing and other operational
safety measures designed to ensure the safe transport of mainly timber deck cargoes.

Application

This Code applies to all ships of 24 m or more in length engaged in the carriage of timber deck
cargoes. Ships that are provided with and making use of their timber load line should also comply
with requirements of the applicable regulations of the Load Line Convention

TDC Code provides:

 Practices for safe transportation

 Methodologies for safe stowage and securing
 Design principles for securing systems
 Guidance for developing procedures to be included in ships' cargo securing
manuals
 Sample checklists for safe stowage and securing

The Code is designed to assist shipowners, charterers, operating companies, seafarers, port
industries, shippers, pre-packaging organizations (which are involved in preparation, loading, and
stowing of timber deck cargoes), Administrations, manufacturers, designers of ships and equipment
associated with the carriage of timber deck cargoes, and those developing cargo securing manuals
for the carriage of timber deck cargoes.

TIMBER CARGO
In many trades timber is carried in large quantities and may be loose or packaged. Loose timber
can be individual planks, cubic units, pit props or logs but the carriage of loose timber is mostly
taken over by packaged timber mainly because packaged timber is much less cumbersome, more
easily transportable, easily handled by mechanical means and therefore more economical.

A - Deck Cargoes
Part I - Requirements which apply to ALL deck cargoes
The distribution and stowage of deck cargo must be carried out with due attention being given to
the factors mentioned below:

1 Avoid excessive loading and have regard to the strength of the deck and the supporting structure
of the ship. Decks have been set down due to excessive local and overall weights, and hatch covers
have been damaged due to the weight of cargo loaded on them.

2 The ship must retain adequate stability at all stages of the voyage.

Particular attention should be paid to:

(a) the vertical distribution of the deck cargo;

(b) expected wind moments which may be produced by strong winds encountered within the
trading area (the windage area, its centre of gravity, and the lever to mid-draught can be found in
the Stability Information Booklet);

(c) losses of weight within the ship, e.g. the rise in the position of the ship's centre of gravity due to
the consumption of fuel in the double-bottoms;

(d) possible gain in the weight of deck cargo which would also cause a rise in the position of the
ship's centre of gravity, e.g. caused by absorption of water into the cargo or by excessive icing on
the deck, superstructure, and cargo.

3 The weather-tight and water-tight integrity of the ship must not be impaired. Special attention
should be paid to the protection of ventilator and air pipes (M 1051 refers to an incident in which
deck cargo sheared the air pipe to a deep tank).

4 The height above the deck should not interfere with the navigation or working of the ship, e.g.
containers should not be stowed so high as to impair the keeping of an effective lookout.

5 Access to the ship's steering gear arrangements, including the emergency steering arrangements,
must not be obstructed.

6 The cargo must not obstruct or interfere with crew access to accommodation and working spaces
or obstruct any opening and prevent it being easily secured weather-tight.
Deck cargo must be secured so as to ensure that there will be no movement of cargo in the worst
weather that can be expected on the voyage. The lashings and a fittings used for the attaching of
lashings must be of adequate strength to be able to withstand the rigours inflicted upon the ship and
cargo by such weather conditions.

Some ships which regularly carry deck cargoes have a passage constructed on or below the deck
which carries the deck cargo, to provide access for the crew between their quarters and the working
areas of the ship. On ships without such a passage, a walkway must be fitted over the deck cargo
and effectively secured to provide safe and efficient access for the crew.

The walkway must not be less than 1m wide and it must have a set of guard rails or wires on each
side which are supported by stanchions securely fitted to the walkway at intervals not exceeding 1.5
m. The guard rails or wires should be to a height of not less than 1 m and each set should consist of
three courses.

No opening below the lowest course should exceed 230 mm in height and no opening above that
course should exceed 380 mm in height.

Part II. ADDITIONAL requirements applicable to timber deck cargoes

Part II is divided into Sections A and B. Section A applies to ships which are not marked with
timber load lines or to ships that have timber load line marks but which are110aded within the
limits of ordinary load lines.

When the ship is in a winter period the deck cargo must be stowed so that at no point throughout its
length the height of the cargo above the weather deck exceeds one-third of the extreme breadth of
the ship. Note that the height is not taken as an 'average' or a 'mean'. The regulation emphasizes that
the maximum height at any point must not exceed one-third of the beam.

A walkway must always be provided on top of the timber even if the ship has a permanent
passageway of the type described in Part I. The walkway must be constructed to the specification
set out in Part I.

The cargo must be compactly stowed and secured throughout its length by a system of overall
lashings of adequate strength. Efficient arrangements, which must be readily accessible at all times,
must be provided for the release of lashings and fittings.

Uprights, which are sufficiently strong for the purpose, must be fitted if the nature of the timber is
such that uprights are necessary to ensure a compact and secure stow. The uprights must be secured
in position by angles or metal sockets. The spacing of the uprights must take into account the nature
and length of the timber so that efficient support is provided. However, the space between any two
uprights must not exceed 3 m. Section B applies to ships which are marked with timber load lines
and which are loaded accordingly.

A careful note should be made of the regulation which refers to a minimum height of cargo, i.e.
when timber deck cargo is stowed in any well it must be 'stowed as solidly as possible so as to
extend over the entire available length of the well to a height not less than the standard height of a
superstructure other than a raised quarter deck'. Thus in addition to the maximum height in summer
of a safe height (Part I) and the maximum height in winter of one-third of the beam Part IIA), the
cargo must be stowed to a minimum safe height in both seasons (Part lI B). If a ship has no
superstructure aft the timber must be stowed so as to extend over the entire available length
between the superstructure and the after end of the aftermost hatchway. The timber must be
efficiently secured throughout its length by independent overall lashings spaced not more than 3 m
apart (thus if one independant lashing breaks it will not affect the other independent lashings).

The lashings must be secured to eye plates which are attached to the sheer strake or to the deck
stringer at intervals of not more than 3 m. The distance from an end bulkhead to the first eye plate
must not be more than 2 m. Where there is no bulkhead the eye plates and lashings must be located
at distances of 0.6 and 1.5 m from the ends of the timber deck cargo. Students may find it useful to
make a sketch of the lashings arrangements, as in Figure 8.1.

The lashings must be made of close link chain of a size not less than 19 mm or of flexible wire rope
of an equivalent strength. The lashings must be fitted with slip hooks and turnbuckles in positions
which are accessible at all times and wire rope lashings must be fitted with a length of long link
chain to enable the length of the lashings to be regulated. When timber is in lengths less than 3.6 m
the spacings of the lashings must be suitably reduced. A student who closely studies the above
regulations will observe that the regulations contained in Part I are written in 'broad' or general
terms. Deck cargoes can be of such a diverse nature that it would be difficult to lay down 'pard and
fast' rules which apply to all deck cargoes. However, when dealing with timber deck cargoes it is
possible to be more specific and thus Part II contains detailed securing arrangements. Students must
remember that part I also applies to timber deck cargoes and the general provisions must be
complied with. c. A timber deck cargo stowed solidly in wells has an effect which is similar to that
of raising the height of the freeboard deck. Thus the assigned freeboard may be reduced and the
ship loaded to a deeper draught. A solidly stowed, properly secured timber deck cargo means that:
1 Water cannot flow freely on the weather deck.

2 Greater protection is given to closing appliances, such as hatch covers, which protect the weather-
tight and water-tight integrity of the ship.

3 The timber compensates for the loss of reserve buoyancy caused by the reduced assigned
freeboard. It is, therefore, important that the timber cargo is solidly stowed to the minimum height
specified in the regulations.

(M687 should be closely studied as it gives further guidance for the transporting of timber deck
cargoes).

The notice gives the definition of timber as:

(a) loose timber, i.e. individual planks of sawn timber, logs or pit-props; or

(b) packaged timber, i.e. bundles of sawn timber, consisting of either

(i) similar sized planks forming a regular cuboid-(regular packaged timber) or

(ii) random sized planks which do not form a regular shape-(irregular packaged timber).'

The notice refers to the fact that the transverse shift of stowed timber is seldom the sole cause of a
dangerous list. An inadequate standard of stability, imprudent stowage, and unsecured deck
openings will aggravate the effects of a list caused by a shift of deck cargo. The notice also refers to
the general rule that not more than one-third of the weight of timber carried should be stowed on
the open deck.

Code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes

The IMO code should be studied in conjunction with the Merchant Shipping Regulations as similar
provisions are contained in both publications. However, some of the additional IMO requirements
are noted below.

Uprights should extend above the outboard top edge of the cargo, they should be fitted with a
locking pin, and each port and starboard pair of uprights should be linked by athwartships lashings.

If a device which is capable of quick cargo release is fitted, the design of it should ensure that it
cannot be accidentally released or activated.

Lashings should be capable of withstanding an ultimate load of not less than 133 kN (13,600 kP).
The minimum ultimate load of the ancillary components is higher than that of the lashings. the
ultimate strength of 19 mm close link chain is 13,600 kP and thus the chain may continue to be
used. A flexible wire rope of equivalent strength is one which has a SWL of not less than 2.7 tons.
The spacing of lashings should be determined by the maximum height of the timber in the vicinity
of the lashing.

The following spacing is stipulated:

(11) for the height of 4 metres (13 feet) and below the spacing should be 3 metres (9.8 feet);

(b) for the height of6 metres (19.6 feet) and above the spacing should be 1.5 metres (4.9 feet);

(c) at intermediate heights the average spacing should be obtained by linear interpolation. '

In addition to the walkway specified in the Merchant Shipping Regulations, a lifeline of wire rope
with a stretching device should be set up taut as near as practical to the centreline of the ship.

The IMO publications should be read in full as they contain much practical advice with regard to
the stowing and securing of timber deck cargoes.

Students studying for examinations should note that the words 'stowing' and 'securing' refer to
different aspects of the transporting operation.
Annex C of the code gives suggested practices which pertain to particular timber cargoes, e.g.

1 The stowage of packaged timber.

2 The securing of heavy logs additional to that given in the code.

3 The stowage of pulp wood and pit props.

Annex D refers to 'Stowage and securing of deck cargoes of cants'. Cants are Jogs which have been
slab cut, i.e. they are cut lengthwise from a tree trunk into thick slabs which have two opposing,
parallel flat sides, a third side which is usually sawn flat, and a fourth side which is rounded. Cants
are usually made up into rectangular 'bundles' which are secured by steel bands. The average length
of the bundles is about 4-5 m with the maximum length being approximately 8 m. The nature of the
bundles makes a solid, compact stow difficult to achieve and the guidelines contained in Annex D
should be considered.

The sketches in the Annex should be studied by mariners unacquainted with the transporting of
timber as they clearly illustrate some of the securing arrangements.

General guidelines for loading timber deck cargoes

1 All securing equipment should be laid out on the main deck some time before loading
commences. The IMO code recommends that a visual examination of lashings be carried out at
intervals not exceeding 12 months. However, the prudent officer should inspect all the equipment
before it is used. All the equipment, such as shackles, should be appropriately marked and the
necessary certification should be in order.

It may be necessary to weld additional securing points, such as eye plates, to the deck at appropriate
locations. The outboard ends of lashings should be secured to eye plates before loading commences
and temporarily secured in a location where they will not be overstowed. It may be necessary to
hang the lashings over the side of the ship on temporary rope pennants so as to keep the deck clear
for loading.

2 Provision should be made to protect ventilators, air pipes, sounding pipes, winches, and similar
deck appliances. The cargo should be stowed so that soundings of compartments can be carried out
during the voyage. Ensure that freeing ports are operating in a satisfactory manner.

3 Provision should be made to enable fire hoses to be rigged should that become necessary on
passage and fixed fire-fighting appliances, such as the fire main, should be protected.

4 When necessary, e.g. for packaged timber, dunnage of rough timber should be laid on the deck.
Lengths of 3 x 12 cm dunnage can be laid at 1 m spacing. If the underdeck framing runs
athwartships the dunnage should be laid diagonally across several frames so as to spread the load of
the timber.

5 M687 emphasizes that all hatch covers, weather-tight doors, and means of securing air pipes and
ventilators that are situated within the deck cargo area must be made secure before loading
commences.

6 Inspect packaged timber on the quay and reject any packages that are bound too loosely.

7 Neatly stow the timber so that, if possible, the timber interlocks within each layer. Do not 'stack'
timber piece on piece as this will not ensure a compact stow.

8 Chock each tier before commencing another layer or tier. Any gaps at hatch coamings or around
deck appliances should be filled with loose timber or chocked off. Keep a firm loading surface
throughout the stow and, if necessary, dunnage between layers or tiers.

9 Any openings around deck appliances or mast houses should be fenced off to prevent personnel
falling into gaps in the cargo.

10 Properly constructed and secure ladders or steps should be provided where necessary from the
top of the cargo to the deck, especially in the vicinity of walkways.

11 In general, stow fore and aft to facilitate the securing arrangements but stow athwartships when
it is necessary to 'fill in' around mast houses.

12 Distribute the weight throughout the stow to ensure that heavy timber is not stowed above or
adjacent to light timber.

13 M687 recommends that the height of the timber should not be excessive as the risk of shifting
increases with the height of the cargo. The heeling effect of a shift is also greater when the cargo is
stowed to an imprudent height.

14. Slip hooks should be examined to ensure that they are incapable of working loose during the voyage.
Straight tongue hooks of the type shown in below fig. should not be used.

IS The outboard edges of the stow should contain no protruding cargo which would interfere with
the vertical lead of the lashings. The top layer or tier should not overhang the vertical face of the
cargo and it may even be advisable to 'step in' the top tier so as to provide a good lead for the
lashings.

16 Annex C recommends that rounded angle pieces of suitable material should be placed along the
top outboard edge of the stow. The angles will spread the load stress of the lashings, reduce
chafing, and permit movement of the lashings during the tightening and securing of the cargo.

17 A practical test to check the vessel's stability before loading is completed has been used to good
effect on some timber carriers. When one-third of the deck cargo remains to be loaded slings of
timber are lifted from the jetty simultaneously by several ofthe ship's derricks and swung inboard.

The resulting movement of the ship may indicate any undue stiffness or tenderness. Thus, any
undesirable stability characteristics can be corrected by checking the stability calculations and
carrying out corrective procedures before the ship sails.

18 The IMO supplement recommends that after the initial securing of the cargo, all tightening
devices should be capable of further tightening for use on the voyage. The cargo will probably
settle at the beginning of the voyage and the lashings will therefore require tightening.

19 The lashings and other securing arrangements should be frequently inspected on passage and all
the lashings should be kept taut at all times.

20 A record of inspections and tightening of lashings should be kept.

21 On a long voyage it may be necessary to re-coat wire lashings with a suitable anti-corrosion
compound.

Lashings
Different lashing arrangements are described in Part B of this Code.

All lashings and equipment should;

 Possess a breaking strength of not less than 133 kN

 Chain lashings should be 19mm open link.

 After initial stressing, show an elongation of not more than 5% at 80% of their BS.

 Show no permanent deformation after being subjected to a proof load of not less than 40% of
their original BS.

Every lashing shall be provided with a tightening device or system so placed that it can be operated
efficiently and safely when required.
The load to be produced by the tightening device or system should be less than:

 27 kN in the horizontal part.  16 KN in the vertical part.

The timber deck cargo shall be efficiently secured throughout its length by “independent overall
lashings” spaced not more than 3m apart.

Eye plates for these lashings shall be efficiently attached to the “shear strake” or to the “deck
stringer plate” at intervals not exceeding 3m.

The distance from an end bulkhead of a superstructure to the first lashing shall not be more than
2m.

Where there is no bulkhead, eye plates and lashings shall be provided 0.6m and 1.5m from the ends
of the timber deck cargo.

Upon completion of the initial securing, the tightening device or system should be left with at least
half the threaded length of screw or tightening capacity available for future use. Every lashing shall
be provided with a device or installation to permit the length of the lashing to be adjusted.

The spacing of the lashings should be such that the two lashings at each end of each length of
continuous stow are positioned as close as practicable to the end of the timber deck cargo.

If wire rope clips are used to make a joint in a wire lashing, the following conditions should be
observed to avoid a significant reduction in strength;

 The number and size of the wire rope clips should be in proportion to the diameter of the wire
rope, there should not be less than four, each spaced at intervals of not less than 15cm.
The spacing of the lashings should be such that the two lashings at each end of each length of
continuous deck stow are positioned as close as practicable to the extreme end of the timber deck
cargo.

If wire rope clips are used to make a joint in a wire lashing, the following conditions should be
observed to avoid a significant reduction in strength: .

1 the number and size of rope clips utilized should be in proportion to the diameter of the wire rope
and should not be less than three, each spaced at intervals of not less than 150 mm; .

2 the saddle portion of the clip should be applied to the live load segment and the U-bolt to the dead
or shortened end segment; and .

3 rope clips should be initially tightened so that they visibly compress the wire rope and
subsequently be re-tightened after the lashing has been stressed.

 The threads of grips, clips shackles and turnbuckles should be well greased.

The following three types of lashing equipment with different strength and elongation
characteristics are most frequently used for securing timber deck cargoes.

Individual suitability should be determined by such factors as ship type, size and area of operation,
and as described in this Code and as prescribed in the cargo securing manual:

1 chain lashings;

2 wire lashings; and

3 fabricated web lashings.

.1 Hog lashings are normally used over the second and third tiers and may be set "hand tight"
between stanchions. The weight of the upper tiers when loaded on top of these wires will further
tighten them (see figure 1).
.2 Wire rope lashings which are used in addition to chain lashings. Each of these may pass over the
stow from side to side and loop completely around the uppermost tier. Turnbuckles are fitted in
each lashing to provide means for tightening the lashing at sea (see figure 2).
.3 Wiggle wires which are fitted in a manner of a shoelace to tighten the stow. These wires are
passed over the stow and continuously through a series of snatch blocks, held in place by foot
wires. Turnbuckles are fitted from the top of the footwire into the wiggle wire in order to keep the
lashings tight at sea (see figures 3 and 4).
.4 Chain lashings which are passed over the top of the stow and secured to substantial padeyes or
other securing points at the outboard extremities of the cargo. Turnbuckles are fitted in each lashing
to provide means for tightening the lashing at sea (see figure 5).
Uprights.

Uprights should be fitted when required by the nature, height or character of the timber deck cargo.
When fitted they should be;
 Made of steel or other suitable material of adequate strength, taking into account the breadth of
the deck cargo.

 Be spaced at intervals not exceeding 3m.

 Be fixed to the deck by angles, metal sockets, or equally efficient means.

 If deemed necessary be further secured by a metal bracket to a strengthened point, i.e. bulwark,
hatch coaming.

Loose or Packaged Sawn Timber.

The timber deck cargo should be secured throughout its length by independent lashings.

The maximum spacing of the lashings shall be determined by the height of the stow;

 For a height of 4m and below the spacing should be 3m

 For a height of 4m and above the spacing shall be 1.5m

Packages stowed at the upper outboard edge of the stow, should be secured by at least two lashings
each.

The deck cargo should be secured throughout its length by independent lashings spaced not more
than 3m apart.

Timber Deck Cargo

Carriage of timber on deck

Carriage of timber on deck offers an added advantage to the timber carrier ships. Timber carriers
are constructed with special requirements in accordance with “Code of safe practices for ships
carrying timber deck cargoes”.

This Code is designed to assist:

 shipowners, charterers, operating companies and ships' crew;

 port industries, shippers and pre-packaging organizations, which are involved in

preparation, loading, and stowing of timber deck cargoes; and

 Administrations, manufacturers and designers of ships and equipment associated with the
carriage of timber deck cargoes and those developing cargo securing manuals,

in the carriage of timber deck cargoes.

The purpose of the Code is to ensure that timber deck cargoes are loaded, stowed and secured
properly to prevent, as far as practicable, damage or hazard to the ship and persons on board as well
as loss of cargo overboard throughout the voyage.

The Code provides:

1. practices for safe transportation;

2. methodologies for safe stowage and securing;

3. design principles for securing systems;

4. guidance for developing procedures and instructions to be included in ships' cargo securing
manuals on safe stowage and securing; and

5. sample checklists for safe stowage and securing.

The provisions of this Code apply to all ships of 24 metres or more in length, carrying a
timber deck cargo. This code is not yet effect but Cargo securing of timber deck cargoes
should be in accordance with the requirements in the ship's Cargo Securing Manual (CSM)

These ships when loaded with timber on deck and when the timber on deck is secured in the
required manner in accordance with the approved lashing plan for the vessel, are permitted to load
cargo to increased drafts called the timber load lines. The Load line convention also mentions the
requirements for use of timber load lines.

Hazards Associated with carriage of Timber

 water absorption

 ice accretion

 free surfaces in slack tanks

 trapped water within stow (especially logs)

 Cargo shift due to improper lashings

 Reduced GM

 The stowage and lashing requirements for timber deck cargoes are as follows

 Prior loading timber cargo on weather deck, hatch covers and other openings to
spaces below that area should be securely closed and battened down. The air pipes
and ventilators shall be suitably protected from deck cargo. The deck shall be free from
any accumulations of ice and snow. All deck lashing gear and upright shall be in
sound condition ready for use. The access to crew quarters, pilot boarding access,
machinery spaces, safety equipments, remote valves, sounding pipes and all other areas
regularly used in the necessary working of the ship shall be kept free. Guard rails or life
 lines spaced not more than 330 mm apart vertically shall be provided on each side of
the deck cargo to a height of at least 1 metre above the cargo.
 The height of the timber deck cargo above the weather deck on a ship within a
seasonal winter zone in winter should not exceed one third of the extreme breadth of the
ship. The height of timber on deck shall not obstruct the navigation bridge visibility as
per IMO visibility criteria. The cargo shall not project overhanging shoulders to head
seas. And the deck load density of deck and hatch covers shall not be exceeded in any case.

 The timber deck cargo should be stowed so as to extend over the entire available length of
the well or wells between superstructures and as close as practicable to end bulkheads, and
athwartships as close as possible to the ship's sides, after making due allowance for
obstructions such as guardrails, bulwark stays, uprights, pilot boarding access, etc., provided
any area of broken stowage thus created at the side of the ship does not exceed a mean of
4% of the breadth and to at least the standard height of a superstructure other than a raised
quarterdeck. The cargo stow shall be compact.
 Lashing used for timber deck cargo shall be adequate for the intended purpose and
be shackled to eye plates efficiently attached to the deck stringer plate or other strengthened
points as per the ship’s lashing plan. Lashings shall be so spaced that each log has atleast
two lashing running on it.
 All lashings and components used for securing are required to have a breaking strength of
not less than 133 kN.
 These shall not show an elongation of more than 5% after stressing at 80% of their breaking
strength.
 Also these shall not show any permanent deformation after having been subjected to a proof
load of not less than 40% of their original breaking strength.
 After tightening each lashing shall have a load of 27 kN in the horizontal part and 16 kN in
the vertical part. Having secured initially the bottle screws in the lashing shall be left with
atleast half threads for further tightening during voyage.


 When required by the nature, height or character of the timber deck cargo, uprights where
fitted, they should be made of steel or other suitable material of adequate strength, taking
into account the breadth of the deck cargo. These are fixed to deck by angles, metal sockets
or equally efficient means spaced at intervals not exceeding 3 m.

 On loose or packaged sawn timber, the spacing between lashings shall be 3m for a stow
height of 4 m and below and 1.5m for a stow height of above 4m. The packages stowed at
the upper outboard edge of the stow should be secured by at least two lashings each.
Rounded angle pieces of suitable material and design should be used along the upper
outboard edge of the stow to bear the stress and permit free reeving of the lashings.
 On the timber deck cargo stowed over the hatches and higher, additionally a system
of athwartship lashings (hog lashings) joining each port and starboard pair of uprights
near the top of the stow shall be provided. Hog lashings are normally used over the
second and third tiers and may be set "hand tight" between stanchions. A lashing system
to tighten the stow is provided whereby a dual continuous wire rope (wiggle wire) is passed
from side to side over the cargo and held continuously through a series of snatch blocks or
other suitable device, held in place by foot wires. Wiggle wires are fitted in the manner of a
shoelace to tighten the stow. Wire rope lashings are used in addition to chain lashings.
Chain lashings which are passed over the top of the stow and secured to substantial pad eyes
or other securing points at the outboard extremities of the cargo.
 All lashing and components used for the securing of the timber deck cargo should be tested,
marked and certified according to national regulations and the respective certificates shall
be maintained on board. A further visual examination of lashings and components should be
made at intervals not exceeding 12 months.
Preparations before loading of timber deck cargoes

General preparations

1) The following information as applicable for each parcel of cargo should be provided by
the shipper and collected by the master or his representative:

 total amount of cargo intended as deck cargo;

 typical dimensions of the cargo;

 number of bundles;

 density of the cargo;

 stowage factor of the cargo;

 racking strength for packaged cargo;

 type of cover of packages and whether non-slip type; and

 relevant coefficients of friction including covers of sawn wooden packages if applicable

2) Confirmation on when the deck cargo will be ready for loading should be received.

3) A pre-loading plan according to the ship's Trim and Stability Book should be done and
the following should be calculated and checked:

 stowage height;

 weight per m2;

 required amount of water ballast; and

 displacement, draught, trim and stability at departure and arrival

4) The stability should be within required limits during the entire voyage.

5) When undertaking stability calculations, variation in displacement, centre of gravity and

free surface moments due to the following factors should be considered:

 absorption of water in timber carried as timber deck cargo;

 ice accretion, if applicable;

 variations in consumables; and

 ballast water exchange operations, in accordance with approved procedures

6) Proper Instructions for ballast water exchange operations, if applicable for the intended voyage,
should be available in the Ballast Water Management Plan.
7) A lashing plan according to the ship's Cargo Securing Manual (CSM) should be prepared and the
following calculated:

 weight and height of stows per hatch;

 number of sections in longitudinal direction per hatch;

 required number of pieces of lashing equipment; and

 required number of uprights, if applicable

8) The certificates for the lashing equipment should be available in the ship's Cargo
Securing Manual.

9) When the initial stability calculations and lashing plan have been satisfactorily completed, the
maximum cargo intake should be confirmed.

10) Pre-load, loading and pre-lashing plans should be distributed to all involved parties
(i.e. supercargo, stevedores, agent, etc.).

11) Weather report for loading period and forecasted weather for the sea voyage should be checked.

12) It should be confirmed that the stevedoring company is aware of the ship's
specific requirements regarding stowage and securing of timber deck cargoes.

Ship readiness

13) All ballast tanks required for the voyage and included in the stability calculations should
be filled before the commencement of loading on deck and it should be ensured that free surfaces
are eliminated in all tanks intended to be completely full or empty.

14) Hatch covers and other openings to spaces below deck should be closed, secured and battened
down.

15) Air pipes, ventilators, etc., should be protected and examined to ascertain their effectiveness
against entry of water.

16) Objects which might obstruct cargo stowage on deck should be removed and secured safely in
places appropriate for storage.

17) Accumulation of ice and snow on areas to be loaded and on packaged timber should
be removed.

18) All sounding pipes on the deck should be reviewed and necessary precautions should be taken
that safe access to these remains.
19) Cargo securing equipment should be examined in preparation for use in securing of timber deck
cargoes and any defective equipment found should be removed from service, tagged for repair and
replaced.

20) It should be confirmed that uprights utilized are in compliance with the requirements in
the ship's Cargo Securing Manual

21) A firm and level stowage surface should be prepared. Dunnage, where used,

22) should be of rough lumber and placed in the direction which will spread the load across
the ship's hatches or main deck structure and assist in draining.

23) Extra lashing points, if required, should be approved by the Administration.

24) It should be ensured that dunnage is readily available and in good condition.

25) Friction enhancing arrangements, where fitted, should be checked for their condition.

26) Cranes with wires, brakes, micro switches and signals (if they are to be used) should
be controlled.

27) It should be verified that illumination on deck is working and ready for use.

Ship to shore communication

28) Radio channels to be used during cargo operations should be assigned and tested.

29) It should be confirmed that crane drivers and loading stevedores/crew understand signals to be
used during cargo operations.

30) A plan should be worked out to halt loading or unloading operations due to any
unforeseen circumstances that may jeopardize safety of ship and/or anyone on board.

Ship's safety

31) All loading operations should be planned to immediately cease if a list develops for which there
is no satisfactory explanation.

32) In the event that the vessel takes up an unexplained list, then no further work should
be undertaken until all ship's tanks are sounded and assessment made of the ship's
stability condition.

33) If deemed necessary, samples of the timber cargo should be weighed during loading and their
actual weight should be compared to the weight stated by the shipper, in order to correctly assess
the ship's stability.
34) Draught checks should be regularly carried out during the course of loading and the
ship's displacement should be calculated to ensure the ship's stability and draft in the final condition
is within prescribed limits.

35) Permitted loading weights on deck and hatches should not be exceeded.

Actions to be taken during the voyage

1) During voyage planning, all foreseeable risks which could lead to either excessive accelerations
causing cargo to shift or sloshing sea causing water absorption and ice aggregation, should be taken
under consideration.

2) Before the ship proceeds to sea, the following should be verified:

 The ship is upright;

 The ship has an adequate metacentric height;

 The ship meets the required stability criteria; and

 The cargo is properly secured.

3) Soundings of tanks should be regularly carried out throughout the voyage.

4) The rolling period of the ship should be regularly checked in order to establish that
the metacentric height is still within the acceptable range.

5) In cases where severe weather and sea conditions are unavoidable, the Master should
be conscious of the need to reduce speed and/or alter course at an early stage in order to minimize
the forces imposed on the cargo, structure and lashings.

6) If deviation from the intended voyage plan is considered during the voyage, a new plan should
be made.

Cargo safety inspections during sea voyages

7) Cargo safety inspections, in accordance with the items below, should be frequently conducted
throughout the voyage.

8) Prior to any inspections being commenced on deck, the Master should take appropriate actions to
reduce the motions of the ship during such operations.

9) Close attention should be given to any movement of the cargo which could compromise
the safety of the ship.

10) When safety permits fixed and portable lashing equipment should be visually examined for any
abnormal wear and tear or other damages.
11) Since vibrations and working of the ship will cause the cargo to settle and compact,
lashing equipment should be retightened to produce the necessary pre-tension, as needed.

12) Uprights should be checked for any damage or deformation.

13) Supports for upright should be undamaged.

14) Corner protections should still be in place.

15) All examinations and adjustments to cargo securing equipment during the voyage should be
entered in the ship's logbook.

List during voyage

1) If a list occurs that cannot be attributed to normal use of consumables the matter should
be immediately investigated. This should consider that the cause may be due to one or more of the
following:

 cargo shift;

 water ingresses; and

 an angle of loll (inadequate GM).

2) Even if no major shift of the deck cargo is apparent, it should be examined whether the deck
cargo has shifted slightly or if there has been a shift of cargo below deck. However, prior to
entering any closed hold that contains timber the atmosphere should be checked to make sure that
the hold atmosphere has not been oxygen depleted by the timber.

3) It should be considered whether the weather conditions are such that sending the crew to release
or tighten the lashings on a moving or shifted cargo present a greater hazard than retaining an
overhanging load.

4) The possibility of water ingress should be determined by sounding throughout the vessel. In the
event that unexplained water is detected, all available pumps, as appropriate, should be used to
bring the situation under control.

5) An approximation of the current metacentric height should be determined by timing the rolling
period.

6) If the list is corrected by ballasting and deballasting operations, the order in which tanks
are filled and emptied should be decided with consideration to the following factors:

 when the draft of the vessel increases, water ingress may occur through openings and
ventilation pipes;
  if ballast has been shifted to counteract a cargo shift or water ingress, a far greater list may
rapidly develop to the opposite side;

 if the list is due to the ship lolling, and if empty divided double bottom space is available,
the tank on the lower side should be ballasted first in order to immediately provide
additional metacentric height – after which the tank on the high side should also be
ballasted; and

 free surface moments should be kept at a minimum by operating only one tank at a time.

7) As a final resort when all other options have been exhausted if the list is to be corrected
by jettisoning deck cargo, the following aspects should be noted:

 jettisoning is unlikely to improve the situation entirely as the whole stack would probably
not fall at once;

 severe damage may be sustained by the propeller if it is still turning when the timber is
jettisoned;

 it will be inherently dangerous to anyone involved in the actual jettison procedure; and

 the position of the jettisoning procedure and estimated navigational hazard must be
immediately reported to coastal authorities.

8) If the whole or partial timber deck load is either jettisoned or accidentally lost overboard,
the information on a direct danger to navigation should be communicated by the master by
all means at his disposal to the following parties:

 ships in the vicinity; and

 competent authorities at the first point on the coast with which he can communicate directly.

Such information is to include the following:

 the kind of danger;

 the position of the danger when last observed; and

 the time and date (coordinated universal time) when the danger was last observed.

THE ROLLING PERIOD TEST

Introduction

1 If the following instructions are properly carried out, this method allows a reasonably quick and
accurate estimation of the metacentric height, which is a measure of the ship's stability.
2 The method depends upon the relationship between the metacentric height and the rolling period
in terms of the extreme breadth of the vessel.

Test procedure

3 The rolling period required is the time for one complete oscillation of the vessel and to ensure the
most accurate results in obtaining this value the following precautions should be observed:
.1 The test should be conducted with the vessel in harbour, in smooth water with the minimum
interference from wind and tide.
.2 Starting with the vessel at the extreme end of a roll to one side (say port) and the vessel about to
move towards the upright, one complete oscillation will have been made when the vessel has
moved right across to the other extreme side (i.e. starboard) and returned to the original starting
point and is about to commence the next roll.

.3 By means of a stop-watch, the time should be taken for not less than about 5 of these complete
oscillations; the counting of these oscillations should begin when the vessel is at the extreme end of
a roll. After allowing the roll to completely fade away, this operation should be repeated at least
twice more. If possible, in every case the same number of complete oscillations should be timed to
establish that the readings are consistent, i.e. repeating themselves within reasonable limits.
Knowing the total time for the total number of oscillations made, the mean time for one complete
oscillation can be calculated.

.4 The vessel can be made to roll by rhythmically lifting up and putting down a weight as far off the
centreline as possible; by pulling on the mast with a rope; by people running athwartships in
unison; or by any other means. However, and this is most important, as soon as this forced rolling
has commenced the means by which it has been induced must be stopped and the vessel allowed to
roll freely and naturally. If rolling has been induced by lowering or raising a weight it is preferable
that the weight is moved by a dockside crane. If the ship's own derrick is used, the weight should be
placed on the deck, at the centreline, as soon as the rolling is established.

.5 The timing and counting of the oscillations should only begin when it is judged that the vessel is
rolling freely and naturally, and only as much as is necessary to accurately count these oscillations.

.6 The mooring should be slack and the vessel to avoid making any contact during its rolling. To
check this, and also to get some idea of the number of complete oscillations that can be reasonably
counted and timed, a preliminary rolling test should be made before starting to record actual times.
.7 Care should be taken to ensure that there is a reasonable clearance of water under the keel and at
the sides of the vessel.
.8 Weights of reasonable size which are liable to swing, (e.g. a lifeboat), or liable to move (e.g. a
drum), should be secured against such movement. The free surface effects of slack tanks should be
kept as small as is practicable during the test and the voyage.

Determination of the initial stability

4 Having calculated the period for one complete oscillation, say T seconds, the metacentric height
GM can be calculated from the following formula:

GM = [f B/T]2

f = Rolling period co-efficient

B = Breadth of the ship
T = Time for a full rolling period
where f is ... (to be determined for each particular vessel by the Administration).
5 The calculated value of GM should be equal to or greater than the critical value which is ... (to be
determined for each particular vessel by the Administration). Limitations to the use of this method.
6 A long period of roll corresponding to a GM of 0.20 m or below, indicates a condition of low
stability. However, under such circumstances, accuracy in determination of the actual value of GM
is reduced.
7 If, for some reason, these rolling tests are carried out in open, deep but smooth waters, inducing
the roll, for example, by putting over the helm, then the GM calculated by using the method and
coefficient of paragraph 3 above should be reduced by... (figure to be estimated by the
Administration) to obtain the final answer.

8 The determination of stability by means of the rolling test in disturbed waters should only be
regarded as a very approximate estimation. If such test is performed, care should be taken to discard
readings which depart appreciably from the majority of other observations. Forced oscillations
corresponding to the sea period and differing from the natural period at which the vessel seems to
move should be disregarded. In order to obtain satisfactory results, it may be necessary to select
intervals when the sea action is least violent, and it may be necessary to discard a considerable
number of observations.
Cargo plan – a ship’s plan which shows the distribution of all cargo parcels stowed on board the vessel for
the voyage. Each entry onto the plan would detail the quantity, the weight and the port of discharge. The
plan is constructed by the Ship’s Cargo Officer and would effectively show special loads such as heavy-lifts,
hazardous cargoes, and valuable cargo, in addition to all other commodities being shipped.

High Density Cargo: Structural Hazard and Precautions,

High Density Solid Bulk Cargo means the cargo with stowage factor (SF) of 0.56 Cu.M. per ton or
less

High density cargoes have a greater weight than their volume. Lighter cargoes occupy more space.
For example, the stowage factor for corn is 1.42 m3/tonne while for iron ore, the stowage factor can
be as small as 0.24 m3/tonne. Tank-top strength is provided in the ship's stability booklet .
However, as a ship ages, this strength reduces and a greater safety margin is recommended for older
ships.

Another peculiar characteristic of high density cargoes is that they do not provide much support to
the internal structure of the cargo hold, which may increase the risk of damage from panting
stresses. This is particularly true with ships where the maximum safe load for cargo holds is either
not given or is not considered when loading such cargoes.

Panting is a term used to describe the movement of the ship caused by the shock of contact with a
succession of waves at the bow or the stern. It can be thought of as breathing-like movement in the
fore and aft plane of the vessel.

An extra 10% load on a vessel's structure increases the still water bending moments by 40% and
shearing forces by 20%. These small variations in loads can easily be caused by inappropriate
and/or careless loading/discharging. For example, in the loading port, if the rate of discharge of
ballast water is not similar to the rate of cargo being loaded then stresses are likely to cause severe
damage to the ship's structure.

It is the job of the ship's officers to ensure that this does not happen and the procedure should be
established in the cargo plans. If it is suspected that a vessel has been overloaded, tank top and deck
structures (particularly deck plates between hatchways and at hatch corners) should be carefully
inspected for any signs of cracking or buckling.

The small volume taken up by the cargo in the ships' holds results in a large unoccupied space. This
provides potential in a flooding scenario for large volumes of water to rapidly destroy the ship's
residual buoyancy and, in the case of smaller vessels, its stability. Larger vessels are also highly
susceptible to structural failure due to increases of weights caused by the influx of water.
Heavy cargoes place high loads on the structure, and structural failure is therefore more probable
when subjected to the additional forces associated with flooding.

Over-stressing of the local structure may also occur when the weight of cargo loaded into an
individual hold has insufficient support of upward buoyancy force; this circumstance can occur
when cargo is transported by the ship in a shallow draught condition (for example, partial load
condition with some holds full and remaining holds empty).

The proposed Stowage Plan must ensure that the permissible forces and movements are not
exceeded during loading taking into consideration the rate of loading, number of pours and de-
ballasting capability of the vessel

When loading high density cargoes there is a risk of overloading tank tops and proper precautions
should be taken. Heavy lifts require plenty of strong, good quality dunnage, laying as much
dunnage as feasible on the tank top, in order to spread the load evenly. The tank top limitations are
laid down when the ship is built and provided that the structure remains within class specifications,
remain unchanged throughout the life of the ship. If through damage or wastage, the structure is
reduced, then reduced limitations may well have been imposed as a condition of class

reat care is required to avoid over stressing the vessel and doing structural damage. Carefully
planning of the load and the discharge must be made, and at all times the maximum loading of the
tank top must not be exceeded.

In addition, the maximum loading for each hatch must not be exceeded. Care must be taken to
ensure that the peak height of an untrimmed cargo is not excessive thereby increasing the tank top
loading.

In tween deck vessels, high density cargoes such as iron ore should be loaded in the lower hold
only, to avoid damage to the tween deck.

Shoring
Shoring, which includes blocking and bracing, is the process of securing cargo to prevent side-to-
side movement by supporting it from the side. Shoring may also be used to prevent downward
movement by supporting cargo from below.
UNIT 4 – DETAILED STUDY ON CONTAINER, REEFER
& MULTIPURPOSE CARGO SHIPS

A short history to shipping container dimensions

The idea of loading merchandise onto trucks, then moving onto trains or ships and then
loading them back onto trucks came about over 60 years ago. It originated from a small-
time truck hauler by the name of Malcolm McLean from Maxton, North Carolina.

McLean greatly improved this process by placing merchandise into containers so that
entire containers can be lifted and loaded from the chassis. The next step was to
standardize the shipping container dimensions for easy handling by trucks, trains,
ships and ports around the world.

This standardization of shipping container dimensions made a substantial global

impact on world trade. It allowed manufacturers to load goods at their factories and
ship directly to stores and warehouses without having to unload and transfer their cargo
along the way. This meant that manufacturing processes could be located far away from
customers but still provide customers with an unimaginable variety of low-cost goods
from across the globe. Today, there are 5,000 freighters carrying over 14 million
containers to ports all over the world.

Types of containers and their dimensions: which

is best for you
ISO standard containers have been customized to meet the demands of exporters and
importers in international trade. With 12 different ocean shipping container types and a
variety of sizes to choose from within those types, it’s possible to ship everything from
bulk grains and raw materials to perishable commodities.

 20 ft dry shipping container

 40 ft dry shipping container
 40 ft dry high cube shipping container
 45 ft dry high cube shipping container
 20 ft flat rack shipping container
 40 ft flat rack shipping container
 20 ft open top shipping container
 40 ft open top shipping container
 20 ft ventilated shipping container
 20 ft refrigerated shipping container
 40 ft refrigerated shipping container
 20 ft tank shipping container
DIFFERENT TYPES AND SIZES OF CONTAINERS
Length Height Type
2 – 20 Feet 2 – 8 Feet 6 Inches G1 – General Purpose Container
4 – 40 Feet 5 – 9 Feet 6 Inches “High Cube” R1 – Refrigerated Container
L – 45 Feet U1 – Open Top Container
M – 48 Feet P1 – Platform Container
T1 – Tank Container

Standard shipping container dimensions

The 20 ft standard shipping container and the 40 ft standard shipping container are two
of the most widely used containers in the world to transport ocean freight goods.

The standard shipping containers differ from other types of containers in that they are
completely airtight. These hermetically sealed shipping containers are not equipped with
cooling nor ventilation systems like the refrigerated and ventilated containers.

The 20 ft standard shipping container can hold up to 10 standard pallets or 11 Euro

pallets across its floor base.

The standard shipping containers are also known as dry shipping containers or dry vans.

20 ft standard shipping container dimensions

40 ft standard shipping container dimensions

Ventilated shipping container dimensions

The 20 ft ventilated container is a shipping container that offers a ventilation system due
to its lateral openings that permit air flow and circulation.

These characteristics make it suitable for the transportation of goods that require
constant temperature and conditions.
Thanks to its ventilation system, the 20 ft ventilated container is able to expel hot air and
allow fresh air to enter, thus preventing condensation and humidity changes that may
damage the cargo.

One of the main products transported in the ventilated container is coffee, which is why
it may also sometimes also be known as the “coffee container”.

20 ft ventilated shipping container dimensions

Container Reference Code: 22VH

Container Application: The 20 ft ventilated shipping container is for

cargo that requires ventilation, typically
used to transport green coffee beans or
similar cargo.

Width Height Length

Container
Dimensions:

Door opening in feet 7' 8 ⅛" 7' 6 ¼"

Door opening in meters 2.34 m 2.29 m

Interior dimensions in 7' 8 ⅝" 7' 10 ¼" 19' 4 ¼"

feet
 Interior dimensions in 2.352 m 2.395 m 5.9 m
meters

Max Tare Max Payload

Container Weight Gross

Weight in lbs 52,897 5,297 lbs 47,899 lbs

lbs

Weight in kg 32,500 2,394 kg 21,727 kg

kg

Container Volume In CFT In CBM

Load Capacity 1,172 33.2 CBM

CFT

Refrigerated shipping container dimensions

Refrigerated shipping containers, also known as reefer containers, are equipped with a
system that helps to maintain an internal temperature of between -25º and + 25º.
Contrary to popular belief, these refrigerated containers do not regulate temperatures,
they can only maintain them.

There are certain types of refrigerated containers that are capable of maintaining
temperatures as low as -60º.

Although refrigerated containers have integrated systems that help with maintaining the
internal temperature, the container must be connected to an external power source such
as the vessel’s generator or the port’s power supply.

When booking a reefer container, it is important to make sure that necessary equipment
is available throughout the entire international transport chain (from pick up to drop off)
to help power the container and maintain its internal temperature.

Reefer containers are most commonly used to transport fresh and frozen foods such as
fish, meat, fruits, and other perishable items. It is also regularly used to transport
medicines and pharmaceutical products.
20 ft refrigerated shipping container dimensions

Container Reference Code: 22RT

Container Application: The 20 ft refrigerated shipping container is for cargo tha

requires temperature control.

Width Height Length

Container
Dimensions:

Door opening in feet 7' 8 ⅛" 7' 6 ¼"

Door opening in meters 2.34 m 2.29 m

Interior dimensions in 7'6" 7' 4 ⅞" 17' 11 ⅝"

feet

Interior dimensions in 2.28 m 2.33 m 5.45 m

meters
 Max Tare Max Payload
Container Weight Gross

Weight in lbs 67,200 6,970 lbs 60,230 lbs

lbs

Weight in kg 30,480 3,160 kg 27,320 kg

kg

40 ft refrigerated shipping container dimensions

Container Reference Code: 42RT

Container Application: The 40 ft refrigerated shipping container is for cargo tha

requires temperature control or perishable cargo.

Width Height Length

Container
Dimensions:

Door opening in feet 7' 5 ⅜" 6' 11 ⅞"

 Door opening in 2.26 m 2.13 m
meters

Interior dimensions in 7'5 ⅜" 7' 1 ⅞" 37' 11 ¼"

feet

Interior dimensions in 2.26 m 2.18 m 11.48 m

meters

Max Tare Max Payload

Container Weight Gross

Weight in lbs 67,053 10,778 lbs 56,275 lbs

lbs

Weight in kg 30,415 kg 4,889 kg 25,526 kg

Container Volume In CFT In CBM

Load Capacity 2,039.7 57.76 CBM

CFT

Flat rack shipping container dimensions

Flat rack shipping containers are designed to transport merchandise whose overall
measurements and/or weight prevent them from fitting into a standard container.

These containers are made of metal plates that fit a standard structure of 20 or 40 feet.
Its sides are collapsible and it does not have a roof or top. This makes it easy for top- or
side-loading. Such features make flat rack containers suitable for transporting:

 Heavy or over-sized cargo such as construction equipment, building supplies or heavy machinery.
These cargoes usually need to be loaded onto the flat rack with a crane or other special equipment.
 Goods with a height higher than that of a 20 or 40 ft high cube container or irregularly shaped goods
such as industrial vehicles or pipes.

Because the flat rack container has no side or top to protect the cargo, extra care must be
taken to prevent damage by weather conditions such as heavy rain or strong winds.
Lashing the cargo will help secure the cargo and make sure it stays in its place.

When booking a flat rack shipping container, make sure to clearly indicate lifting points
for your over- or odd-sized cargo to avoid damages — especially for heavy machinery.
Remember to also specify any special handling instructions to your freight forwarder.
Shipping Container Part Names and Pictures
A shipping container is a relatively simple piece of equipment. It's limited in terms of parts, as it has
four walls, a floor and ceiling, and doors on one end. However, the parts that you don't initially notice
are where the container derives all of its strength.

Let's start with the basic components of a container – steel and wood. With the exception of the
flooring, the nearly the entire container is made of steel; and some shipping lines are currently
experimenting with replacing wooden floors with steel. A little while ago we published this article
on shipping container diagram and parts; this time we're going to take a more practical approach
with pictures.

Shipping Container Walls and Ceiling/Roof

The walls and ceiling of a shipping container are constructed from COR-TEN steel. COR-TEN steel,
also called weathering steel, is processed in such a way that helps to prevent it from rusting, which is
very helpful as a container spends a majority of its time on the ocean.

Corner Castings

The corner castings are located on each corner of the container, just as you'd expect from the name.
There are eight in total, and they connect the rails. If you think of the corner pieces on an Erector set,
they behave much in the same way. The corner castings are made of poured steel.

Top and Bottom Rails

The rails of a shipping container are welded to the corner castings and provide the framework that the
walls, ceiling and floor are attached to. The run the length of all sides and are the key source of strength
in the container.
Door Construction
Conventional shipping containers, both 20' and 40' units, have doors located on one end of the
container. There are two doors, and each has locking gear that bolts the top and bottom of each door
closed.

Floor Construction

The floor is typically constructed of wood, either bamboo or marine grade plywood, however as
mentioned before there are a few shipping lines currently experimenting with steel flooring. The
flooring material is supported by cross members, just as the flooring in a house is supported by a joist
system.
Markings on the Container
CSC is the abbreviation for Container Safety Convention.
The container CSC plate is fastened to every shipping container at the time of
manufacture and is typically bolted to the outside of the container, on the left
door. ... CSC approval means that an Administration has deemed a design type or
a container to be safe under the terms of the current Convention.
1. The Edition of CSC Rules the Container Was Approved Under.
CSC stands for The International Convention for Safe Containers, a set of container
regulations determined by the International Maritime Organization, an agency under
the purview of the United Nations. All ISO shipping containers must comply with the
standards and inspections set forth by the CSC. Different classification societies
around the world take on the responsibility of inspecting containers for CSC
compliance.

The first piece of information on the CSC plate is the set of codes under which the
container was approved. Generally, the first letter before the slash or hyphen is the
country code. The inspection criteria of a specific classification society follows, and
then the approval year of those criteria.
In the graphic above, GB is the country code for the UK, and BV stands for Bureau
Veritas, a classification society in France.
The exact formatting of this information varies from plate to plate, but if you become
familiar with common country and classification society codes, you can glean by
whom and where the container was approved.
2. Type
Container manufacturers create lines of container models. This code indicates
container’s manufacturing model.
3. Manufacturer’s No. of the Container
This is the ID number that the manufacturer assigned to the container. Sometimes
CSC classification societies use this number as the container’s general ID number—
more on that later.
4. Owner's No.
This is the number the owner uses to identify their containers. The owner is usually
the organization that operates the container fleet and coordinates shipping.
Sometimes the container’s manufacturer is also the owner. For example, Atlantic
Coast Container is both the manufacturer and the owner of the container represented
in the graphic. If the manufacturer and the owner are separate entities, there may be
contact information for each.
5. Timber Component Treatment
Container floors are lined with marine grade plywood or bamboo. This part of the
plate indicates whether the floors were treated with basileum, radaleum, or
Talileum-400.
6. Classification Society Approval Number
This is the id number for the approval process. It is similar to the first code at the top
of the container, but it is the id number for the individual action of approving a single
container as opposed to the general rules it was approved under.
7. Identification No.
This is the unique ID number assigned by the classification agency to track the
container’s previous inspections. You can think of it as the equivalent of the VIN
(Vehicle Identification Number) on a car.
8. Maximum Operating Gross Mass
The maximum operating gross mass is the maximum safe weight or mass of a
container loaded with its contents. The weight of the container itself is included in
the gross mass.
9. First Maintenance Examination Date
The first maintenance examination date is when the container needs to be reinspected
by a classification society. Think of it as the container’s check-up appointment.
10. Allowable Stacking Load for 1.8 G
1.8 Gs is the force of gravity we typically experience multiplied by 1.8. Think about
how if you’re going up an elevator you feel heavier. That heaviness is the added G-
force of going up against gravity. Containers may experience G-forces higher than 1
when ships bob up and down at sea. Thus, this number indicates how much weight
can be safely stacked on top of a container even if the container experiences 1.8 Gs at
sea.
11. Transverse Racking Test Force
This is the amount of force that can be applied to the top edge of the container before
the frame warps.
The CSC plate is a strong foundation for assessing whether a shipping container is
safe for use in a shipping container structure. Its presence ensures the container has
achieved rigorous standards for ISO compliance that can be translated into structural
properties for building. Whether you’re buying a container for storage or a complex
structure, we recommend locating the CSC plate and reading up on the container’s
journey.

TYPES OF CONTAINER
1. Dry storage container
The most commonly used shipping containers; they come in various dimensions
standardized by ISO. They are used for shipping of dry materials and come in size of
20ft, 40 ft and 10ft.

2. Flat rack container

With collapsible sides, these are like simple storage shipping containers where the
sides can be folded so as to make a flat rack for shipping of wide variety of goods.
3. Open top container
With a convertible top that can be completely removed to make an open top so that
materials of any height can be shipped easily.

4. Tunnel container
Container storage units provided with doors on both ends of the container, they are
extremely helpful in quick loading and unloading of materials.
5. Open side storage container
These storage units are provided with doors that can change into completely open
sides providing a much wider room for loading of materials.

6. Double doors container

They are kind of storage units that are provided with double doors, making a wider
room for loading and unloading of materials. Construction materials include steel,
iron etc in standardized sizes of 20ft and 40ft.

7. Refrigerated ISO containers

These are temperature regulated shipping containers that always have a carefully
controlled low temperature. They are exclusively used for shipment of perishable
substances like fruits and vegetables over long distances.

8. Insulated or thermal containers

These are the shipping storage containers that come with a regulated temperature
control allowing them to maintain a higher temperature.
The choice of material is so done to allow them long life without being damaged by
constant exposure to high temperature. They are most suitable for long distance
transportation of products.
9. Tanks
Container storage units used mostly for transportation of liquid materials, they are
used by a huge proportion of entire shipping industry. They are mostly made of
strong steel or other anti corrosive materials providing them with long life and
protection to the materials.

10. Cargo storage roll container

A foldable container, this is one of the specialized container units made for purpose
of transporting sets or stacks of materials. They are made of thick and strong wire
mesh along with rollers that allows their easy movement. Availability in a range of
colored wire meshes make these shipping container units a little more cheerful.

11. Half height containers

Another kind of shipping containers includes half height containers. Made mostly of
steel, these containers are half the height of full sized containers. Used especially for
good like coal, stones etc which need easy loading and unloading.
12. Car carriers
Car carriers are container storage units made especially for shipment of cars over
long distances. They come with collapsible sides that help a car fit snugly inside the
containers without the risk of being damaged or moving from the spot.

13. Intermediate bulk shift containers

These are specialized storage shipping containers made solely for the purpose of
intermediate shipping of goods. They are designed to handle large amounts of
materials and made for the purpose of shipping materials to a destination where they
can be further packed and sent off to final spot.
14. Drums
As the name suggests, circular shipping containers, made from a choice of materials
like steel, light weight metals, fiber, hard plastic etc. they are most suitable for bulk
transport of liquid materials. They are smaller in size but due to their shape, may
need extra space.

Cell guide – a vertical guidance track which permits loading and discharge of containers in and out
of the ships holds, in a stable manner.
Container – is defined as an article of transport equipment: (a) of a permanent character and
accordingly strong enough to be suitable for repeated use; (b) specially designed to facilitate the
transport of goods, by one or more modes of transport, without intermediate reloading; (c) designed
to be secured and/or readily handled, having corner fittings for these purposes; (d) of a size such
that the area enclosed by the four outer bottom corners is either: (i) at least 14 m2 (150 ft2 ) or (ii)
at least 7 m2 (75 ft2 ) if it is fitted with top corner fittings.

The term ‘container’ includes neither vehicles or packaging. However, containers when carried on
chassis are included.

Container spreader beam – the engaging and lifting device used by gantry cranes to lock on, lift
and load containers.

Corner fitting – is defined by an arrangement of apertures and faces at the top and/or bottom of a container
for the purposes of handling, stacking and/or securing. Existing container – is defined as a container, which
is not a new container.

Flexible boxship – a term which describes a container vessel designed with flexible length deck cell guides,
capable of handling different lengths of containers, e.g. 20, 30 and 40 ft units.

Gantry crane – a large heavy-lifting structure found at container terminals employed to load/discharge
containers to and from container vessels. Some container vessels carry their own travelling gantry crane
system on board.

Maximum operating gross weight – is defined by the maximum allowable combined weight of the container
and its cargo.

Maximum permissible payload (P) – means the difference between the maximum operating gross weight or
rating and the tare weight.

Safety approval plate – is described as an information plate which is permanently affixed to an approved
container. The plate provides general operating information inclusive of country of approval and date of
manufacture, identification number, its maximum gross weight, its allowable stacking weight and racking
test load value. The plate also carries ‘end wall strength’, the ‘side wall strength’ and the maintenance
examination date.

Stack – a term when referring to containers, which represents the deck stowage of containers in ‘tiers’ and in
‘bays’

Tare weight – means the weight of the empty container including permanently affixed ancillary equipment.

TEU – twenty feet equivalent unit. Used to express the cargo capacity of a container vessel.
Most standard, typical ISO (International Standards Organisation) containers are
constructed using a “weathering steel”. This kind of steel is also known as “Cor-ten”
steel which is corrosion resistant. It is often used in many industries that require steel
to be exposed (sculptures, building industry etc). Cor-ten steel is extremely strong
and resilient, making any repairs easy.

The specifications on each container depends on the container size and the type of
container.

One of the best features of the humble shipping container is it’s plywood floors. This
floor ensures that repairs easily carried out. The flooring also does not dent, and has
a strong friction surface, which is necessary for cargo securing.

Types of containers.

45’ Open top 20’ Flat Rack 40’ High cube reefer

Other shipping container designs include (but are not limited to):

 Tunnels – with double doors at both ends.

 Open-sided – with doors down one complete side.
 Double Open-sided – with doors down both complete sides.
 Open-tops – with a removable tarpaulin roof.
 Refrigerated – for frozen or perishable cargoes
 Flat racks – for oversized cargoes – no roof, no side panels and
collapsible end frames.
 Pallet wide containers – 2.5 meters wide internally.
 Half height containers – mostly used for heavy bulk cargoes such as coal.
 Tank containers – for liquids.
 Bulkers – for granular cargoes.
  Coil carriers – for coil cargoes.
 Car carriers – a collapsible rack for transporting cars inside a dry van
container.

Container Securing
Container stowage principles. The stowage planning of a containership is
one of the complex problems faced daily by all shipping lines. It is a difficult
problem because of its combinatorial nature and the various operating constraints
related to both the ship structure and container properties. Existing stowage planning
process is mainly carried out by human planners. These planners have not only years
of training onboard containerships but are also familiar with the stowage instructions
of container terminals. A good plan can maximize the utilization of stowage space on
a containership. This allows the containership to carry more commodities on board
with fewer redundant moves of containers. It will also maximize the utilization of the
quay cranes by making the stowage configuration possible for all cranes to operate
simultaneously, ensuring a shorter berthing time for containership. However, a good
stowage plan is not easy to generate, because it depends very much on the human
planner’s experience and intuition about the shipping demands and characteristics of
subsequent ports in the voyage. Thus the efficiency of ports and the utilization of
ship space, and hence the operating cost of a shipping line, are highly dependent on
the human planners’ performance. In

stowage planning, a container has many properties, such as its port of loading (POL),
port of destination (POD), type, weight, etc. Together with the containership profile,
the stowage plan generated which is subject to many constraints related to the ship
structure, container characteristics and operational instructions. Container shipping is
the most carbon efficient means of transporting most goods across the world. Most of
the world's manufactured goods and products travel by container ship, with the
containers then transferred to rail or truck to reach their final destination.
Containerization has revolutionized the movement of goods and the increased
efficiency of moving goods has produced numerous benefits including lower
environmental impacts associated with the movement of products from one point to
another.

Packaging of goods inside container

The surface of package should be levelled to allow stacking

and gaps filled if required

Drums and barrels should be stowed so as to prevent movement in sea conditions.

Dunnages used to be anti slip material. There is possibility of one cargo rubbing
against other during sea passage.

Cargoes other than cartons and boxes such as drums, barrels etc should be packed
using similar principles. Surfaces should be levelled to allow stacking

Stuffing/Stowing
Loading the container units is called stuffing and opposite is destuffing

Proper planning should be done before stowing. Stowing should be planned in a way
that the cargo weight is distributed as evenly as possible and total weight to be within
the maximum payload limit.

The centre of gravity of the stowed cargo should be at or below the half height point
of the container. Heavy cargoes to be stowed below and light on top. This will also
prevent crushing damage. Lower centre of gravity makes it safer to handle the
container
To prevent mechanical damage from the container sides and corner posts dunnages
such as wood planks, plastic foam and paper boards should be used.

Inter layer dunnages to be used while stowing cargo on top of one other to create
even surface and to prevent contact damage.

Desiccants to be used for moisture sensitive cargoes to prevent cargo from becoming
damp. Dunnages on top and bottom to be used to dissipate moisture and to avoid
accumulation of damp or sweat. To prevent damage from container sweat, wrapping
by plastic sheet, oiled paper and tarpaulins can help.

Bottom or intermediate dunnages must be arranged so that it can easily be handled by

fork lift , chains or cargo handling equipment without causing damages.

Securing of goods in a container

Goods should be so packed in the container to achieve a tight fit, so that the
possibility of cargo shifting and moving due to the movement of the container or ship
is minimised. If the cargo does not fill up the container appropriate securing methods
to be employed or fillers (wood / paper boards / used to prevent movement of cargo.

Gaps between goods or packages should be filled using dunnages such as wood
planks, paper boards or airbags. Dunnages like wood planks, paper boards or air bags
to be provided if the gaps are too big.
Lashings must be employed for heavy cargoes. The angles of the lashing and the
strength of lashing materials are critical for effective lashings. Lashings to be done in
all the 3 axis. All possible stresses and different types of movements that the
container or ship will be subjected to be considered.

Size and stowage of containers

The loading of containers are related to the ships hull. Stacking heights are as
recommended by ISO. The boxes must be strong enough to withstand stacking
heights. Most of the containers are between 8.5 ft to 9.5 ft.

53’ High Cube 20’ High Cube

In general terms consideration of container stowage are
related to:
1. Effective overall centre of gravity in acceptable ship stability

2. Loading within permissible limits

3. Containers not overstowed

4. Seggregation of containers with reference to Reefers / IMDG / Hides (smelly

cargo)

Container stowage and securing

Containers being box shaped it is easy to stow them in block stowage both on deck
and below deck. Approval is required for deck stowage. For proper deck stowage we
need twistlocks, turnbuckles, lashing rods and extension rods.

Containers when carried below deck in cellular container ships, are slotted into cells
in cellular container ships. On the tank top there will be base cones to prevent
containers moving inside the cells, if a 20’ is loaded into a 40’ slot. Alternatively a
40’ loaded on top of the 20’s.

Stacking cone in between Manual twist lock

Containers carried below deck in normal ships. Containers are loaded on tank tops
and joined together with stacking cones to prevent movement.

In the case of cargo ships with side hopper tanks buttresses may be fitted.

When carried within a cell guide framework no further lashings are required.

Stacking cone Large container ship

If the containers are loaded upto 3 tiers then only twistlocks are enough depending on
the weight of the containers. When carried on deck horizontal movement resisted by
the twist locks, and the vertical movement by the pull-out strength of the twist locks.
If the more than 3 tier then lashing rods are used. Lashing rods provide additional
racking strength. Lashings are generally done diagonally to achieve more racking
strength.

Semi Auto twist locks Turnbuckles

Lashing rods are always fitted tight and kept tight by adjusting the turnbuckle. When
force is transmitted to securing equipment during ship rolling, it is the lashing rods
that bear the force first.

A 2nd pair of lashings may be fitted reaching to the bottom of the 3rd tier. If additional
lashing is required then parallel lashings may be used. With this arrangement
lashings are arranged in parallel, one fitted on top of the 1st tier and the 2nd at the
bottom of 2nd tier. The effectiveness of parallel lashings is taken as 1.5 times that of a
single lashing.
Lashing Rod
For ease of loading and discharging bridge fittings that link adjacent stacks of
containers together are not commonly fitted. Since force distribution and the
response of adjacent container stacks will be similar there will be negligible load
transfer between the stacks when linked together. Bridge fittings are fitted to isolated
adjacent stacks of containers or when containers are loaded in the holds of a dry
cargo ship.

Containers stowed below deck without cell guides are generally in the fore aft
direction with the containers secured using locking devices, buttresses, shores or
lashings.
When carrying containers in the hold of a bulk carrier or general cargo ship, base
containers are secured with twist locks or cones. Buttresses to be fitted for lateral
support. A platform with sockets, twist locks or base cones may be fitted where
required. This forms the basis for block stowage of containers when combined with
cones, twist locks and bridge fittings. Ensure the lowest tier does not slide
horizontally at sea.

Containers carried below deck in cell guides

Most of the cargo holds are designed to carry40’ containers inside the hold with the
containers held in place by cell guides. The cell guides are generally steel angle bars
oriented vertically with entry guides at the top to assist with positioning the
containers

Flush socket where twist lock is Raised socket where

fitted twistlocks are fitted

The cell guides provide adequate longitudinal and transverse support the 40’
containers and no further securing arrangements are necessary. The lowest container
in each stack sits on a pad which is supported by stiffened structure below the tank
top. 20’ containers may be stowed in 40’ bays. This arrangement requires
longitudinal and transverse support for the containers where they meet at the mid
length position. This is achieved by mid-bay guides at the tank top by placing
stacking cones between tiers of containers and possibly over stowing the 20’ with a
40’ container. Before loading into a cell guide make sure there is bends or
deformation to the cell guide.

Lashing eye plate D Ring

Containers carried on deck are usually stowed longitudinally in vertical stacks.

Containers within each stack are fastened together with twist locks. The bottom
corners of each base container are locked to the deck, hatch cover or pedestal with a
twist lock. When stacked in multiple tiers the containers are usually lashed to the
ship’s structure by diagonal lashing rods. The lashing rods are usually applied to the
bottom corners of second or third tier containers. On ships fitted with a lashing
bridge the lashing rods may be applied to the bottom corners of fourth or fifth tier
containers.

Container lashing. The securing and lashing of containers on ship’s decks is a

difficult operation. Now a days semi auto twist locks are used and these are fitted
from the shore while loading and removed at shore while discharging. Prior to
discharge the semi auto twist locks are unlocked by actuator poles and then the
container lifted and taken ashore. Once on the wharf it is kept hanging while the
 stevedores remove the twist locks and put it
into bins. While loading the same fitted at
the bottom of the containers and it locks
itself when loaded. For 20’ containers
loaded inside the 40’ hold stacking cones
are fixed at the bottom of the containers.
Securing of the containers are the responsibility of the Master.

Various modes of transport of containers

Container stacking Container Spreader

Container stack is secured independently. In theory the loss of one stack should not
affect its neighbour. Transverse stowage, is uncommon, mainly due to cargo could
fall out of the container. To achieve transverse stowage the spreader should be able to
turn. Containers are also carried on deck in cell guides

On deck cell guide Cross section of typical container

ship
Container ship broken into 2 Container ship
on fire

Carriage of containers.

Freight containers should comply with the International Convention for Safe
Containers (ICSC) They should not be loaded beyond the maximum net weight
indicated on Safety Approval Plate.

The equipment used for lifting a container should be suitable for the load and safely
attached to the container. The container should be free to be lifted and should be
lifted slowly to guard against the possibility of the container swinging or some part of
the lifting appliances failing, should the contents be poorly secured, unevenly loaded
and poorly distributed or weight of contents incorrectly declared. The process of
loading and securing of goods into a container should follow Guidelines for
Packaging of Cargo Transport Units (CTU). Special care should be taken when
lifting a container with mobile G eg tank container, bulk container or which
containers with protruding cargo.
Safe means of access to be provided to the stevedores and crew for removing and
fixing lashing. Containers to be lashed individually.

On non container ships, containers should be stowed fore and aft and should be
securely lashed. Containers should not be stowed on deck or hatches unless it can
handle the stack weight. Adequate dunnages to be provided for spreading the weight.

If it is necessary to go on top of the containers crew cages to be provided.

Where electrical supply provided for refrigerated containers the supply cables should
be with proper connections and should be inspected. If any defects observed a
competent person should rectify the same. All electrical connections to be handled
with power off. Regular monitoring of the reefer container temperature should be
done and if out of range C/O informed and repairs to be carried out. All records to be
maintained for future reference. Reefer containers should not be stowed in high tiers
or seaside to facilitate repairs during voyage.

If fumigated containers are carried check for leakage of fumigant by using detectors
provided.
Bulk Cargo in container. Bulk Container

Code of safe working on container ships

The following Important points must be considered for taking care of cargo containers while at sea:

Check lashing

Proper container lashing is one of the most important aspects of securing cargo safely
on the ships. Every officer in charge of cargo loading and unloading must know
and understand the important points for safe container lashing.

Crew to be familiar with the operation and maintenance of cranes where utilised.

Instruction manuals for the operation and maintenance of cargo handling equipment
to be provided

Each container to be fitted with a safety approval plate specifying

- date of manufacture

- identification number
 - maximum operating gross weight

- allowable stacking weight

- transverse racking

- test load value

The stack height of containers should not affect visibility and design strength. Stack
weight limitations of both on deck and inside the hold should not be exceeded and
also the limitation of the containers. Inside deck it should not hamper hatch cover
closing.

Containers loaded on deck should be secured using lashing gears. All containers on
deck is stowed on deck with twist
locks. Twist locks should be
properly placed and locked. If more
than 2 tiers then lashing bars are
employed. If cell guides are
provided on deck then lashing may
not be necessary.

On the hatch covers special high load twist locks are employed which are generally
permanent.

Excessive tightening may result in forces excess of their designed load.

Sufficient lighting, safe access and wear appropriate safety gear to be provided to all
personnel.

As far as possible weights of containers to be evenly distributed.

Heavy loads loaded on flat racks should be secured as per the Cargo securing
manual.
Reefers once loaded it should be immediately connected and all the information
checked and verified – stowage, cargo, loading temp, set temp, any error messages,
ventilation settings, as mentioned in the manifest. If any malfunction to inform C/O.
The cables, plugs and the sockets should not be damaged. All connections to be made
with the supply in OFF position.

IMDG cargo loaded as the plan and all the labels and information on the container
tallys with the manifest. The container properly labelled. If any leakage to inform
C/O, contents verified and action taken as required.

Never stand below a hanging load. Containers can fall due to failure of the lifting
appliances. The structure of the container can fail due to overloading and cargo can
fall out.

The stevedores may throw lashing gears particularly twist locks.

Prior to sailing all loose lashing gears to be secured. Stevedores may leave lashing
gears on top of containers and hatch covers.

Reefer containers require special care after they are loaded on board ship. These
containers need to be supplied with power, monitored closely for proper function and
repaired as required in case of malfunction. The article here is about procedures and
guidelines on reefer cargo care at sea.
At sea, all reefer containers shall be monitored by checking physically at least Twice
daily (weather permitting). All monitored data for each reefer container on board
shall be entered in a reefer monitoring log and retained for 3 years. Some reefer
containers with special cargo (e.g.: VIP cargo) come with instructions for more
frequent monitoring and reporting. Such instructions shall be strictly followed.

Out-of-gauge(OOG) cargoes. Out of gauge containers are usually stowed underdeck

and in case of an On Deck Stow, careful consideration will be required. Local
planner or agent may be requested for such approval prior loading.

Hatch cover clearance and Cell guide clearance

must be verified to confirm that there will be no
damage to the vessel or cargo when loaded.
Appropriate number of slots must be kept vacant
to accommodate the OOG cargo as necessary.

Cargo securing devices basically consist of portable securing devices and fixed
securing devices. Regular inspection and maintenance of ships cargo securing
devices must be carried out. These would include routine visual examination of
components being utilized, lubrication of securing devices, repair of damaged
securing devices and separating out and rejecting damaged/unusable securing
devices.

During an ocean voyage, ships very often encounter turbulent waters. Cargo that is not
properly secured will unavoidably shift. The most common reasons for cargo damage are
water damage, impacts that the container took, and damages due to improper lashing and
stuffing.

Water damage
Did you know that 1 in 5 cargo damages are the result of water damage? Water damage
may occur due to different reasons:
  Condensation inside a container, especially if the container is being stuffed at high
humidity temperatures.
 Temperature changes during the voyage of the vessel may also increase the
condensation inside the container, which may cause the cargo to get wet.
 Water may get inside the container if there are any small holes in it, especially during
the voyage if a vessel encounters poor weather conditions.

Improper stuffing and lashing

Proper container stuffing should not be taken lightly. Shifting cargo and uneven weight
distribution are some of the most common causes of cargo damage, in addition to bad
packaging, choosing inadequate containers, improper loading of the pallets and poor
labeling.

Prevention
The science of stuffing
The UK P&I club claims over half of cargo damage cases could be avoided through more
careful stuffing. A minimal amount of time could save you a lot of expense in the long run.

Shippers or other stakeholders involved with loading the containers must be educated on the
below details:

 The space utilization must be carefully checked for palletized cargo, and if there are
any empty spaces between pallets, they need to be filled with airbags or other means
of fillers.
 The distribution of the weight inside the container needs to be even.
 Loading heavier items on the side or at one end of the container must be avoided.
 Stow the lighter items on top of the heavier items and avoid stuffing any loose item,
and pack the cargo as tight as possible.

Choosing the Right Container

Containers come in several types, lengths, widths and heights. Match this to your
requirements. Do not pick a container that when loaded exceeds the size or weight limit at
any stage of the journey.

Do not overlook climatic changes along the route that could affect your cargo. Choose a
container type that is appropriate. It is often a false economy to avoid the additional cost of
a container with a fan, temperature control or ventilation. Temperatures can increase inside
a container e.g. a tropical climate can produce temperatures of 50 degrees plus which in turn
causes condensation and roasting.
Finally, make sure the container has enough lashing points of the strength you require.
Confirm your requirements in writing to the container operator and draw on the experience
of the container operator. Remember the responsibility of choosing equipment is not down
to the container operator. The liability is on you!

Checking Your Container

For peace of mind take a few minutes to check over the container. Be wary of residues –
they could be hazardous or contaminate your consignment. If in any doubt return the
container for cleaning. Watch out for structural damage such as damage to post rails or
corner castings. This can cause damage to cargo. Check that you can securely lock the
doors. If in doubt: reject the container!

Always check that the container is dry. Are there any holes made by handling equipment
that could let in moisture? Ensure that the gaskets aren’t hard, damaged or worn. Look out
for stains around the door area as this can indicate a previous leak. Check for rust (rust is
porous). Do a light test that can reveal small holes in the container.

Finally, be on the lookout for taped up vents and old labels as these can be misleading and
lead to delays.

Take delivery of your container with care

Just a few minutes of your time can reduce the chance of your cargo being damaged. If you
overlook defects which a court decides due diligence would have revealed, you may find an
insurance claim is drastically reduced or even rejected.
Have a solid Packing Plan
Most operators charge by the container load. The more goods you can fit into the container,
the lower the unit price will be to ship your goods. It is wise to draw up a packing plan to
maximize the fill factor. Remember: less free space in the container means less risk of cargo
shifting. If cargo doesn’t fill the container, start by covering the floor space at an even
height. If you have to leave gaps, try and leave them in the center so that the cargo can be
secured by wedging them to the side walls.

Weight must be evenly spread; side to side, end to end. Always keep the center of gravity as
low as possible. Never exceed the container’s maximum payload or exceed any of the
weight restrictions on route.

If the upper tier doesn’t run the full length of the container a vertical separator can be used
to restrain it. If suitable use an interlocking stow. Unitized cargo is often more stable and
quicker to pack. Make a point of strongly shoring and blocking the face of the stow as this
prevents the cargo from falling out when the doors are open.

Place the heaviest items in the center of the container. Place large heavy items on the
bottom of the container and lighter ones on the top. Always place liquids underneath dry
goods. Ensure drums and barrels are stowed with the bung upwards and if possible
separated as vibration can wear away the seams and allow the contents to escape. It is best
to use a double layer of dunnage to limit damage.

Ensure you are aware of the safe loading limits of the lashing points. Do not pack cargoes
that are incompatible together e.g. cargoes that are prone to sweating packed with moisture
sensitive cargo.

Know the specific documentation and

inspection requirements
Goods that are subject to Pre-Shipment Inspection (PSI) should be stored at the door end.
Some destination countries want a packing list fixed to the inside of the container door.
Some destination countries require wood treatment certificates attached here too. Declare
the cargo weight accurately.

Cargo shifting and weight distribution

Shifting cargo and uneven weight distribution are some of the most common causes of
cargo damage. The forces exerted on a container’s contents in transit by road, rail, ship or
gantry crane are considerable. If the contents are not properly secure, no matter how heavy,
damage will occur. Many shippers tend to undercut costs by not packaging their goods
properly which often leads to crushed, unsalable goods. Appropriate packaging should be
used to protect your investment.

Remember: free space in a container increases the risk of cargo shifting. Packaging that fits
in exactly (i.e. cardboard boxes) will reduce dead space and reduce the cost of dunnage. All
loose items must be chocked/lashed.
Stretch or shrink wrap is great for protection against wet damage. It’s not cheap but could
save you money in the long run. Use dunnage to protect non-unitized cargoes from damage.

Dunnage
Dunnage: Materials of various types, often timber or matting, placed among the cargo for
separation, and hence protection from damage, for ventilation and, in the case of certain
cargoes, to provide a space in which the tines of a forklift truck may be inserted.

Ensure that dunnage is not wet or made from unseasoned wood as this may cause
condensation and damage. Be careful to check the quarantine regulations in the port of
destination as they may require the dunnage to be treated or fumigated.

Airbags are a modern method which is easier to use than conventional shoring. Remember
not to place them where they can force open the doors!

Security
No seal can stop a thief. Its main function is to signal where and when a container has been
broken into. Bolt seals are the best. Always check the seal and ensure it is the right type.
Tug the seal to ensure that it is properly locked.

Always record the date and the seal number and keep these records safe. Enter the seal
number on all shipping documentation and lock the papers somewhere safe. Never leave the
sealing of a container to a third party. Who knows how honest they are?

Finally, arrange a convenient time for your cargo to be delivered as this reduces the time the
container is exposed to the elements and the risk of theft.

Responsibilities of the shipping line

Officers are always on deck supervising local stevedores who are not familiar with the
vessels. Lifting and lashing equipment is regularly examined to ensure that it is in good
working order, to manufacturers guidelines. All damaged equipment is removed
immediately. Spares are always carried on board.
A stowage planner is only as good as the data he receives. The shipping line ensures that
stack and weight limits and complete stowage position plans are made available for the
crew. This is necessary to verify that container racking limits are not exceeded, hatch covers
and tank tops are not overstressed and stows are safe and secure. Staff routinely monitor the
stow throughout the voyage.

A thorough examination of all stowage methods is done prior to sailing. This includes
checking twist locks, galvanized rods, securing points, and base sockets.

Dangerous goods are segregated as per the IMDG code, national legislation and the ship’s
dangerous goods document of compliance. Hazardous goods are always checked once
loaded to ensure it is safely stowed and there are no leaks.

Reefer containers are stowed only where they can be connected to electrical power supplies.
All reefers are set to the temperatures as specified by the shipper and staff make routinely
checks throughout the voyage. Non-containerized cargo is given a protective stow.

Stack weight limits should never be exceeded. Heavy containers are stowed in tiers so that
late arrivals which are heavy do not end up on deck or on top of the stack.

REFRIGERATED CARGOES
Refrigerated Cargoes can be divided into three classes.

1. Frozen Cargo : egg, meat, butler, poultry and fish. These cargoes are carried in a
hard frozen state at temperatures around -5°C to +12°C to prevent the growth of
bacteria.

2. Chilled Cargo: egg, cheese, eggs and fresh vegetables. Temperatures maintained in
the compartment for these cargoes are around -2°C to 6°C. Beef may also be carried
in a chilled state as the tissues get damaged sometimes by freezing. Maintaining the
right temperatures is more critical with chilled cargoes than with frozen cargoes as
condensation of moisture due to variation of temperature encourages bacterial
growth.

3. Cooled Cargo: egg, fruits have temperatures of around 2°C to 12°C are maintained
by air circulation,

The temperatures at which individual cargoes are carried may vary beyond the
above-mentioned limits depending on the nature of the cargo. The ambient
temperature at the loading port. the duration of the voyage and the state in which the
cargo is to be delivered. (whether ripe. frozen. ready for consumption, etc.)

REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
Just as the natural flow of water
is from a high level to a low
level. The natural flow of heat
too is from a body at a high
temperature to a body at a low
temperature; and just as we
would need a pump to reverse
the flow or pump water upwards
we need mechanical work to be done or a heat pump to transfer heat from a body at a
low temperature and give it away to a body at a high temperature. This is the
principle of refrigeration.

In a refrigeration system gas at a high pressure P, low volume V, and high

temperature T, (35° to 40°C) is obtained from the compressor. It is allowed to expand
slightly and cool in the condenser to a liquid at pressure P2 volume V2 and sea water
temperature T2. This cooled liquid gas is suddenly allowed to expand by passing
through an expansion valve. The expansion of the gas to volume V3, is accompanied
by a slight fall in pressure and a large fall in its temperature to P3, and T3, (+5°to
25°C) respectively. The gas is now kept in contact with the substance to be
cooled. It absorbs heat from the substance cooling it while in turn its own
temperature rises to T4, (25° to 35°C) and pressure and volume to P4 and
V4 respectively. It is then compressed in a compressor to its pressure,
volume and temperature at the first stage. i.e. P1 V1, and T1. The
refrigerant is so chosen because its physical and chemical properties
increase the efficiency of the plant reduce its size and eliminate hazards in handling
the refrigerant. Ammonia was used for several years till it was replaced by carbon
dioxide which was less toxic. Today freon is used extensively although it is being
phased out due to pressure from environmentalists as it contains chloro-fluoro
carbons (CFCs) which has been found to harm the ozone layer

For large refrigeration systems we therefore use the indirect method and a second
refrigerant. The primary refrigerant is used to cool a tank of brine and this cooled
brine is then circulated through the compartment. Brine is chosen because of its low
freezing point, 20' to 30' C, depending on its concentration and composition.

The brine is passed through separate grids surrounding the same compartment. If one
grid is blocked or choked, the brine supply can be increased to other grids so that
cooling will not be affected. Also different groups of grids. each with its own
expansion valve is used to maintain different compartments at different temperatures
by adjusting the flow of, gas. For fruit cargoes, not only cooling but also ventilation
is to be carried out.

For this, instead of circulating the brine around the compartments air is passed over
the brine grids and this cooled air is blown through ducts into the compartment.
Cooling is often carried out by a combination of cold brine and cool air circulation.

The success of refrigerated trade depends principally on the condition in which cargo
arrives at the discharge port. This normally depends on the efficiency of the
refrigeration plant or the insulation but greatly depends on the efforts of the cargo
officers with respect to stowage precautions prior to

and during reception of cargo and maintenance of correct temperatures in transit.

Any departure from the highest standard of efficiency can cause, deterioration of
cargo resulting in loss of value and large claims to the ship.

Following are the main points to be borne in mind during the

carriage of refrigerated cargo.
1. Preparation of the Compartment: The compartment must be clean,
dry and free from any odour or taint. If necessary, it must be deodorised, using
ozone, sodium bicarbonate or patent deodorisers but strong disinfectants must not be
used. Bilges are to be cleaned, deodorised and suctions checked. The insulation and
permanent dunnage is to be checked and repaired as necessary. Scuppers are to be
cleaned and brine traps checked, tested and refilled.

Brine traps prevent warm air from entering the compartment and cold air from
escaping; at the same time all owing drainage of water.

Thermometers should be in position and ventilator plugs to the compartment fitted in

place and tightly wedged. All openings are to be sealed against entry of air. Brine
pipes are to be tested to ensure that they are not choked and that no leaks occur at the
joints

2. Precooling of the Compartment: The compartment should be cooled down prior to

loading, to a temperature slightly lower than the transit temperature, to allow for
fluctuations during loading. Dunnage laid in the compartment is also to be cooled
before cargo is loaded, otherwise it will stain the cargo in contact with it. When the
compartment is ready for loading a survey is carried out by a cargo surveyor who
inspects the compartment for cleanliness, fitness for the loading of the cargo
concerned and for satisfactory working of the refrigeration plant. A loading
certificate. Showing the temperature of each compartment, is issued before any cargo
is stowed in the space.

Precautions for loading Refrigerated cargo.

1. Frozen cargo like meat, butter, poultry and fish to be maintained –08C to –12C

2. Chilled cargo like cheese, eggs and fresh vegetables to be maintained –02C to
+06C

3. Air cooled cargo like fruits and fresh vegetables to be maintained +02C to
+12C
Preparation of cargo hold:
1. The compartment must be clean, dry and free of any odour or taint

2. Hold must be deodourised with mild agents like lime or ozone

3. Bilges to be cleaned, dry, deodourised and suctions checked.

4. The insulation and permenant dunnage to be checked and repaired as

necessary.

5. Scuppers to be cleaned.

6. Brine traps to be checked, tested and refilled.

7. Thermometers to be in position

8. Ventilator plugs in position and tightly wedged.

9. Brine pipes to be tested to ensure they are not chocked and that no leaks occur
at the joints.

Precooling of the compartment:

1. The compartment should be cooled down prior to loading to a temperature
slightly lower than the transit temperature.

2. Dunnage laid in the compartment should also be cooled down otherwise it will
stain the cargo.

Precautions during loading:

1. Reefer cargo should be loaded onboard only under the supervision of a
recognized surveyor.

2. Cargo should not be allowed to wait for long time on the quay

3. Hold should be pre-cooled to temp below the carriage temperature

4. Damp, wet and torn packages should be inspected if the cargo has deteriorated.
If the cargo is fine then only it should be loaded after repacking.

5. Contents of atleast 5 to 10% carton should be examined from each hold and on
random basis.

6. Cartons with soft or dripping contents should be rejected.

7. Refrigeration of holds should be turned on during long breaks and during meal
breaks.

8. Once loaded the cargo should be covered with tarpaulin

9. During operations the frost formed on top of the brine pipes should be brushed
carefully. It should not fall on top of the cargo.

10. In tropical climates avoid loading in the noon. Try to load cargo during the
night.

11.Upon completion of loading, the reefer chamber must be closed air tight and
the cooling resumed immediately

12.Cargo must be stowed in order to allow free circulation of air through and
around the stow.

13.Laying dunnage should be such that it does no obstruct designed air flow
pattern in the compartment.

14.Sides and bulk heads should be fitted with vertical dunnage to keep cargo
away from the structure.

15.Reefer chambers must be divided with air outlets there should be an even gap
of atleast 30 cms between the cargo top and the lowest part of the deck head.

16.Dunnaging should be efficiently carried out so as to avoid stow collapsing into

the air channels.

17.Each lot of the cargo to be loaded according to the Bill of Lading and
separated by using colour tapes or net. Avoid loading cargo for more than 1
 port in one chamber. Cargo once loaded should not be shifted. These measures
will help prevent temperature fluctuations.

Requirements for Containerised refrigerated Cargoes

The parameters that may be included in carriage instructions for containerised
refrigerated cargo are:

•  Pre-trip inspection of containers

Before stuffing the cargo, all refrigerated containers should be subject to pre-trip
inspection in which the physical condition of the container is ascertained along with
the proper running of the refrigeration equipment.

•  pre-stuffing sanitation

Containers to be used for refrigerated goods should be clean and odour free, and any
special or particular needs should be identified.

•  pre-cooling of containers

Pre-cooling is only useful when loading from temperature controlled loading bays. In
other conditions, it can result in excessive moisture ingress from the atmosphere and
is not recommended.

•  pre-cooling of the cargo

Before loading the cargo into the container, the cargo should be pre-cooled to the
required carriage temperature. It should be noted that the machinery of a reefer
container is not designed to cool the cargo, but only to maintain the cargo
temperature. It is not to be used as a cold storage where the temperature of the cargo
is brought down rapidly using powerful heavy-duty refrigeration machinery.
•  cooling during part-loaded conditions

Part-loaded containers should be closed and the temperature maintained if there is a

delay before complete loading.

•  prohibition of loading of hot cargo

Hot cargo should not be loaded into the container. Many insurance claims have been
reported at the consignee’s end due to insufficient cooling of the cargo before loading
into the container.

•  prohibition of stuffing cargo at mixed temperatures

Properly pre-cooled cargo and substantially warmer cargo should not be mixed.

•  stowage requirements

Any special stowage requirements, such as a protected or under-deck stow, should be

stated.

•  ventilation

The rate of fresh air ventilation for fresh produce should be specified as an absolute
figure in cubic metres per hour. The specification of a percentage rate of ventilation
has meaning only if related to a specific container size and a specific model of
refrigeration unit.

•  carriage temperature

It is not physically possible to provide refrigeration in the absence of temperature

differences, both between air and goods and within the bulk of the goods. The only
temperature that can be controlled is the set point,

• which corresponds to the air delivery temperature for chilled goods and

the air return temperature for frozen goods. The term ‘carriage temperature’ therefore
has little meaning, and ‘set point temperature’ should be specified. If appropriate, this
may be augmented by a maximum allowable temperature during periods without
refrigeration.
For USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) and other cold treatment
quarantine requirements, maximum pulp temperature may have to be maintained
below a specified temperature throughout a continuous period of days or weeks and
only approved equipment may be used.

•  maximum time with refrigeration

Sometimes, it may be necessary, for statutory or other reasons, to specify a maximum

duration of time without refrigeration, either per event or in total for the journey. This
should not be necessary if temperature limits are well defined.

•  air circulation rate

Some containers have a high air circulation rate for chilled goods and a lower rate for
frozen goods. If a speed change switch is fitted, low-speed operation for chilled
goods may be possible, but as this inevitably results in a wider range of cargo
temperature, it is not recommended.

•  relative humidity

When equipment with humidity control is used, a range must be specified. It is

difficult to measure humidity regularly to better than the nearest 2 to 3%, so an
acceptable range of at least ±5% should be specified, albeit with a tighter target.
Special equipment is available to maintain either high (90%) or low (50%) humidity.
Without such equipment, relative humidity is not controllable and should not be
specified.

•  defrosting intervals

The time interval between each consecutive defrost should be specified. Chilled
cargoes generally need more frequent defrosting (6 to 8 hour interval) due to
respiration and liberation of moisture, and frozen cargoes need less frequent
defrosting (24 hour interval). When set as a parameter, the equipment automatically
defrosts at the specified intervals.

•  measurement and reporting requirements

It is normal to record air temperature in refrigerated containers and some equipment
also records delivery air temperature. Any specific shipper requirement for reporting
temperatures should be stated. When the refrigeration unit is not running, the
recorded temperatures do not reflect cargo temperatures. Shippers may choose to put
their own recording equipment within the cargo, in which case they should inform
both carriers and receivers.

•  special conditions for cold weather

Sometimes, special requirements exist for exceptionally cold conditions. However,

most transport refrigeration equipment will control temperature, using either cooling
or heating as necessary, to maintain specified conditions.

•  need to pass instructions to subsequent carrier

If there is uncertainty at the start of a voyage as to who will be the final carrier, it
may be necessary to request the initial carrier to pass on carriage instructions.

•  need to notify and whom to notify if limits are exceeded

Procedures for notification of out of specification conditions should be established

prior to acceptance of cargo for shipment. This could apply to warm loading or
equipment failures, for example. Standard procedures and safe limits should be
available. The party to be contacted if parameters go beyond the limits should be
clearly mentioned, with a second and third back-up for support.
Precautions to be taken while handling heavy lift Cargoes:
1. Inform Master, Chief Engineer and Chief Officer.

2. All gear involved should be carefully examined and lubricated before use.

3. All wires and blocks to be checked for any defects; sheaves to be examined for
free rotation.

4. All gear selected should be of adequate SWL

5. Allowance should be made for the weight lifted plus purchase weights of Strops,
wire slings, eye bolts to be examined, they are of adequate strength

6. While slinging, sharp edges on load to be protected by packing or wood

7. Avoid shocks due to load slipping or sudden starts

8. Winch-man should be experienced, co-ordinate well & spate smoothly

9. Maintain adequate GM(Stability)

9. FSE effect to be minimised

10. Vessel to be upright and moorings to be taut & clear of the jetty

11. Preventer stays may have to be rigged onto the mast

12. Winches must be put in double gear

13. Steadying lines must be secured if possible to the corners of the load

14. Barges that are not in immediate use must be cast off.

15. Remove guard rails if possible.

Cargo stowage plan – is a charted plan of the vessel's cargo-

carrying spaces which illustrates the

– type,

– tonnage and
 – description of goods
for designated discharge in the various intended ports of call for the voyage.

The function of the 'stowage plan' is to identify the various

cargo parcels by

– quantity,

– destination and

– nature of goods.
• The correct stowage of the cargo will help to ensure that it reaches its
destination undamaged. It shows the location of special cargoes like 'heavy
lifts' or 'hazardous goods', valuables and the lock-up stow goods.

• Copies of the plan is despatched to the various ports of discharge prior to the
ship's arrival on the berth. It allows relevant cranes to be ordered and stevedore
gangs to be employed in advance which subsequently speeds up the time of the
vessel lying in port.

• It is essential for dry cargo vessels, tankers, bulk carriers and container vessels
to all carry stowage plans respective to their relevant cargoes.

When preparing cargo loading plans:

• There is a common failure to fully understanding the strength limits of tank
tops, tween decks, hatch covers and even weather-decks and that the
knowledge of many ship masters in this matter is often superficial.

• The strength limits which are to be applied to tank tops are calculated and
approved by the classification societies. The maximum limits are expressed in
tonnes per square metre and are included in the ship's technical manuals and
capacity plans. To calculate the number of tonnes which can be loaded on the
tank top without exceeding the limit, the area of the tank top in square metres
is simply multiplied by the permissible number of tonnes per square metre. To
 ensure that the limits are not exceeded the cargo must be spread evenly over
the area of the tank top. The volume of the space above the lower hopper tanks
should also then be calculated and the figure obtained included in the total
quantity to be loaded.

• A typical calculation might be as follows:

Maximum tonnage to be loaded.

• (L)ength x (B)readth x PL (permissible load) = 27 x21 x 12 tonnes/m2 = 6,804

tonnes (Where L & B represent the dimensions of the tanktop excluding the

hopper tanks)

Maximum volume to load:

• 6,804 tonnes @ 3 tonnes/cubic metre = 2,268 cubic metres

Height of stow:
2,268/ L x B = 2,268/ 27 x 21 = 4.0 metres

Features of a cargo plan

1. The location of each main item of cargo, with a brief description.

2. The weight and units of each stow

3. The load port and discharge port of each stow. It helps to show different
discharge ports in different colours. Some companies, groups or trades have
fixed colours for ports for uniformity, and these should be followed to avoid
confusion.

4. The marks of the major units.

5. Bill of Lading numbers if appropriate.

6. Location of the key unit of the stow.

7. Flow-lines for mechanical handling equipment

8. Details of type and position of all separations.

9. Extend of any pre-slingings.

10.Remarks on stowage which may aid the discharging stevedore.

11.All overstows must be clearly marked, both to aid discharge of the correct
items, and to enable plans to be made for shifting the overstowing cargo. This
is especially important when the overstowing cargo need to be landed, stored
ashore, then reloaded, as this can cause problems with the port authorities or
customs, particularly if the goods are consigned to a different country.

• Above all, the plan must be easy to read, and capable of being readily
understood with no risk of misinterpretation.
 • Stowage plans provide the following relevant details in
addition to the pictorial cargo distribution plan:

• Cargo distribution summary (tonnes)

Colou
Port of No.1 No.2 No.3 No.4 On Port
r
discharge Hold Hold Hold Hold deck total
code

1st

2nd

3rd
4th

5th

6th

Total

Lashing equipment welded to the ship’s deck, such as raised deck sockets, dovetail sockets, flush sockets,
elephant foot sockets, lashing plates or D – rings, and other. Used with different types of twistlocks as
counterparts to secure containers, vehicles and other cargo.


RAISED DECK SOCKET


FLUSH SOCKET WITH ISO HOLE

FLUSH SOCKET WITH ISO HOLE AND EL. FOOT


DOVETAIL SOCKETS


LASHING PLATES


 D-RINGS FOR DECK

Preventive measures against reefer cargo damage

There are a few special precautions to be taken and processes to be followed in order
to avoid reefer cargo damage..

1. Ensure that the reefer container you receive has a valid Pre-Trip Inspection (PTI)
certificate.. PTI is an inspection conducted on an empty reefer container BEFORE
RELEASE, to ensure the correct functioning of the cooling unit, temperature control,
and recording devices..

2. PTI also includes checking the container for structural damage and ensuring that
the inside of the container is clean and ready in all respects to receive cargo..

3. Pre-Cool is NOT an alternative to PTI.. Pre-cooling relates to the cargo and not to
the container whereas PTI is related to the container..
4. Pre-Cool is a process whereby the products, are pre-cooled to the required set
temperature for carriage before being packed into the container.. This will happen at
the cold-storage facility.. The longer the cargo is pre-cooled, the better it is with
regard to the shelf life of the cargo..

5. Reefer containers and trailers should never be left running while cargo is being
loaded.. This is to avoid possible icing and transfer of unwanted hot or cold ambient
air and exhaust fumes into the cargo space..

6. Loading reefer containers in a hot humid and open environment should be avoided
and refrigerated loading docks with cold tunnels should be considered..

7. Temperature Management is the key for the shipment of all types of reefer cargoes
and to ensure that the temperature is managed and maintained, a few issues must be
taken care of..

a. The reefer container must be set to the correct temperature and humidity settings..

b. Special attention must be given to details such as – and + so that a cargo is not set
at -5˚C instead of +5˚C..

8. Correct stowage of cargo is extremely important in the carriage of containerized

reefer cargo..

9. Some general tips on stowage of reefer cargo:

• Cargo should not be stuffed beyond the end of the T-floor

• Cargo should not be stuffed above the red load line

• Cargo must be stable on the floor and tightly wedged so it doesn’t shift during
passage

• Unit must always be set at the proper carrying temperature and this set temperature
will vary according to the cargo being loaded

• Dehumidification controls must be checked

• If pre-cooling is required, it must be the cargo that is pre-cooled and not the
container, unless the container is loaded in an air-locked cold tunnel in the cold
storage

• Ventilation setting is of utmost importance and must be set at the correct level

• As air will follow the path of least resistance, there should not be any restrictions on
air flow and any gaps between the pallets and the doors must be closed using
cardboard or even wood. This will then force the air to circulate correctly and reduce
the potential for heatsinks (warm air continuously circulating) near the doors

10. Below image shows the cargo stowage principles that need to be

followed when packing a reefer container.

1. Refrigeration unit

2. Boxes do not extend beyond pallet

3. Deck board spacing allows

vertical airflow

4. Boxes vented for vertical

airflow

5. Pallet load is secured

6. Rear doors

7. Airspace above cargo

8. Airflow

9. Box vents aligned

11. The ideal stowage pattern should permit free movement of delivery air whilst
restraining any movement of the cargo.. For example

a. in the case of chilled cargo, air must flow through the cargo always so that heat
and gases are removed, therefore the cartons used should have ventilation..
b. in the case of frozen cargo, air must flow around the cargo so there should be no
gaps between the cargo and the walls and the cargo itself, so the cargo must be block
stowed.

12. The pulp temperatures of chilled fruit/vegetable cargoes and the core
temperatures of frozen cargo must always be measured where possible before a reefer
unit is stuffed..

13. Fruit and vegetables should also be checked for pre-cooling damage, mold, wilt,
dehydration, shrivel, discoloration, soft spots, skin break and slip, bruising, chill
damage and odour.

14. Frozen cargoes should be checked for dehydration, desiccation, fluid migration,
odours, black spot, color and flavor changes, and should also be examined for signs
of any upward temperature deviation and subsequent re-freezing..

15. Cartons, trays and other packaging should be scrutinized in respect of their
suitability to protect the cargo during a long sea transit..

Ro-ro Ship
Abbreviation for a vessel designed to carry vehicles, so arranged that the
vehicles may be loaded and unloaded by being rolled on or off on their
own and/or auxiliary wheels, via ramps fitted in the sides, bow or stern of
the vessel. A ro-ro vessel has one or more decks either closed or open,
not normally subdivided and generally running along the entire length of
the ship. In this type of vessel, damage stability becomes critical when
large portions of the vessel, such as garages and holds are flooded.
Roll-on/roll-off system was first introduced in 1950s and the first modern
oceangoing roro vessel was the twin-screw USNS COMET built in 1958 to
carry military vehicles. Ro-ro vessels transport wheel-based cargo or cargo
that is loaded with wheel-based equipment, and available cargo space is
expressed in lane meters. Typical cargo are vehicles, roll trailers and
cassettes with forest products or with single or double stacked containers

Cargo is literally rolled on board ro-ro ships. Sometimes roll trailers and
cassettes loaded with cargo are stowed by forklift directly on the ro-ro
deck. This is called Sto-Ro handling (Stowable Ro-Ro).

As the efficient cargo handling is most important for ro-ro vessels, these
ships have large unrestricted cargo decks without transverse bulkheads.
Usually ,the ro-ro cargo is loaded and unloaded over the stern ramp,
sometimes as wide as the entire cargo space. Internal ramps or elevators
are used to reach the upper and lower cargo decks. For really fast cargo
handling, two level ramps can be used. Special ramps on the quay are
required to facilitate this.

Many ro-ro vessels operate on short trades with frequent port calls. Most
of them are equipped with both thrusters and some have also stern
thrusters. Usually, they are fitted with high lift rudders in order to ensure
good manoeuvring characteristics also at low speeds.
 PRE-LOADING CHECKS
• Ensure that the ramps, Lifts and doors are in good condition and operating
satisfactorily.

• Ensure that the working area is provided with adequate illumination.

• All vehicle decks are clear of rubbish, dirt, oil, grease and stores, etc.

• Dangerous goods are to be stowed as per IMDG code recommendations.

• Ensure all securing and lashing gears are checked, prepared and in position.

• Ensure Ventilation and Exhaust system are working satisfactorily.

DURING LOADING CHECKS

• No smoking should be permitted on any vehicle decks.

• Check the vehicle itself and ensure that the load is properly stowed and
secured for all seagoing conditions.

• All vehicle decks movements are to be strictly monitored with proper hand
signalling. Reversing and any negligent movement should be avoided.

• As soon as the vehicle is in position, brakes should be on and engines switched

off.

• Drivers and passengers are to be cleared from vehicle decks as soon as

possible.

• All dangerous goods are to be segregated and stowed as per the stowage plan.

• There should be no obstructions in way of Water spray curtains, Controls for

Bow and Stern doors, accesses and ladders, Fire fighting Equipment and
Safety Appliances.

• Ensure wooden dunnage been provided for tracked vehicle such as bulldozer
etc. to prevent sliding due to metal to metal contact.
• Sufficient room between vehicles for walkway access.

CHECKS PRIOR SAILING

• Ensure that the Cargo is secured with :

a) Correct equipment b) No free play in vehicle suspension c) Lashings are

correctly located on vehicle. d) Lashings are under equal tension per item e)
Vehicles on inclined decks are properly chocked.

• All ship cargo handling gear such as forklifts are correctly stowed and secured.

• Ensure the Bow/Stern doors are secured correctly.

• Ensure the Fire/Smoke detection system is operational in the vehicle deck.

• Ensure the fire patrols are detailed.

• Ensure the CCTV is being monitored.

Do’s and Don’ts for steel cargo loading checklist
Steel is a high-value cargo, which can be easily damaged by rough
handling, water and moisture.
When carrying steel products by sea, it is essential to ensure that
neither the steel nor the ship suffers damage. Its weight presents
substantial challenges with stowage and securing. The ship must
be fit to receive the cargo and the cargo must be safely stowed
and secured.
Incorrect stowage can lead to hull and cargo damage.

Cargo damage can occur for a number of different reasons in

transit or before loading. The Standard Club arranges preloading
surveys to check the condition of finished steel before loading to
ensure that bills of lading are correctly endorsed with full details
of any such damage. This guide therefore focuses on correctly
loading, stowing, caring for and securing steel cargoes. Its advice,
if followed, will assist in the avoidance and prevention of steel
cargo damage claims.

The useful Do's and Don'ts for the loading checklist of steel cargo:
DO
 Pre-plan steel stowage. Make sure steel is stowed on solid floors and, when
applicable, key coils are positioned correctly. Coil widths and/or cargo
dimensions may not always permit ‘textbook’ stowage.
 Mark the location of solid floors in the cargo space to enable easy reference
during loading.
 Make sure cargo spaces are squared off by construction of a stout buttress or
support. Use new timber and remember that No. 1 hold is most likely to be the
hold where damage might occur.
 Wash holds with fresh water before loading, remove all debris and hard
objects, fully dry the holds.
 When arranging stowage of steel coils, make sure the maximum tank top
point load is never exceeded.
 Arrange for key coils to be placed in such a manner that the coil’s bottom edge
is one-third of its diameter below the top edge of the coil being locked. Stagger
the position of key coils to avoid overloading the tank top.
 Make sure sufficient dry dunnage, of the correct type and thickness, is used.
 Use dunnage of uniform thickness, two inch thick for coils. Remember,
certain countries have import regulations that apply to ship’s dunnage. Check
the regulations before taking dunnage and use only approved dunnage,
especially if discharging in North American ports.
 Record all pre-shipment damage on mate’s receipts or bills of lading by
carefully describing the damage found and clearly identifying the damaged
article.
 Load steel dry, especially if steel is packaged (wrapped).
 If required to load wet steel, endorse the bills ‘wet before shipment’.
 Ensure hatch covers are weathertight before loading.
 Segregate, and load in a different hold, steel that must be kept dry, from steel
that can be loaded wet or products that contain moisture.
 Work with the surveyor to examine steel for preloading damage.
 Double-check any cargo found damaged. Make an effort to understand what
the surveyor is looking for.
 Whenever surveyors visit to examine cargo, check their credentials to verify
who they are acting for, before allowing access to the ship or cargo.
 Minimise the amount of cargo stowed with metal-to-metal contact. If this
type of stowage is unavoidable, make sure the cargo is not wet. Wetness
reduces frictional resistance and increases the danger of cargo shifting during
 ship rolling. Special care is needed when loading during periods of rain
showers.
 Try to avoid loading damaged cargo but accept that this may not be possible,
in which case, stow this separately on top and endorse details of the damage on
the bills of lading. Bent and buckled steel can be shipped for reprocessing, but
the bills should not record the cargo as ‘steel products’.
 Report to the P&I correspondent or ship’s owners when problems are found
with cargo or cargo stowage.
 Take daily dew point readings of hold and outside air, ventilate or
dehumidify when necessary. Keep detailed records of these measurements.
 Remember the voyage ventilation mantra, cold to hot, ventilate not. Hot to
cold, ventilate bold.
 Calculate the ship’s GM and, if possible, take measures to reduce high values.
 Weather-route to avoid swell conditions that cause heavy rolling and
wavelengths equal to half the ship’s length, which can initiate parametric
rolling in slender ships during pitching in head seas.
 Remember that cargo has to be properly chocked and secured, and that only
steel coils and semifinished steel slabs stowed in California block stowage are
lashed to themselves. All other steel is lashed to the ship.
 Point out any ship or cargo hazards or limitations to the stevedores.

DON'T

 Rely on stevedores to determine cargo stowage. They may opt for the easiest
stowage rather than the best. • Use the maximum allowable tank top loading
weight to determine the number of steel coils that can be safely loaded. Steel
coils produce a point load. The maximum allowable tank top loading weight
assumes a homogenous weight distribution.
 Be surprised if the textbook size and type of dunnage is not delivered to the
ship. The dunnage supplied may be the best available, in which case, greater
application of dunnage may be required.
 Use wet or ‘green’ timber for dunnage.
 Sign, or allow the ship’s agents to sign, clean bills of lading or mate’s receipts
for damaged cargo.
 Allow coils to be loaded in a pyramid pattern.
 Load steel before evaluating the strength of the tank top against the proposed
weight distribution.
  Ventilate when the relative humidity of ambient (outside) air is greater than
that of the hold air or when the ambient air’s dew point is greater than the
temperature of the cargo. These conditions exist when cargo is cold, because it
was loaded in winter (cold) conditions for discharge in, or passing through,
summer (warm) conditions.
 Ventilate if unsure that ventilation conditions are correct.
 Stow steel products in the same compartment as cargo with different
ventilation requirements.
 Load steel in holds that have previously carried oxidising agents or acidic
compounds, until the holds have been thoroughly washed with fresh water and
dried.
 Think that space remaining in the hold after loading steel needs to be filled
with other cargo; it does not. When loading a full cargo of steel, the tank top
maximum loading will be reached before the hold is full and often before the
ship reaches her marks.

Dangerous goods –

All substances of an inflammable nature which are liable to

spontaneous
combustion either in themselves or when stowed next to other
substances and, when mixed with air, are liable to generate
explosive gases or produce suffocation or poisoning or tainting of
foodstuffs.

The International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code lists

over 3000 hazardous substances. Goods can be categorized as
dangerous for any of the following reasons:

 Because they require special care and handling in transit.

 Because their properties are harmful to human life.
 Because they possess qualities or create risks that could
expose the carrier to liabilities
or losses neither acknowledged nor agreed in the contract of
carriage.
 Because they could cause damage to the ship holds or
machinery.
 Because their properties require excessive expenditure by
the carrier to guarantee
safe transport.
 Because, if they escape from the ship, they are likely to
cause environmental damage.
The environmental aspect is the most frequently quoted
when cargoes are classified as hazardous or noxious.
Dangerous goods classes –

Classes of dangerous goods according to SOLAS (Chapter VII, Part

A), the BC-Code and the IMDG-Code, are as follows:
CLASS 1 – Explosives

Division 1.1 Substances and articles which have a mass explosion

hazard.

Division 1.2 Substances and articles which have a projection

hazard but not a mass explosion hazard.

Division 1.3 Substances and articles which have a fire hazard and
either a minor blast hazard or a minor projection hazard or both,
but not a mass explosion hazard.

Division 1.4 Substances and articles which present no significant

hazard.
Subdivision 1.4S contains substances and articles so packaged,
or designed, that any hazardous effects arising from accidental
functioning are confined within the package unless the package
has been degraded by fire, in which case all blast or projection
effects are limited to the extent that they do not significantly
hinder fire-fighting or other emergency response efforts in the
immediate vicinity of the package.

Division 1.5 Very insensitive substances which have a mass

explosion hazard.

Division 1.6 Extremely insensitive articles which do not have a

mass explosion hazard.

CLASS 2 – Gases, compressed, liquefied or dissolved

under pressure

Class 2.1 Flammable gases

Class 2.2 Non-flammable, non-toxic gases

Class 2.3 Toxic (poisonous) gases

CLASS 3 – Flammable liquids

Flammable liquids are grouped for packing purposes according to

their flashpoint, their boiling point, and their viscosity.

CLASS 4 – Flammable solids; substances liable to

spontaneous combustion; substances which, in
contact with water, emit flammable gases

Class 4.1 Solids having the properties of being easily ignited by

external sources,such as spark and flames, and of being readily
combustible, or of being liable to cause or contribute to a fire or
cause one through friction.

Class 4.2 Solids or liquids possessing the common property of

being liable
spontaneously to heat and to ignite.

Class 4.3 Substances which, in contact with water, emit

flammable gases.

CLASS 5 – Oxidising substances (agents) and organic

peroxides

Class 5.1 Substances which, although themselves are not

necessarily combustible, but may, either by yielding oxygen or by
similar processes, increase the risk and intensity of fire in other
materials which they come into contact with.
Class 5.2 Organic peroxides

CLASS 6 – Toxic and infectious substances

Class 6.1 Toxic substances liable either to cause death or serious

injury or to harm health if swallowed or inhaled, or by skin
contact.

Class 6.2 Infectious substances.

CLASS 7 – Radioactive materials

CLASS 8 – Corrosive substances

Substances, which, by chemical action, will cause severe

damage, when in
contact with living tissue or, in case of leakage, will materially
damage, or
even destroy, other goods or the means of transport. Many
substances are
sufficiently volatile to emit vapour irritating to the nose and eyes.

CLASS 9 – Miscellaneous dangerous substances and

articles

Example of dangerous goods intended to be carried onboard

some vessel:-

P – Packaged goods permitted

C – Packaged goods in closed freight containers only permitted
A – Packaged and solid bulk goods permitted
B – solid bulk goods permitted
X – NOT PERMITTED

Hol Hol Hol

d d d
IMO No No No
Class Description 1 2 3

Class 1 Explosives X X C

Division
1.1 Having a mass explosion hazard X X C

Division
1.2 Having a projection hazard X X C

Division Having a fire hazard, a minor blast hazard or

1.3 projection hazard X X C

Division
1.4 Present no significant hazard X X C

Division
1.4S X X C

Division Very insensitive substances which have a mass

1.5 explosion hazard X X C

Division Extremely insensitive articles which do not have a

1.6 mass explosion hazard X X C

Class 2 Gases

Class 2.1 Flammable gases X X C

Class 2.2 Non-Flammable Gases X X C

Class 2.3 Poisonous Gases X X C

Class 3 Flammable Liquids

Packing I Liquid having flashpoint below 18°C X X C

Packing II Liquid having flashpoint 18°C upto 23°C X X C

Packing III Liquid having flashpoint above 23°C upto 61°C X X C

Class 4

Class 4.1 Flammable Solids A A C

Class 4.2 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion A A C

Substance which in contact with water emit

Class 4.3 flammable gases A A C

Class 5.1 Qxidizing substances A A C

Class 5.2 Organic Peroxides X X C

Class 6.1 Poisonous (toxic) substances

6.1 Liquids P P C

6.1 Liquids having flashpoint up to 23°C P P C

6.1 Liquids having flashpoint above 23°C up to

61°C P P C

6.1 Solids A A C

Class 6.2 Infectious Substances X X C

Class 7 Radioactive Materials X X X

Class 8 Corrosives

8 Liquids P P C

8 Liquids having flashpoint up to 23°C P P C

8 Liquids having flashpoint above 23°C up to 61°C P P C

8 Solids A A C

Class 9 Miscellaneous Dangerous Substances A A C

Dangerous Containers
Segregation and care of containers carrying dangerous goods

Handling dangerous cargo requires special care due to the inherent hazardous nature
of the cargo and applicable carriage regulations. The general provisions for
segregation between the various classes of dangerous goods are shown in
"Segregation table". In addition to the general provisions, there may be a need to
segregate a particular substance, material or article from other goods which could
contribute to its hazard.

1) Every dangerous cargo shipment shall be made in line with IMO policy and be
accompanied by required documentation. DG cargo with restricted/prohibited UN
numbers shall not be accepted for shipment unless under special circumstance
express permission is obtained from the company.

2) All DG containers must be checked for proper label/placard as required by the

IMDG code. A stock of spare labels/placards must be kept on board.

3) DG containers must be checked for condition prior loading and leaking or

damaged containers posing a hazard, shall be rejected.

4) It must be ensured that all DG containers are loaded in the planned stow position.
Any discrepancies shall be brought to the notice of the Terminal planner / Central
planner and / or local agent as required.

The final condition may be accepted only if meeting all stowage and segregation
requirements; else it must be corrected by discharging / shifting concerned
container(s).

5) The requisite day/night signals for vessels carrying / loading / discharging

dangerous cargo shall be displayed.

6) When handling/carrying dangerous cargo on board smoking shall strictly not be

allowed other than in designated smoking areas. Signs/placards shall be appropriately
displayed at gangway and on deck.
7) Location and properties of dangerous cargo shall be considered when carrying out
any special work on board such as hot work etc.

Obtain container packing certificate

Certificate indicating correct loading of a dangerous goods container and the

observance of the regulations set out in the IMDG Code (International Maritime
Dangerous Goods Code). The container packing certificate is issued by the person
responsible for packing the container.

8) Other precautions shall be taken when handling dangerous cargo shipments as

warranted by good seamanship, SOLAS, MARPOL, IMDG code, local and national
regulations.

9) Further guidance for handling D.G cargo is contained in IMDG Code vol 1, 2 &
supplement.

CARE OF CONTAINERS CARRYING DANGEROUS GOODS

------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Cargo containers carrying dangerous goods must be checked at regular
intervals of time, especially in bad weather. Dangerous goods containers must
be frequently checked for leakages or damages while the ship is sailing.

 Adverse weather condition might result into damage of cargo because of

leakages from water and oil systems. Such kind of damage to container ships is
known as wet damage. Water from rains might also get accumulated inside the
cargo hold and damage the cargo in lower tier containers in the cargo hold.

 Regular sounding of cargo hold bilges is of utmost importance for early

detection of problems related to water or oil ingress in cargo holds.
 Bilges must be checked once a day in normal weather condition and at regular
intervals of time in rough weather. When the ship is at port, cargo hold bilges
must be drained into holding tanks.
 Regular rounds of the cargo deck compartment must be made to check the
condition of lashing and cargo containers.
11 Steps to Enhance Safety of Bulk Carrier Ships
Since the inception of merchant ships, bulk carriers have been used extensively for
transporting cargo across oceans. A wide range of commodities is carried in bulk that
includes coal, grain, ore, cement, sulphur, bauxite, aluminium, steel coils, rice, sugar
etc. Prior to the Second World War, most of these commodities were carried by
general cargo ships but as time progressed, bulk carriers came into being.

The common bulk carrier consists of a double bottom, hopper sides and deck wing
tanks used to carry ballast or cargo. Loading arrangements in bulk carriers cause high
shear forces at the end of the holds and that requires additional strengthening of the
side shell in way of the bulkheads. Hatches with large capacities are provided to
facilitate rapid loading and unloading of bulk cargo; this is in place owing to the
many voyages undertaken by a bulk carrier.

With the passage of time, bulk carriers have been improvised to enhance both the
cargo carrying capacity and safety of the cargo and crew.

Related Reading:

9 Common Hazards Of Dry Bulk Cargo

However, several maritime accidents in the past have involved bulk carrier ships
mainly because of the failure of ship’s structure which resulted from deterioration of
ship’s hull, corrosion, fatigue, effects of cargo, water ingress etc. Throughout the late
1990s, the issue of safety of bulk carriers received consideration from IMO and other
regulatory bodies. The up-gradation of the integrity of bulk carriers had more focus
put on the structural hull details, stress experienced due to cargo operations,
structural and protective coatings, cargoes, maintenance and inspection of the ship
structure.
Bulk Carrier Sizes

 Capesize: These are ships too large to transit the Panama Canal. The
deadweight (DWT) ranges between 80000-170000 tonnes

 Panamax: Typically between 550000-70000 tonnes

 Handysize/Handymax: This contributes to the majority of the bulk carrier fleet

and ships in this category range between 10000 to 40000 tonnes DWT

In order to safeguard from these factors, bulk carrier ships are now added to the
enhanced survey program (ESP) along with oil tanker ships. In this article, we
mention some important points that help in improving the overall safety of the ship.

Reinforcing the corrugated transverse bulkhead

Corrugated bulkheads can be seen as a transverse arrangement on the inside of the

cargo holds. The concave shape is achieved by the use of plate rolls or heat line
bending. The corrugated has a higher strength than a flat plate when subjected to
bending moments during cargo operations or even at sea. The corrugations are
present to negate the need for vertical stiffeners as with other structures; removal of
these stiffeners also reduce costs as well as the overall weight. Reinforcing the
corrugated transverse bulkhead installed between No.1 and No.2 cargo holds and the
double bottom of No. 1 hold. This ensures watertight integrity to be maintained at all
time even when side hold or bottom is damaged.

Water Ingress Alarm

The water ingress alarm is in place seeing as the ingress of water may taint or corrupt
the cargo/commodity being carried on a bulk carrier. For example, rice or sugar when
in contact with water causes tainting of the cargo rendering it unusable and therefore
liable for rejection. Checking and maintaining an active water ingress alarm in the
cargo hold as per SOLAS requirement at all times. For example, SOLAS states that
“In each cargo hold, giving audible and visual alarms, one when the water level
above the inner bottom in any hold reaches a height of 0.5m and another at a height
not less than 15% of the depth of the cargo hold but not more than 2.0 m”. Also,
check and maintain water ingress alarm in the area located at the forward of the cargo
area. It is advisable for the reader to go through the SOLAS Chapter XII Regulation
12 for a better understanding of this alarm system.

Hull Survey

A complete hull survey of bulk carriers as per IACS condition to maintain the
strength of the ship’s hull. This is done as per the ESP and ensures that the IACS
standards are complied with.

Avoiding Deck Wetness

Being exposed to the sea at all times, it impossible to have a dry deck at any given
second! However, what can be done is that the deck can be kept dry to an extent that
is practically possible. Protection from the weather in general and the spray is
essential to the carriage of cargo on a bulk carrier. Increasing the Integrity of fore-
deck fittings on bulk carriers to avoid the problem of deck wetness i.e. flowing water
on ship’s deck due to rough weather, also known as green water loading

Fitting Bulwark

Bulwark is the extension of a ship’s sides above the level of the deck. Not only does
it fulfil the purpose of strengthening but it also prevents the outflow of water or, God
forbid, oil! The planking along the sides of a ship, above the upper deck and below
the gunwale, also protect the crew from falling overboard. Fitting of suitable bulwark
in the fore part of the ship as per the requirement to avoid green water condition

Reinforcing Hatch Cover

Hatch covers are the primary arrangement for protecting the cargo being carried
onboard; also, to maintain the watertight integrity as well as to protect the cargo from
the sea, sun and the weather in general. During cargo operations in port (or at
anchor), hatch covers are opened and closed often which means that they should be
in optimum working condition. The most common type of hatch cover is the
McGregor hatch. Reinforce the hatch cover which is located at the forward of the
ship within 0.25L, where L is length of the ship.
Maintain Water Tightness

Maintaining water tightness of all the hatch covers to avoid water ingress. This can
be done by the use of Ramneck hatch cover tapes that are additionally increased in
the adhesive property by the use of a butane torch. A fire hose may be used on high
pressure to subject the hinges to a water jet at full force that can be used to determine
the watertight integrity of the hatch.

Double Skin Side Shell Frame

Side shell frame to be double skin ensuring extra safety in case of structural damage.
In layman terms, if one layer is compromised or breached, there is another layer to
ensure that the hull is not entirely breached which might result in a lot of damage to
the ship and its contents

Cargo Hatch Cover Alarm

Installation of an alarm system for opening and closing of hatch cover for additional
safety. When there is sudden downpour in port it is essential to close the hatch
swiftly to ensure that the cargo does not get tainted due to the water. The presence of
an alarm system is essential for the safety of crew as well as the cargo

Anti Corrosion Paint

A good anti corrosive coating on the ship’s structure to avoid damage due to
corrosion. The ship is subjected to great stresses from the sea which might result in
causing the structure to reduce in strength. Not just the hull, but the entire vessel is
vulnerable to constant forces of nature (as well as internal stresses due to the cargo)
which renders the anti corrosive paint essential to the structural integrity of the
vessel. It is important to remember that whichever part is being painted must be de-
rusted and cleaned prior to such application. Painting on top of rust is only going to
add to the misery later on!

Free Fall Lifeboat

A free fall lifeboat is now a requirement in all bulk carrier ships. All crew must know
the emergency evacuation procedure from free fall lifeboat. Aside from the launching
and evacuation procedure, the system holding the lifeboat in places such as the davit,
gripes and other such moving parts must be maintained regularly so that they do not
get jammed when they need in case of an emergency.

There is ample work on the ship on any given day and it is not possible to adhere to
everything all the time. However, a planned schedule for the upkeep of all the above-
mentioned aspects can ensure that bulk carriers operate smoothly and economically,
reducing any chance of damage to the safety of the ship or life at sea.
Deterioration of bulk carriers hull and consequences of hull damage /forward
flooding

Hull damage : Deterioration of ships hull / structure through corrosion, fatigue and
damage is identified as a principal factor in the loss of many ships carrying cargo in
bulk . Failing to identify such deterioration may lead to sudden and unexpected
accident. Bulk carrier crews may be unaware of the vulnerability of these vessel
types. The consequential loss of a ship carrying heavy cargo can be expected to be
very rapid, should a major failure occur.

Progressive flooding in the forward region

Spaces forward of the collision bulkhead will, in the event of flooding, significantly
affect the trim of the ship and reduce freeboard at the bow. In rough weather
condition this further threatens the ship as open seas come inboard and impact on
hatch covers and other fittings that protect the water or weathertight integrity of the
ship. Hull plating in the region of the bow protects the fore peak tank and other
spaces as do air pipes and ventilators. If any of them are damaged the ship's ability to
resist further escalation of flooding is compromised.
Fig: Structural failure and flooding of bulk carrier

Early warning

Bilge well high water level alarms in all cargo holds , or in conveyor tunnels, as
appropriate , giving an audible and visual alarm on the navigation bridge and cargo
control room can give warning of ingrss of sea water and should be dealt with
promptly.When it occurs or is likely to occur, masters should quickly assess damage
to their ships by being alert to water ingress and its consequences.
The following guidelines are given to assist them in this assessment.

Measuring cargo temperature

Temperature of cargoes like coal and grains should be regularly checked in order to
detect signs of heating. Temperature should be obtained by lowering a thermometer
into the sounding pipes on the port and starboard sides at the after end of each hold.

An additional temperature pipe should be sited beside the hold ladder at the fore end
of the hold. A thermometer for each position should be placed at a designated place
and withdrawn immediately when readings are required.
The most accurate and reliable readings can be obtained by making sure that the
thermometers are lowered to a level, which is well below the surface of the cargo,
and that they are left in position for several minutes.
Where possible there should be a thermometer for each position and thermometers
should be left in place permanently and withdrawn rapidly when readings are
required. Mercury thermometers are considered to be less satisfactory for taking
cargo temperatures unless fitted with a maximum temperature indicator and reset
before the taking of each reading, and one authority recommends the use of suitably
calibrated pyrometers.

When carrying coal it is necessary to test the air in the holds for hazardous gases. If
the cargo was fumigated before departure from the loading port and if fumigation is
continued in transit, regular checks should be made for leakage of the fumigant for so
long as it remains active.

Bulk carrier losses in the early 1990s were dramatic: ships sank rapidly, often with
the loss of all lives. Many were old and had suffered structural damage. A study by
IACS (International Association of Classification Societies) found that after flooding
in the foremost hold, the bulkhead between this hold and the adjacent hold can
collapse from the pressure of cargo and water, leading to progressive flooding and
sinking.

Indication of unusual motion or attitude of bulk carriers and risk management /

evacuation
If a ship takes on an unusual trim or heel, or if her motions become changed, breach
of the hull envelope should be suspected immediately: i) Unusual collections of water
on decks may be indicating trim or heel abnormality. ii) Sudden changes of heel or
trim will indicate flooding or in smaller ships with lighter cargoes it may indicate
cargo shift.

Areas of bulk carrier likely to fracture

Handling water ingress problems in bulk carrier, investigation and countermeasures

Based on experience of accidents with lesser consequences it was concluded that the
casualties occurred through local structural failure leading to loss of watertight
integrity of the side shell followed by progressive flooding through damaged
bulkheads. Any prudent Master may wish to investigate any suspected water ingress
more closely but preparations for evacuating the ship should be made instantly and
concurrent with any investigation.

Survival and safety procedure for bulk carriers

Particular emphasis has been placed on being ready for early evacuation or
abandonment of the vessel. For ships carrying high-density cargoes this is of
importance while they are at sea. There may however be cases where abandonment
may be the worst option and for bulk carriers as with other ship types this is most
probably true in the event of grounding.

Damage investigation and countermeasures for bulk carriers

Damage to side shell, externally through contact with docksides or tugs and,
internally from impact by cargo dislodging equipment during discharge, can result in
initiating fractures and/or fatigue of the structure. In single side-skin bulk carriers,
bulkheads, trunks and ballast tank boundaries, can present "hard spots" that
concentrate forces where the change in construction occurs (e.g. longitudinal to
transverse framing). This may lead to undetected fractures.

Structural standards & strengthening of bulk carriers

Deterioration of ships hull / structure through corrosion, fatigue and damage is
identified as a principal factor in the loss of many ships carrying cargo in bulk .
Failing to identify such deterioration may lead to sudden and unexpected accident.
Bulk carrier crews may be unaware of the vulnerability of these vessel types. The
consequential loss of a ship carrying heavy cargo can be expected to be very rapid,
should a major failure occur.

Monitoring hull stresses during rough sea conditions

The stresses upon the structure of bulk carriers are at their extreme limit in heavy
seas; this is the time when most bulk carrier losses have been recorded. The IMO,
therefore, recommended fitting hull stress monitoring systems on bulk carriers over
20,000 tonnes to minimise the dangers associated with longitudinal stresses due to
vessels bending and pitching in a seaway and possibly triggering fatigue failure and
above.
Handling water ingress problems in bulk carrier, investigation and
countermeasures

Bulk carrier potential failure

Based on experience of accidents with lesser consequences it was concluded that the
casualties occurred through local structural failure leading to loss of watertight
integrity of the side shell followed by progressive flooding through damaged
bulkheads. Any prudent Master may wish to investigate any suspected water ingress
more closely but preparations for evacuating the ship should be made instantly and
concurrent with any investigation.

Remote methods of observation are preferable to sending personnel onto decks,

particularly in bad weather and/or at night. Deck floodlights should be used if
necessary to try and identify abnormalities. Detrimental effects on watchkeepers'
night vision are of secondary importance in such circumstances.
Fig: Structural failure and flooding of bulk carrier

In circumstances deemed justifiable for sending crew onto decks that may be
frequently awash with rough sea conditions, at least two crew should go to
investigate. They should wear harnesses that attach them to a lifeline and to each
other and should be in constant (radio) communication with the bridge. Each harness
should be provided with two easily operated clips so that wearers are always attached
to the ship's structure, even when passing across from one lifeline or structural
attachment to another.

Lifelines on both sides of the deck should be rigged at all times and progress along
the deck should always be via the lee or sheltered side. When weather conditions
deteriorate is not the time to begin rigging such measures. Fencing or shipside rails
alone should not be relied upon without attachment by harness.

When a loss of hull integrity is known or suspected, crew should not be sent onto
decks that are being regularly submerged or deeply awash. In such circumstances the
ship should be regarded as in imminent danger and priority should be given to
preparations for abandonship.

Bulk carrier emergency action after a Collision incidence

In the event of a collision, master should call the ship's crew to emergency stations
with a strong emphasis on preparing to abandon the ship. Actual abandonship to be
done only after verbal order from master. Prompt response to abandonship is
particularly important and urgent in cases where a ship is loaded with dense bulk
cargo. Older designs of bulk carriers and small ships with fewer holds are particularly
prone to sudden progressive flooding if the damage occurs abaft any strengthened
bulkheads in the forward part of the ship. This type of damage is more probable
resulting from collisions in dense traffic or overtaking manoeuvres.

Making bulk carriers safer - Survival and

safety procedure
In November 1997 the International Maritime Organization (IMO)
adopted a new Chapter XII on bulk carrier to the International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) 1974. The new rules
cover survivability and structural requirements for bulk carriers of 150
metres and upwards to prevent them from sinking if water enters the
ship for any reason. IMO also adopted revised guidelines on enhanced
surveys of bulk carriers and a code of practice for safer loading and
unloading.

Stronger new ships: Increase the strength of bulkheads and the

double bottom to withstand hold-flooded conditions.

Improving cargo handling practices : Conveyor belts (several

kilometres long) often overload ships. Huge grabs (up to 36 tons),
bulldozers and hydraulic hammers used for unloading can cause
structural damage.
Existing ships : The bulkhead between holds 1 and 2 and the double
bottom of hold 1 must be strengthened to withstand flooding in hold 1
unless loading restrictions are imposed.

Restrictions on carriage of cargoes : Existing bulk carriers which

meet the new structural requirements by means of loading restrictions
must be marked with a solid equilateral triangle on the hull at
midships below the deck line.

Loading instrument : Equipment to be fitted to monitor the stresses

during loading and unloading operations.

Enhanced surveys : Enhanced programme of inspections to detect

potential structural weakness and areas of corrosion.

Modern bulk carriers, often described as the workhorses of the

maritime trade, can be traced back to the 1950s when shipyards
began building ships designed specifically for carrying non-packed
commodities. Bulk carriers can be identified by the hatches above
deck level which give access to the huge cargo holds below.
Particular emphasis has been placed on being ready for early
evacuation or abandonment of the vessel. For ships carrying high-
density cargoes this is of importance while they are at sea. There may
however be cases where abandonment may be the worst option and
for bulk carriers as with other ship types this is most probably true in
the event of grounding.

In close proximity to shore, and especially in bad weather, life-saving

craft launched from the ship are unlikely to save the occupants from
the perils of the shoreline and the process of launching the craft
probably carries much greater danger than remaining on board.
Again, early contact with a Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centre is
important and the master should not hesitate to broadcast an Urgency
or Distress message.

When aground and although the ship may be severely damaged or

broken in two, the accommodation blocks in such strandings usually
survive long enough for helicopter evacuation, as organized and co-
ordinated by the Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centre, when weather
conditions abate.

Fig: Bulk carrier during heavy weather

Companies are reminded that the master is the one who decides on
whether or not the ship is to be abandoned. This guidance is provided
to assist the master in making that decision and is based on the
overriding principle that human life is more important than property.

Companies are also reminded that emergency contingency planning

forms an integral part of the International Safety Management Code
required by SOLAS chapter IX. They should therefore assess the actual
risk to their ships with consideration of the information given in these
Guidelines and provide in their Safety Management System
appropriate advice to assist the master in assessing the action to take
in a situation involving flooding of the ship.
Encountering hazards while handling solid bulk cargo - ship/shore interface

Encountering hazards in bulk carriers - Possible sources

Lack of Oxygen in cargo holds :It must be emphasised that many bulk cargoes may
deplete oxygen and/or emit toxic or explosive gases and fatalities from uncontrolled
and ill-planned entry into cargo spaces, sadly, continue to occur. Recent incidents
have involved coal, timber, swarf and copper concentrate cargoes thus illustrating
that great caution should be exercised not only in entering a hold with hatch covers
closed but also when covers have just been opened and the space has not been
ventilated. Similarly, compartments adjacent to holds, such as mast houses and store
rooms, should be entered with equal caution.

Fall from heights:

 a) Gangways typical Bulk Carrier gangways are unsuitable and unsafe for use
at many bulk terminals.

 b) Inadequate fencing of open holds and dangerous edges.

  c) Accessing/egressing ship's holds.

 d) Removing cargo from stairs, ladders and side frames in ship's holds.

 e) Working on top of hatch covers.

 f) Weather conditions and tidal movements.

Moving equipment and vehicles:

a) Movement of ship loaders and/or unloaders.

b) Movement of mobile plant on terminal:

- Payloaders, skid steer loaders, tractors and trailers,

- Cars, trucks and lorries,
- Cranes and lift trucks.
c) Operation of mobile plant in ships' holds.
d) Inadequate barriers at terminal edges where mobile plant is operating.

When loading and discharging bulk cargo it is very likely that some will be spilt on
open decks and hatch covers. While it is sensible to sweep up and tip spilt cargo into
the hold, great care must be taken when sweeping off hatch covers to ensure that
there is no possibility of personnel working on the covers slipping and falling into the
open hold.

Falling objects:

i) Lifting and suspension of grabs.

ii) Material falling from grabs.
iii) Personnel on deck walking under the grab.
iv) Lifting and suspension of mobile plant from terminal to ship and from hold to
hold.
v) Lifting and suspension of loading chutes, spouts and arms.
vi) Lifting and suspension of welding and other equipment into hold to carry out
damage repairs.
vii) Cargoes falling from ships' hold structures, frames, beams, ledges and ladders.
viii) Personnel lowering or raising equipment in and out of holds with personnel still
at work underneath.
ix) Personnel monitoring cargo operations standing too close to where grab is
working, and at risk of being struck by grab, or by a breaking grab rope.

Slips, trips and falls:

i) Wet or slippery surface from ice, cargo or oil spillage on ship or terminal.
ii) Badly stowed ropes, hoses and equipment on ship or terminal.
iii) Unmarked obstacles on ship's decks such as manhole covers, securing eyes,
safety stanchion sockets.
iv) Climbing and working on and around loose and unstable material in ship's holds.
v) Personnel handling ship's stores on terminal edge.

Fire or explosion:

i)Dust created by certain cargoes may constitute an explosion hazard.

ii) Flammable gases emitted by certain bulk cargoes may give rise to a fire or
explosion hazard.
iii) Incompatible materials which may react dangerously.
iv) Materials liable to spontaneous combustion.
v) Bunkering operations.
vi) The use and refuelling of mobile plant in ships' holds.
vii) Smoking and the use of naked flames.
viii) Hot work.
ix) Combination carriers including holds, pumps and pipelines not gas free when
unloading dry bulk, or with slop tanks or wing tanks not inerted.

Hazardous substances:

i) Dangerous goods.
ii) Cargoes liable to oxidation, oxygen reduction and emission of toxic fumes,
particularly when wet.
iii) Cargoes corrosive to skin and eyes, and to ships structures, particularly when wet.
iv) Cargoes liable to cause oxygen depletion e.g. metals, vegetable/fruit products,
forest products.
v) Accumulation of dangerous gases in cargo spaces or in adjacent spaces. Failure to
observe Confined Space Entry and Atmospheric Testing procedures.

Health hazards due to dust :

i) Dusty cargoes.
ii) Spillage from loading and/or unloading equipment.
iii) Incorrectly operated and/or maintained loading and/or unloading equipment
causing excessive dusting.
iv) Tipping and storage of cargo on terminal.

Strains and sprains:

i) Manual handling such as shovelling, scraping of cargo in ship's holds.

ii) Operating mobile plant in ship's holds.
iii) Operating grab unloaders and similar equipment.
iv) Handling mooring lines.
Tidal movements and wind conditions:

i) Gangway becoming unsafe.

ii) Collision between loader and/or unloader and ship's structure or gear.
iii) Failure of unloader and/or loader braking system in high winds, leading to
collision with ship.
iv) Runaway of loader and/or unloader and/or transporter cranes in high winds.

Berthing and moving ships:

i)Collision between berthing ship and loader and/or unloader on terminal.

ii)Breaking mooring lines risk to personnel on ship and terminal from "snap-back"
effect.
iii)Passing ships.

Inadequately trained personnel

i) Terminal, contractor or temporary employees assigned to work in terminal or on

ship without adequate induction or job specific training.
ii) Ship's personnel unfamiliar with the ship, or with the ship's operations.

Other activities that can occur on an around any terminal:

Failure of persons or organizations controlling different operations to co-operate in

ensuring a safe place of work. For example, inadequate control of the activities of
personnel, contractors, hauliers, visitors, other ships and port users.

Securing of cargo gear

Derricks, cranes or other cargo handling gear must be lashed or otherwise secured
whenever they are placed in their stowage positions.

Maintenance and Operation of Derricks, Cranes and Winches

It is essential that nobody is permitted to use defective equipment, that operating

instructions are clearly visible and not obscured by paint or rust and that the winch
controller thoroughly understands its operation. Safe Working Loads must be clearly
marked on all lifting equipment.

Hold Lighting

In ships, which are fitted with fixed hold lighting systems, the lighting must be
switched off in cargo spaces, which are not being worked, or where loading is
complete. The entire system must be isolated, when the ship leaves port.

In vessels carrying bulk cargoes it is essential that any fixed hold lighting systems are
isolated, or the fuses removed when the holds contain cargo.

Portable lights must always be removed from a hold when cargo operations cease,
and must be kept in good condition, including protective guards.

Certification

The regulations governing the quadrennial certification and annual inspections of

lifting equipment must be fully complied with on board the Company's vessels.
Training

Personnel delegated to operate cranes and derricks on board vessel must receive
adequate training prior to being allowed to carry out their duties. The Certificate of
Competence to operate ship's lifting plant is to be completed for each person
designated to operate cranes or derricks. Training must be carried out by the Chief
Officer or Second Engineer and be countersigned by the Master.

Precautions before and during loading - Bulk carriers guideline

Before loading commences the following precautions must be taken and must remain
in force whilst the vessel is loading bulk cargoes:

1. The Master must ensure that he has as much information as possible

concerning the nominated cargoes. All appropriate publications are to be
consulted in this respect. The Master must also ensure that he is fully aware of
the dangers, precautions and peculiarities, any ventilation and instrumentation
requirements associated with the cargoes to monitor temperatures, gas and
oxygen levels, moisture content etc. Where there is any doubt, the master is to
contact the relevant Management Office for advice.
2. When declaring the amount of cargo the vessel can load, due attention must be
paid to limitations and draft restrictions at the ports of discharge, bunkers to be
taken and trim required for adequate manoeuvrability of the vessel during the
voyage.

3. A Pre-Loading Meeting with the Shore facility is to be held to discuss the

Chief Officer’s Cargo/Ballast Load Plan, communications and any relevant
Port Regulations applicable to the vessel.

4. It is of the utmost importance that Loading Operations are carried out with
careful regard to the ship’s stability, as well as bending moments and shear
force limitations.

5. The OOW is fully aware of the times of high and low water at the berth.

6. The ship’s moorings are to be closely monitored and adjusted as necessary to

ensure that they have the correct tension.

7. The OOW must closely monitor the condition of the cargoes being loaded and
report any defect immediately.

8. Where appropriate a gas free certificate is to be issued by a marine chemist.

9. Where slops have been retained on board these are to be isolated in the
appropriate slop tank and inerted.
Fig: Applying cargo hold pre wash

Cargo / hold condition

It is the responsibility of the Master to ensure that the standard of cleanliness required
in the cargo holds for the carriage of the proposed cargo is fully understood by the
Officers involved in hold cleaning operations, and to ensure that the required
standard has been achieved before presenting the vessel for loading.

The condition of the cargo itself must be noted, and if the Master suspects that the
actual condition is not as described by the shippers/charterers or their agents, he is to
instruct the Chief Officer to make comments on the mates receipts as appropriate,
and to also ensure that these comments are copied into the Bills of Lading. If there is
any objection to these actions, the Master must inform the relevant Management
Office immediately. A P&I representative will be requested to attend on behalf of the
Owners and the Master is requested to give him every assistance in documenting the
proceedings.

In many cases, a P&I representative will be requested to attend for the purpose of
conducting a preshipment inspection of the cargo, the vessel being advised of this in
advance. The need for a preshipment inspection will very much depend on the type
of commodity involved and the decision to carry out such an inspection will usually
be made by the Company although the Master may make a direct request to the
appropriate P&I Club for a representative to attend in the case of great urgency. This
will also apply to out-turn inspections at discharging ports.

If the Master suspects that the condition of the cargo has changed during the voyage
for whatever reason, he must inform the Managers immediately along with as much
information as possible on the affected cargo and the reasons for the change of
condition. The Company will then arrange an out-turn inspection by the appropriate
P&I representative. Once again, the Master is requested to give every assistance in
the documentation of the situation.

Maintaining standard loading condition

All ships nominated for loading should hold the appropriate valid statutory
certification including, if required, the document of compliance for ships carrying
solid dangerous goods in bulk.

It is recommended that the period of validity of the ship's certificates be sufficient to

remain valid during loading, voyage and unloading times, plus a reserve to allow for
delays in berthing, inclement weather or both.

The ship owner, manager or operator, when offering a ship for a particular cargo or
service, should ensure that the ship:

i) is maintained in a sound, seaworthy condition;

ii) has on board a competent crew;

iii) has on board at least one officer proficient in the languages used at both the
loading and unloading ports, or has an officer available who is proficient in the
English language; and

iv) is free of defects that may prejudice the ship's safe navigation, loading or
unloading.

It is essential that a ship selected to transport a solid bulk cargo be suitable for its
intended purpose taking into account the terminals at which it will load or unload.

The charterer and shipper when accepting a ship for a particular cargo or service
should ensure that the ship:

i) is suitable for access to the planned loading or unloading facilities; and

ii) does not have cargo handling equipment which would inhibit the safety of the
loading and unloading operations.

Ships nominated for bulk loading should be suitable for the intended cargo. Suitable
ships should be:

i) weather tight, and efficient in all respects for the normal perils of the sea and the
intended voyage;

ii) provided with an approved stability and loading booklet written in a language
understood by the ship's officers concerned and using standard expressions and
abbreviations. If the language is neither English, nor French, nor Spanish, a
translation into one of these languages should be included;

iii) provided with hatch openings of sufficient size to enable the cargo to be loaded,
stowed and unloaded satisfactorily; and

iv) provided with the hatch identification numbers used in the loading manual and
loading or unloading plan. The location, size and colour of these numbers should be
chosen so that they are clearly visible to the operator of the loading or unloading
equipment.

It is recommended that all ships which are required to carry out stress calculations
should have on board an approved loading instrument for the rapid calculation of
such stresses.

All propulsion and auxiliary machinery should be in good functional order. Deck
equipment related to mooring and berthing operations, including anchors, cables,
mooring lines, hawsers and winches, should be operable and in good order and
condition.

All hatches, hatch operating systems and safety devices should be in good functional
order, and used only for their intended purpose.

List indication lights, if fitted, should be tested prior to loading or unloading and
proved operational.

Ship's own cargo-handling equipment should be properly certificated and maintained,

and used only under the general supervision of suitably qualified ship's personnel.

Limitations of some bulk cargoes

Bulk cargoes like coal, sulphur and Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) can spontaneously
undergo a chemical reaction and ignite/catch fire when in contact with heated
surfaces. While transporting such cargoes, crewmembers should keep in check the
heat being emitted from fuel oil tanks.

Uncontrolled heating of fuel oil stored in double bottom (DB) tanks recently resulted
in cargo damage. Soya bean meal cargo in contact with the tank top of No 4 hold was
charred and turned into a hard layer at the bottom of the hold. In other holds, where
DB tank temperatures were better controlled, the cargo was not affected. Records
proved that the cargo damage was attributable to inadvertent overheating of the DB
fuel oil tank in way of No 4 hold during the voyage.

The ship had to be placed off-hire for three days for removal and disposal of the
damaged cargo and a heavy cargo damage claim had to be settled with the consignee.
Experience has shown that grain, soya bean meal and many other kinds of
agricultural produce are prone to damage if they come in contact with heated
surfaces.

There are also several other bulk cargoes like coal, sulphur and direct reduced iron
(DRI), which can immediately undergo a chemical reaction and ignite or catch fire
when in contact with heated surfaces. While transporting such cargoes, besides
taking care to control the heating of fuel oil tanks, the recommendations of the
IMSBC Code should be strictly followed.

Requirement of stability, hull strength, draft, trim,

suitability of cargo for a bulk carrier
The ability of a vessel to return to an upright position when heeled by some external
force, such as the action of waves, is a measure of her stability. The force of gravity
acting downwards and the buoyancy force acting in opposition cause a righting lever
which returns the ship to the upright when heeled.

The magnitude of this lever is determined by the position of the Centre of Gravity
within the ship which is itself affected by the disposition of cargo, fuel, ballast, fresh
water, etc. Broadly speaking, the lower the weights in the ship, the lower the Centre
of Gravity; the lower the Centre of Gravity, the larger will be the righting lever at
successive angles of heel (i.e., the greater the ship's ability to return to the upright).
Encountering rough sea conditions

To an extent this suggests that heavier goods be stowed in the lower part of the ship
with lighter goods on top. However, it should be borne in mind that very large
righting levers (an excess of stability by virtue of a low Centre of Gravity) may give
rise to excessive violent rolling and potential damage to both ship and cargo. Some
Classification Societies restrict the maximum permissible GM. This may be known
as "super stability" and restrict the deadweight intake of closeweight cargoes. Careful
loading will ensure adequate but not excessive stability, i.e., the ship will be neither
"tender" nor "stiff.

When performing stability calculations the centres of gravity of various parcels of

cargo can often only be arrived at by approximation. It is better to err on the side of
safety, assuming the centre of gravity to be higher than it probably is.

Apart from stability considerations, distribution of cargo (and to a lesser extent

bunkers, ballast and fresh water) can induce unacceptable bending moments, sheer
forces and torqueparticularly in larger vessels. Care should be exercised to ensure
that any limits established by her designers are not exceeded. Instances are on record
of vessels having broken in two during cargo operations; continually subjecting
larger vessels to excessive loads throughout the ship's life can give rise to structural
failure in a seaway. Loading a vessel with excessive weights at each end also tends to
make her hog and sluggish in rising to a head sea and thus liable to undue strain in
heavy weather.
The conditions of stability, hull strength, draft and trim of bulk carriers at sea and on
arrival / departure at / from port and during loading / unloading cargo, bunkering and
water ballast exchange, should be worked out, ensuring safety of the vessel. Safety of
the cargo vessel depends on proper GM, stress calculation and other factors as being
within appropriate Limits.

During stowage the first consideration must be given to safety, i.e. the cargo must be
stowed so that the ship will be stable and seaworthy, and it must be secured in such a
manner that it cannot shift if the vessel encounters bad weather. The type of vessel,
the cubic capacity of her compartments destined for the cargo and the appliances on
board or on shore for loading or discharging, as well as the nature of the cargo, affect
the question of how to stow the cargo in the best possible manner.

The ship must be made neither stiff nor too tender. The next consideration is for the
safety of the cargo itself: it must not be damaged by shifting; certain commodities
become easily tainted by others, water might find its way into the hold and
condensation or sweating must be prevented. Valuable cargo may be stolen or
broached.

Finally, the Chief Officer must bear in mind the various destinations of the goods the
ship carries, and arrange things, as far as he can, to see that the cargo for a certain
place can be lifted out without disturbing the other cargo. The Chief Officer must
watch closely the ship's stability (i.e. what the ship's trim is or how she is sitting).

Since a ship is supported by fluid pressure she will incline in any direction according
to the position of the weights placed on her. The trim, therefore, is the angle that a
ship is making, fore and aft, with the water.

The levels are read by numbers painted on the ship's stem and stem. These are called
draught marks. Another word is heel. This means a list or inclination from one side to
another, caused by loading. The Chief Officer must watch the load lines. They are
welded or punched on and then painted.

Following are the check item confirming stability and hull strength of cargo ship:

1. The GM value within acceptable limits as specified in the loading manual and
in compliance with IMO rules upto arrival next port?

2. GZ curves of the vessel to be fully understood, and their characteristics

confirmed

3. Expected weather and sea conditions, to be taken into consideration when

confirming stability & hull strength

4. Free surface effects and any sloshing effects for the planned passage to be
taken into consideration.

5. Any restrictions specified in the loading manual to be taken into consideration.

6. Values of bending moments, shearing forces and torsional stresses at sea to be

within acceptable limits upto arrival next port.

7. The sailing draft to be within applicable loadline or port/passage

limits/restrictions.

8. Air draft limitations due to bridges, cargo handling equipment or other

obstructions to be assessed as necessary.

9. The cargo density in accordance with maximum permissible values and

precautions as per the loading manual to be followed.

10.Forward draft limit (per loading manual) to prevent slamming to be confirmed.

11.Propeller immersion ratio to be assured.

12.Trim and draft changes during voyage in fresh or brackish water such as rivers,
canals and lakes, to be taken into consideration.

13.Squat due to shallow water effect to be taken into consideration.

14.Safe under keel clearance to be assured .

 15.Fuel oil and fresh water consumptions to be taken into consideration.

Check items

Following are the guideline to check suitability of loading/ unloading solid bulk
cargo

i) Cargo holds and hatch openings are suitable for cargo operations

ii) Holds are clearly numbered on hatch covers/ coamings

iii) Hatch covers, hatch operating systems and safety devices are in good operational
condition

iv) List indication lights, if fitted, have been tested prior to arrival and are operational

v) If applicable, loading instrument is certified and operational

vi) Propulsion/auxiliary machinery is in good operational order

vii) Mooring equipment is in good functional order

Indication of unusual motion / behaiviour of bulk carriers and risk management

/ evacuation

Bulk carrier losses in the early 1990s were dramatic: ships sank rapidly, often with
the loss of all lives. Many were old and had suffered structural damage. A study by
IACS (International Association of Classification Societies) found that after flooding
in the foremost hold, the bulkhead between this hold and the adjacent hold can
collapse from the pressure of cargo and water, leading to progressive flooding and
sinking.
The dangers with two holds flooding:

A study by the U.S. Maritime Administration (MARAD) found that a typical midsize
bulk carrier should survive all one-hold flooding so long as the ship is not suffering
from metal wastage and undetected cracks but flooding of any two holds would have
disastrous consequences.

Fig: Dangers of hold flooding

Reason of abnormalities

If a ship takes on an unusual trim or heel, or if her motions become changed, breach
of the hull envelope should be suspected immediately:

i) Unusual collections of water on decks may be indicating trim or heel abnormality.

ii) Sudden changes of heel or trim will indicate flooding or in smaller ships with
lighter cargoes it may indicate cargo shift.

iii) Jerky lateral motions can be indicative of large scale sloshing as would be the
case if a hold were flooded.

iv) On smaller ships, slowing of the ship's roll period may indicate excessive water
within the hull - a serious threat to stability. Ships fitted with GM meters should be
able to identify any unexpected changes in GM.
v) Increases of water boarding forward decks may indicate flooding of a forward
compartment. Trim and freeboard changes are notoriously difficult to assess from an
after bridge.

Methods of detection

i) Hatch covers may be dislodged by pressure and/or sloshing from within a hold if
flooding occurs through side shell or bulkhead.

ii) Sudden pressurization of compartments adjoining those that are damaged or

flooded will indicate failure of internal subdivision, most notably bulkheads.

iii) Spaces may be monitored, either using gauging or bilge/water level alarms.
Forward store spaces can also be monitored audibly using "talkback" telephones that
may be fitted in forward spaces. Anchor impacts and water in the space can be
detected using telephones of the type that remain active until switched off from the
bridge.

iv) Hull Stress Monitors, where fitted, may be able to detect unexpected longitudinal
hull girder bending. Torsional stresses may also be detected through differential
changes between port and starboard strain gauges.

v) Visual monitoring from the bridge using binoculars, where fitted, by closed circuit
television, can give indication of abnormal water on deck and local damage.
However, assessment of trim or freeboard using this method is difficult.

vi) Assessment of trim changes can in certain conditions be detected by noting the
level of the horizon, when visible, against a known reference point on the foremast.

vii) Draught and trim can be assessed using draught gauges. Changes are much more
discernible using this method than by visual means from above decks.
Early readiness for evacuation

In the event of identifying or even suspecting that the ship may have sustained
damage, ship's personnel should immediately be called to their emergency stations. A
high priority should be placed on preparing equipment for evacuation. Abandonment
should however only be invoked on the spoken orders of the master following
assessment of the risk.

Contact with a Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centre (MRCC) and/or owners

should be made early if the master has any suspicion that the ship is damaged. An
URGENCY signal is justified and this should be upgraded to DISTRESS if the ship
is confirmed as damaged.

Evacuation training

Masters should place a strong emphasis on evacuation training so that donning of

protective suits and lifejackets, launching of survival craft, and operation of EPIRBs
and SARTs is a familiar process to all ships' personnel. Also included should be
shutdown procedures for main and auxiliary machinery, which can, if left running,
hinder launching of survival craft.
Warning against flooding

Seafarers have been lost when bulk carriers have sunk due to having insufficient time
to evacuate the vessel. Bulk carriers have, on occasions sunk so fast that not even
distress signals were sent out. The facts made it mandatory on board functioning of
water ingress alarms. If alarms frequently malfunction, the equipment should receive
priority attention to rectify the fault. Crew members should not be reticent to muster.

If an alarm is false, the crew can be stood down, but if it is genuine and crew are not
mustered, there could be insufficient time to do so if flooding progresses rapidly loss
of sleep is less serious than loss of life. These are principles that are well established
with fire alarms.

Flooding is potentially more serious than a fire that can be fought. Only the most
serious fires can threaten the survivability of the ship in terms of buoyancy but
flooding is the beginning of sinking. It should therefore be afforded higher status than
fire.

Bulk carriers structural problems associated with corrosion, metal fatigues &
other operational factors

Deterioration of ships hull / structure through corrosion, fatigue and damage is

identified as a principal factor in the loss of many ships carrying cargo in bulk .
Failing to identify such deterioration may lead to sudden and unexpected accident.
Bulk carrier crews may be unaware of the vulnerability of these vessel types. The
consequential loss of a ship carrying heavy cargo can be expected to be very rapid,
should a major failure occur.
The following structural problems are associated with bulk carriers:

Ships Corrosion

Ships are built of steel, which in a marine environment exposed to water (both fresh
and sea) and air is prone to the formation of rust. Contributing factors that accelerate
the rate of corrosion include:

1. Cargo damage this occurs when heavy bulk cargo is allowed to freefall from
height onto the tank tops. The heavy impact of this cargo on the tank top
causes damage and breakdown of the coatings on the ceiling of the double
bottom tank underneath

2. corrosive cargoes a number of bulk cargoes contain chemicals of a corrosive

nature and this is particularly the case in newly mined coal. It is essential that
the data sheet is inspected prior to loading the cargo. For example, in the case
of a high sulphur contact coal cargo, severe pitting can result. To counter this,
the hold floor can be coated in lime, but this does not protect the bilges or bilge
lines

3. equipment damage grab damage to the hold floor, frames and ladders can
occur at most discharge ports. This not only causes material damage to the
ship's structure, but can also break down the paint coatings exposing the base
steel to the atmosphere. The deliberate hammering of the floor and sides of the
hold by grabs and bulldozers to free cargo residues trapped between the frames
will result in structural damage and the breakdown of the paint coatings
 4. seawater corrosion in the majority of cases, this will take place in the ballast
tanks. Many companies now place sacrificial anodes in the ballast tanks, which
considerably reduce the corrosive effect of air and saltwater

5. under SOLAS Chapter II-1 double side skin spaces must be provided with a
compliant protection coating.

Fig : Cargo hold construction of a typical bulk carrier

Metal fatigue

The weakening of the steel in a structure due to constant flexing, under the repeated
cycles of stress may result in structural fatigue failure. The concern about fatigue
failure is that it occurs without any apparent forewarning (eg deformation of a
structure that results in a crack).
Fatigue usually begins at welded joints, notches, discontinuities in structures and
areas of high rigidity in particular. However, variations in the size, shape and design
of each component and the conditions that the ship operates mean this may not
necessarily result in a structural failure. Areas where extra vigilant inspection is
recommended include:

1. The brackets at the connection of frames to the upper and lower wing tanks

2. the upper and lower connection of corrugated transverse bulkheads

3. corners of the hatch coamings where they are joined to the main deck.

Bulk carriers in particular become progressively weaker due to continuous corrosion.

In addition, the repetitive cycles of changing loads and the resulting stresses due to
hogging, sagging, panting, pounding and vibration all increase fatigue.

High tensile steel (which is stronger than mild steel) is used in all areas likely to
experience high levels of stress. It means that scantlings can be reduced but the
vessel will still have higher strength and resistance to stresses, eg slamming due to
heavy pitching that may cause fatigue on the forward section of the hull.

It is recommended that, as soon as any cracks are seen, arrangements are made
immediately to repair them. Where possible, a crack arrestor hole should be drilled at
each end of the crack before any temporary repair is made. If the extent of the crack
is not evident, a detector dye can be used to establish this. As soon as possible, Class
should be called for a survey to make a permanent repair because a crack that is
overlooked may become a central point for localised stress resulting in structural
failure.

A crack may also damage protective coatings such as paintwork, creating an `open'
area for corrosion. While cracks may not initially be apparent, corrosion in any area
should be carefully checked for signs of minor cracks, particularly if there are dents
in the structure.
Operational Factors

Corrosion and fatigue will gradually weaken the hull over time. This can be increased
by variations in loading patterns and particularly heavy density cargoes such as iron
ore.

Another factor that gradually weakens a ship's structure is the abrasive and corrosive
nature of bulk cargoes such as coal, which can cause unintentional damage to cargo
hold coatings. Areas such as welded frame joints with tanktop or deck plating are
very likely to develop corrosion and subsequently crack if the coatings are damaged.

Other factors include:

 Liquefaction of cargoes, caused by water ingress or moisture in the cargo, can

cause cargo shift during the voyage

 movement of ballast water in partly filled ballast water tanks or holds can
cause damage and create corrosion. To avoid this, tanks and holds should be
completely filled.

Fig: These holds are unlikely to pass a grain survey, as they are heavily pitted with
rust scale and embedded with coal staining

Cathodic protection
Cathodic protection is a system of preventing corrosion by forcing all surfaces of a
structure (e.g. hull) to be cathodes by providing external anodes. It can be achieved
by superimposing on the hull an impressed current provided by a remote power
source through a small number of inert anodes (impressed current cathodic
protection). Also accomplished by fitting aluminium, magnesium or zinc anodes in
tanks or underwater portion of a ship, which waste away by galvanic action
(sacrificial anode cathodic protection).

How transverse watertight bulkheads strengthening bulk carriers structural

configuration ?

According to the International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) rules,

bulk carriers are longitudinally divided by fitting transverse watertight bulkheads
detailed as below:

1. One collision bulkhead - fitted at a distance from the Forward Perpendicular

(FP) of not less than 5% of the length (L) of the ship or 10 m, whichever is the
lesser, and not more than 8% of L. The collision bulkhead must be watertight
with no door, manhole ventilation duct or any other opening up to the
freeboard deck

2. one aft peak bulkhead and one bulkhead fitted and made watertight up to the
freeboard deck at the forward and aft boundary of the machinery space if
located amidships · one aft peak bulkhead made watertight up to the freeboard
deck and one bulkhead at the forward end of the machinery space if located aft
 3. ships not required to comply with subdivision requirements should be fitted
with transverse watertight bulkheads (in addition to the collision and the after
peak bulkhead) which are extended up to the freeboard deck

4. the openings in watertight subdivisions are kept to a minimum to ensure proper

operation of the ship. Any penetrations for access, piping, ventilation,
electrical cables, etc must not reduce watertightness

5. bulkheads are of corrugated or plane steel construction.

Fig: Transverse section of a bulk carrier

Below figure explains number of bulkheads to be fitted for different ship lengths.

Ship Length : Ships machinery space aft : other ships

 90 m or more but less than 105 m with ships machinery fitted aft no. of
bulkheads 4 & other ship type no. of bulkhead 5
  105 m or more but less than 120 m with ships machinery fitted aft no. of
bulkheads 5 & other ship type no. of bulkhead 6

 120 m or more but less than 145 m with ships machinery fitted aft no. of
bulkheads 6 & other ship type no. of bulkhead 7

 145 m or more but less than 165 m with ships machinery fitted aft no. of
bulkheads 7 & other ship type no. of bulkhead 8

 165 m or more but less than 190 m with ships machinery fitted aft no. of
bulkheads 8 & other ship type no. of bulkhead 9

 190 m or more Determined for each ship individually

While bulk carriers may appear similar to oil tankers, their structure is comparatively
`weaker' due to the lack of strengthening members (beams, girders, stiffeners and
deck plating) that would obstruct the large hatches. This results in enormous bending
moments and a reduced ability to withstand torsional stresses.

Additionally, the loading/discharging patterns used for bulk carriers result in severe
vertical shear and bending stresses. These can be reduced by careful loading and
discharging operations and additional structural strengthening to compensate.

Many bulk carriers have a `ballast hold', which is an additional design consideration.
Careful attention is necessary when loading ballast and deballasting if cargo is being
worked at the same time. Some vessels are also built with extra ballast holds
designed to be part filled in port only so that the vessel can maintain air draught,
which may be required in some discharge ports. These holds must be discharged
before sailing to avoid the effects of free surface.
Bulk carrier corrosion protection

Bulk carrier corrosion rates are highly variable. Coal and iron ore cargoes, frequency
of cargo loading and ballasting, expected trade routes, ballast ratios and type of coal
transported, to be the main parameters affecting corrosion rates due to varying levels
of chloride, sulphate and acidity produced from various coals.

Bulk carriers have one of the highest loss rates of the world merchant fleet. During
the period 1990-95 the average age of bulk carriers lost through leaks or
disappearance was 18 years (Anon, 1996). This indicates that age related vessel
damage has a significant contribution to bulk carrier losses. The findings of several
research programs support this view by identifying both corrosion and fatigue as
weakening the structures of bulk carriers .

The problem of corrosion is generally dealt with in three stages throughout the life of
a vessel. Firstly, appropriate corrosion prevention methods are incorporated into the
initial design of a vessel. These include the use of cathodic protection systems and
various types of protective paint coatings. The condition of the hull structure is then
monitored at special and intermediate hull surveys. Finally, areas with excessive
coating breakdown and/or wastage are then replaced or repaired.

The International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) implemented the

enhanced survey scheme in 1993. This has led to significant improvements in
corrosion and coating monitoring and recording of data. The implementation of
initial corrosion protection systems has also improved in recent years since the
unified requirements for corrosion protection of ballast tanks and cargo holds of bulk
carriers were introduced by IACS in the early 1990s.

Despite the increased significance given to corrosion prevention and detection,

decisions still have to be made concerning when to replace plating and upgrade
coating or anodes. If plate thickness or coating condition is below the level required
by class rules then upgrade is required.

Corrosion and bulk carrier operation

The electrochemical corrosion reaction consists of two partial reactions; the anodic
oxidation reaction (loss of electrons) and the cathodic reaction where the electrons
are reduced by an electron acceptor (usually oxygen). Corrosion will only occur at
locations where there is sufficient oxygen and moisture. As the corrosion reaction is a
form of chemical reaction, the rate is dependent on temperature.

Temperature, oxygen and moisture supply are all relevant to bulk carrier corrosion
and vary with operation and location within the vessel.

The following discussion identifies the main characteristics of corrosion for the
primary members in the cargo hold region. These are related to the operating factors
influencing the corrosion processes.

Tank Top Plating

A protective coating is not used and a protective corrosion product layer is not
formed due to wear from cargo grabs and bulldozers. Corrosion proceeds in the
presence of moisture when loaded with coal and iron ore and when unloaded if the
local relative humidity is greater than approximately 70%. Rates of corrosion are also
dependent on the type of coal loaded.

Lower Stools

A protective coating is not used, however a corrosion product layer does develop on
the lower stools. Xray diffraction analysis of sample corrosion products has revealed
the presence of chlorides and sulphates, leached from the coal. Magnetite has also
been detected, indicating that corrosion proceeds as a nonlinear function of the “time
of wetness” (TOW). The TOW will be similar to the tank top plating. The corrosion
rate can also vary depending on the type of coal in the cargo hold.

Transverse Frames

Corrosion rates are higher at the lower region of the transverse frames. They are fully
coated, however the coating wears quickly at the lower connection due to contact
with iron ore. The wear of lower bracket connections is therefore a function of the
number of voyages with iron ore.

On the other hand the TOW for corrosion is dependent on the number of voyages
with coal and how often the local relative humidity is greater than approximately
70% (a function of weather conditions) when unloaded or carrying iron ore. The
quantity of moisture varies depending on the degree of sideshell sweating. Sideshell
sweating is a function of coal and seawater temperature.

Fig: These holds are unlikely to pass a grain survey, as they are heavily pitted with
rust scale and embedded with coal staining
Upper Stools and Bulkhead Plating

These areas are fully coated and do not have contact with iron ore cargo. The TOW is
similar to that for the transverse frames except the critical relative humidity is likely
to be lower than 70% due to the presence of coal dust. The hygroscopic nature of
coal dust allows an adsorbed layer of water to form at a lower vapour pressure.

Double Bottom Ballast Tank (DBBT)

By IACS rules it is compulsory for the DBBT to be coated. Cathodic protection is

also utilised by some operators but is only effective when the tank is ballasted.
Coating breakdown occurs on the underside of the tank top plating due to plate
deformation caused by grab damage.

The frequency of cargo discharge is therefore a significant operational parameter.

After coating breakdown, corrosion proceeds when the tank is unballasted due to the
ineffective cathodic protection and high humidity. Deterioration of coating and
consumption of anodes is dependent on the time in ballast and the salinity and
temperature of the ballast seawater.

Duct Keel

This area is a fully coated void space. Similarly to the DBBT, coating breakdown
occurs on the underside of the tank top plating. The incidence of coating breakdown
is therefore dependent on the frequency of cargo changes. Areas of exposed plating
increase with time as the coating debonds from the surface due to differential
aeration corrosion around the perimeter of the exposed area. As the duct keel is a
void space, corrosion will only proceed when there is moisture present, that is, when
the local relative humidity increases above approximately 70%. Corrosion is
expected to be approximately linear with respect to the TOW because of the powdery
composition of the rust which offers minimal protection and is common on
downwards facing surfaces.

Topside Tank

Protective coatings and usually cathodic protection is used to prevent corrosion in the
topside tanks. As with the DBBT, the deterioration of coating and consumption of
anodes is dependent on the time in ballast and the salinity and temperature of the
ballast seawater. Additionally the coating on the underdeck longitudinal stiffeners is
prone to premature failure, possibly because of increased temperature due to deck
heating.

Corrosion at exposed areas is dependent on the time the tanks are not ballasted and
therefore cathodic protection is ineffective. However, unlike the DBBT, the humidity
is not high and the surfaces dryout with time. The TOW is therefore proportional, but
not equal, to the time the tanks are unballasted.

Operational Parameters Affecting Corrosion

The most obvious operational parameter affecting cargo hold corrosion is the relative
frequency of transporting coal or iron ore cargoes. Coal is more corrosive than iron
ore due to the presence of sulphates and chlorides and its ability to produce an acidic
leachate. Furthermore, the TOW and wear of protective coatings varies for different
locations within the vessel, depending on which cargo is loaded. Several of the
factors contributing to corrosion are dependent on the local environmental conditions
the ship encounters.

For example, TOW, sideshell sweating, and degradation of coatings in ballast tanks
are dependent on the relative humidity of internal spaces, coal and seawater
temperature, and deck heating and seawater temperature respectively. The corrosion
rate of each location is therefore dependent on trading routes that determine air and
seawater temperature, relative humidity and seawater salinity. Exposed steel in the
topside and double bottom ballast tanks corrodes when the tanks are deballasted.
Moisture is then present as an adsorbed layer due to the high humidity of the
enclosed space. The ballast ratios of each tank are therefore significant.

In summary, it is considered that a corrosion prediction model for bulk carriers

should account for the following factors; relative incidence of coal and iron ore
cargoes, frequency of cargo loading and ballasting, ballast ratios and expected
trading routes.

Corrosivity of coal cargo

Coal is considered to be corrosive to cargo hold surfaces due to its ability to produce
an acidic leachate as a result of sideshell sweating (e.g. Jubb, 1995; Coll, 1996). It is
desirable to know if the corrosivity of coal is highly variable. If this is true then, in
addition to the operating variables identified, it will account for the highly variable
corrosion rates reported in the literature for bulk carriers.

To investigate the variability of coal corrosivity it is helpful to consider the

fundamentals of why coal is corrosive.

Corrosion proceeds in the presence of moisture and a cathodic reducer, typically

oxygen. The inherent moisture in black coals is usually 1-2wt% whilst export
contracts specify total coal moisture levels of 7- 10wt%. The 5-9wt% free moisture is
adequate to allow corrosion reactions to proceed. The oxygen content within loaded
coal is approximately 20.5%, which is similar to open air. Therefore bulk coal will
corrode mild steel.

It is proposed that the variability of coal corrosivity is due to;

(a) the supply of free moisture that contains impurities leached from the coal, such as
chlorides, sulphates and low pH.
(b) the contact of coal particles at discrete points on the surface causing galvanic and
differential aeration effects.

Aggressiveness of Coal Impurities

The most significant impurities in coal are chlorine and pyritic sulphur which provide
sources for Cl- and SO4 2- ions respectively. Corrosion is also dependent on the pH
of the electrolyte. Corrosion Due to Coal Particle Contact To the authors knowledge,
the mechanism of particle contact corrosion (due to bulk cargoes) has not been
investigated for ship structures. For coal cargo it is suggested that the rate of steel
corrosion at points of contact with coal particles is altered due to two effects; (a) the
formation of a galvanic couple between the coal and the mild steel. (b) the presence
of a local differential aeration cell at each contact point.

Particulate Galvanic Couple

Coal comprises 50-65% carbon. The reversible potential of carbon is 2.10V

compared to -0.44V for mild steel. It is therefore feasible that a galvanic cell will
exist.

This is supported by a study of the corrosivity of steelmaking process materials (Barr,

1997). Under identical conditions, mild steel covered with coke corroded at least
twice as fast as for other materials such as iron ore, sinter and limestone. This was
attributed to a galvanic effect. Analysis of each leachate showed that coke leachate
did not have a significantly higher chloride or sulphate concentration.

The corrosivity of coal cargo is highly variable. The supply of chlorine and pyritic
sulphur, and leachate acidity contribute to the variability. Bulk carrier corrosion rates
are therefore highly variable due to the carriage of different types of coals, in
addition to the previously mentioned operating variables.

Age related vessel damage, and hence corrosion, has a significant contribution to
bulk carrier losses. Statistical analysis of survey data has revealed that bulk carrier
corrosion rates are highly variable. The relative incidence of coal and iron ore
cargoes, frequency of cargo loading and ballasting, expected trade routes, ballast
ratios and type of coal transported are the main factors contributing to the variability
of corrosion rates of bulk carriers.

Precautions to bulk carriers hull corrosion, metal

fatigues & other operational factors

Deterioration of ships hull / structure through corrosion, fatigue and damage is

identified as a principal factor in the loss of many ships carrying cargo in bulk .
Failing to identify such deterioration may lead to sudden and unexpected accident.
Bulk carrier crews may be unaware of the vulnerability of these vessel types. The
consequential loss of a ship carrying heavy cargo can be expected to be very rapid,
should a major failure occur.

The following precautions associated with ships structural problems need to be

considered:

Solas Chapter XI-1, requires bulk carriers to comply with the enhanced survey
programme (ESP) of inspections, including regular inspection of the cargo hold by
ship's personnel. However, owing to the time constraints in port, ships' manning
levels and charterers' requirements, it is recognised that this may not always be
feasible.

Findings by the ship's officers should be reported to the owner immediately so that a
subsequent detailed inspection may be carried out by expert surveyors and repairs
effected as necessary, if possible when cargo discharging is complete. A close
inspection should be made for any damage to the structure of the ship and the
coatings caused by stevedores. There are times during discharge when an impact
caused by the grabs is heard and a tremor is felt through the ship. On such occasions,
an inspection of the hold should take place. Areas particularly susceptible to damage
include:

Fig:Cargo hold ladders in good condition

 Ladders

 pipe guards

 manhole and bilge covers

 hatch coamings

 compression bars

 ship's rails.

This damage can easily be identified and should be repaired before departure.
Officers observing such damage should immediately put the foreman on notice of
their obligation to repair the damage. A stevedore damage report form should be
completed.

To overcome the problems associated with operational factors such as stresses during
loading and discharging, the ship's officers should prepare and plan a sequence for
loading/discharging and deballasting/ballasting. Contingencies should be planned by
identifying hazards and carrying out and documenting risk assessments. The control
measures identified in risk assessments should be closely monitored.
A thin layer of high density cargoes should be spread on the tank top before fixing
the loader in a central position within the hold. This will help protect the tank top
from damage.

Strengthening of Bulk Carriers

All bulk carrier structures are strengthened by deep side girders in addition to a duct
keel formed by two central girders in combination with longitudinal frames. Some
bulk carriers may be fitted with longitudinal bulkheads for additional strengthening
as well as for division of cargo compartments. Rounded sheer strakes fitted in many
ships provide additional strengthening, and the frames fitted inside double bottoms
and wing tanks provide a smooth surface within the cargo holds for ease of cargo
discharge and hold cleaning. The transverse bulkheads are of corrugated
construction.

Double hull bulk carrier cross section

High Tensile Steel (HTS) is commonly used in bulk carriers to reduce the thickness
of the structure, increasing cargo carrying capacity. However, the downside of HTS
is that, when any structure is corroded, the loss of strength occurs far quicker than for
mild steel. Therefore, high notch tough steel is used in crucial areas such as the keel,
bilge, deck stringer, sheer strakes and top/bottom parts of bulkheads to provide
continual strength throughout the vessel's life.

Structural Standards for Bulk Carriers

Bulk carriers are known to be more susceptible to structural failure than other similar
sized ships, particularly when a hull breach causes water ingress into the cargo holds.
The primary precaution however is still to vigilantly monitor the structure for any
signs of deformation, fatigue or corrosion and apply preventive rather than reactive
maintenance. Cargo operations should be carried out carefully, to ensure sufficient
stability throughout the passage.
However, despite all these precautions, incidents on bulk carriers causing loss of both
life and cargo have caused concern from the 1980s, leading to the development of
new structural standards for bulk carriers.
Design, Operation, and Maintenance Concerns for Structural Safety of Bulk
Carriers

The number and magnitude of bulk carrier accidents in the 1970s and 1980s gave rise
to new consciousness, research and regulation of their design and operation.
Unfortunately, this has not paid off in terms of either prevention of accidents or
mitigation of damage to either life or property.

Summarized below are common design, operation, and maintenance practices on

board bulk carriers that contribute to on-going hazards. Operationally, bulkers are
loaded very rapidly, typically in a pattern that emphasizes efficiency over hull
strength. When unloading, heavy equipment is used that can be very tough on
coatings and plating in the cargo holds. Once the coatings have been compromised,
many of the cargoes can be corrosive to the steel beneath. When high strength steel
has been utilized to add strength without weight, rapid corrosion degrades structural
strength quickly.

Statistics

A Formal Safety Assessment (FSA) conducted by Japan for the IMO Maritime
Safety Committee examined casualty data from 1975 to 1996 . There were 2916
reported bulk carrier casualties, resulting in the loss of 1890 lives. Between 1978 and
August 2000, data from the same source reported 1,126 lives lost in bulker casualties
attributable to structure failure or flooding.

IMO Flag State Implementation Casualty Statistics and Investigations, list 356
“serious” or “very serious” casualties to bulk carriers in the period from 1998 to 2003
. “Very Serious” casualties are classified as ”casualties to ships which involve total
loss of the ship, loss of life, or severe pollution.” “Serious” casualties are defined as
“casualties to ships which do not qualify as "very serious casualties" and which
involve a fire, explosion, collision, grounding, contact, heavy weather damage, ice
damage, hull cracking, or suspected hull defect, etc., resulting in immobilization of
main engines, extensive accommodation damage, severe structural damage, such as
penetration of the hull under water, etc., rendering the ship unfit to proceed, or
pollution (regardless of quantity); and/or a breakdown necessitating towage or shore
assistance.”

Fig: Bulk carrier midship section

Design

Traditional bulk carrier designs are single hull, double bottom arrangements with
hoppers at the upper and lower corners similar to the midship section shown in
Figure . Structure is transversely framed and longitudinally stiffened. Each hold is
accessed through a large hatch that is closed watertight with a hatch cover. The size
of the hatch is limited by the amount of steel necessary in the deck to resist wracking.

Transverse bulkheads are typically corrugated with upper and lower stools that
mimic the hoppers. While the longitudinal structure provides the vessel with its
resistance to global bending moment loads, it is the transverse bulkheads that will
experience the localized loading of the static weight of cargo or any sloshing loads
associated with ballast or accidental flooding.

Operation

Careful planning is required in the loading of bulk carriers. Not only is it critical that
the final departure condition be sound, but how the ship is loaded and offloaded is
very important for a successful operation. At sea, the ship is subject to both static and
dynamic loading. Static loading from the weight of the vessel and the corresponding
buoyancy is well understood. Dynamic loading due to waves – acceleration due to
vessel motions in waves, sloshing of fluids in tanks, and bow slamming – are more
complicated.

Classification societies often define structural requirements as a function of static

loading with a margin for dynamics in the form of allowable still water shear force
and bending moment. In planning the vessel’s operating condition, it is important that
the static loading is not such that it does not leave sufficient margin for the dynamic
loading in a seaway. In deed, many bulkers are lost in heavy weather, indicating that
the vessels were satisfactory to withstand standard operating conditions but without
sufficient margin for an increase in sea state.

Fig: Homogeneous loading

Loading Patterns

There are three typical loading patterns utilized on bulk carriers: homogeneous,
alternate hold, and block loading.

A homogeneous loading pattern as shown in Figure is one in which the same amount
of cargo is loaded uniformly in each hold. This is most often done with lighter
cargoes like grain or coal. Care must be taken in planning a homogeneous load to
mitigate the risk of cargo shifting.

Fig:Alternate hold loading

Alternate hold loading as shown in Figure is used when high density cargo is being
carried to raise the center of gravity. If heavy cargo is loaded homogeneously, snap
rolling can result from the low center of gravity. By loading the cargo twice as high
in half as many holds, the extreme rolling can be mitigated. Alternate hold loading is
something that must be considered in the design phase. Local structure – transverse
bulkheads, tank top, and lower hoppers – must be adequately sized to accept the
increased weight.

In order to save steel weight and not over build all the holds, only those holds that
will be loaded in the alternate hold plan are reinforced. In addition to the local
structure, this loading can induce high shear forces at the bulkheads where the
loading switches from buoyancy dominant to weight dominant.

Fig:Block hold loading

A block loading plan as shown in Figure is similar to the alternate plan except that
adjacent holds may be filled in the block plan. (ie. Two pairs of adjacent holds would
be filled with one empty hold between them.) This loading scheme is typically used
when a vessel is partly loaded. When planning a block load it is very important to be
mindful of the weight and buoyancy distribution over the cargo block. Loading
manuals will often include charts indicating the amount of cargo that may be carried
in a cargo hold at a given local draft.
Fig:Bending moment distribution

Figures above compare the shear and bending moment distributions for the various
loading patterns. All three patterns carry the same total amount of cargo.

Loading and Unloading

In addition to the final loading condition of the vessel, careful planning must go into
the sequence in which holds and tanks are loaded and unloaded. Shear and bending
moment are to be minimized throughout the loading and unloading process. The
ship’s crew must work closely with the terminal personnel to plan and monitor the
rate of loading, the weight of cargo to be loaded and how it is to be measured, any
vessel shifts that will be necessary, draft checks to confirm the weight of cargo
loaded and to ensure that intermediate loading still satisfies the limitations based on
local draft.
Fig:Shear Force Distribution for Different Loading Patterns

In June 2000, the ALGOWOOD buckled while loading sand and aggregates at Bruce
Mines, Ontario, Canada. While a loading sequence had been predetermined, it was
modified in the field when the vessel was unable to shift as far aft in the berth as
called for. Investigation by Transport Canada found that the bending moment at the
time of the failure was 2.3 times the allowable still water bending moment.

During the loading and unloading process heavy equipment is used that can cause
heavy wear on the cargo hold structure. Cargo is loaded using conveyor belts and
may be dropped from the main deck height to the bottom of the hold. Unloading,
clamshell grabs may be used when the ship is not a self-unloader. These grabs can
weigh as much as 30tons without their cargo and are dropped and scraped against the
tank top. Hydraulic hammers may also be used to dislodge cargo from corners and
around framing. All of these practices can lead to rapid degradation of coatings and
steel.
Steel Corrosion

Steel corrosion is a chronic problem aboard bulk carriers. They are perhaps more
susceptible than other large vessels such as tankers and container ships due to the
nature of their construction and operation. Protective coatings are compromised by
the use of heavy equipment for loading and discharge.

Some cargoes themselves can create a more corrosive environment than water. And
the use of high strength steel makes the vessel structure particularly vulnerable to
strength degradation due to corrosion. In September of 2000, EUROBULKER X
broke apart while loading cement at Lefkandi Greece. A fifteen month inquiry
pointed to a variety of mitigating factors, one of the largest being severe corrosion.
Lower deck plating was wasted 30-40 percent and upper ballast tanks ranged from 50
percent to completely wasted in some areas. In addition the loading sequence allowed
cargo to be loaded amidships with the fore and aft holds empty.

Coatings :
Cargo holds of bulk carriers are typically coated with a complex system of several
coats of epoxy. While there are international standards for coatings in ballast tanks
and voids, coatings for bulk carriers are highly dependent on the cargo to be carried.
The abrasiveness of the cargo itself and the use of grabs, hammers, and other heavy
equipment can rapidly compromise coatings. Once the coating is penetrated, the steel
itself is subject to corrosion.

Cargoes :
A wide variety of cargoes are carried in bulkers, ranging from grain to coal to iron
ore. The physical and chemical properties of the cargo carried can have a substantial
impact on the rate of corrosion of a vessel’s structure. Sulphur residue in coal cargoes
can combine with water to form sulphuric acid. Some cargoes have a residual
moisture content that contributes to the humidity in the hold. Some cargoes can cause
internal heating within the hold.
High Strength Steel :
Many bulk carriers of the 1980s were designed with high tensile steel to improve
their structural strength. Although this is an effective way to add to the strength of the
new vessel, it can be problematic once corrosion sets in. While high tensile steel can
be thinner than mild steel for the same strength, it will corrode at the same rate.
Water Ingress Monitoring - Actions in the event of ship being flooded

Purpose of the Water Ingress Monitor (WIM) for ships

Bulk carriers are renowned for sinking fast particularly if loaded with heavy cargoes
such as iron ore. Possibility of ingress of sea water into cargo holds poses potential
threat to ships . Masters of bulk carriers should be aware that the purpose of the
Water Ingress Monitor (WIM) is to provide the maximum possible early warning of a
condition that may seriously threaten the vessel's survival.

Bulk carriers, through necessity of the need to carry large volumes of bulk cargo, are
fitted with cargo spaces that, in the event of flooding, represent a major loss of
buoyancy. Added to this is the possibility that the cargo in the holds may be small in
volume but high density, which allows for a larger volume of water to enter the hold
than would be the case for vessels carrying lighter cargoes occupying larger volumes
of internal space.

The Water Ingress Monitor therefore serves a similar function to a fire alarm. It
signals a condition that requires immediate attention and could if the condition
progresses - eventually lead to the need to evacuate the ship. For this reason the
performance standard has been written to include many similar features to fire alarm
systems.

In the event of an alarm sounding the officer of the watch should, without delay,
attend to determining its precise nature. As with fire alarms, activation of the WIM
should signal the first stage in going to emergency stations. After this first stage,
which should include the mustering of all crew at their respective emergency
stations, a responsible officer should be detailed to investigate the alarm.

Finding the reason of flooding

It is important that investigation is carried out responsibly and that the process does
not endanger lives. Seafarers have been swept overboard in heavy weather conditions
when they have ventured on deck to investigate a known ingress of water. Adverse
weather conditions may make such operations extremely dangerous and masters
should not commit crew members to open decks unless there is no alternative. In
making such a decision masters should consider the value of such action. The
purpose of WIM is to make it possible to know the condition in each hold without
having to locally investigate.If an alarm is activated, the master should without delay
- seek to verify the condition by reference to other indicators:

i) Is the vessel taking a list?

ii) Is the vessel trimming excessively

iii) Is anything visible on deck such as dislodged hatch covers and water emerging
from spaces that would otherwise be dry?

These indicators may be provided by such systems as heel indicators, trim indicators
and draft gauges. It should be remembered that the purpose of the investigation is to
determine first, that a real alarm situation exists and second the extent to which the
situation has progressed. The WIM may overtake this activity. For example, if an
alarm has activated in one space and this is followed by another alarm, either in the
same space or, more onerously in an adjacent space, it is reasonable to conclude that
the situation is real. In the case of a bulk carrier, if two holds are flooding the ship
almost certainly cannot remain afloat.

The master should act swiftly to protect the lives of those on board. Unless the vessel
is in such shoal waters that grounding will occur before immersion of the hull, the
crew should be prepared for abandoning the vessel without delay. Abandoning ship
should only done after the verbal order from master . And master should consider it
only as a last resort.
Precautions against ingress of water

Some key actions should be considered essential in the event of any activation of
WIM. Vessel's crews should:

In the event of activation of a "pre-alarm", go to emergency stations. This should

include :

i)preparation of life-saving appliances in readiness for evacuation but the craft should
not be lowered or boarded.

ii) Alert shore rescue co-ordination stations using Urgency or if rapid sinking is
detected early, Distress ;

iii) In the event of a main alarm, muster (all personnel) at abandon ship stations with
the exception of those crew members engaged in investigation of the alarm and/or
keeping systems running.

iv) Upgrade any urgency signal to one of Distress;

v) In the event of a second space alarm activation either Pre-alarm or Main alarm
ensure all personnel are recalled from investigation and other duties and sent to
abandon ship stations. This should include any crew remaining in the engine room or
other spaces;

vi)Boats, Liferafts or Other Life saving craft must not be launched unless the specific
order to do so has been given by the master.

The master should only order abandonship:

i) If the vessel is truly sinking. Checks of other indicators should be made quickly
e.g. draft gauges, heel indicators,
ii) rapid air expulsion from vents serving spaces suspected of flooding, dislodgement
of hatch covers, water emerging from spaces where it should not be expected;

iii) The depth of water is greater than the depth of the hull (a beached ship should not
be abandoned);

iv) The speed of sinking is such that launching of life-saving craft must begin
immediately in order to reach the water

Warning against flooding

Seafarers have been lost when bulk carriers have sunk due to having insufficient time
to evacuate the vessel. Bulk carriers have, on occasions sunk so fast that not even
distress signals were sent out. The facts made it mandatory on board functioning of
water ingress alarms. If alarms frequently malfunction, the equipment should receive
priority attention to rectify the fault. Crew members should not be reticent to muster.

If an alarm is false, the crew can be stood down, but if it is genuine and crew are not
mustered, there could be insufficient time to do so if flooding progresses rapidly loss
of sleep is less serious than loss of life. These are principles that are well established
with fire alarms.

Flooding is potentially more serious than a fire that can be fought. Only the most
serious fires can threaten the survivability of the ship in terms of buoyancy but
flooding is the beginning of sinking. It should therefore be afforded higher status than
fire.
Watertight doors – Watertight doors that are used while at sea are to be sliding
doors capable of being remotely closed from the bridge and are also to be operable
locally from each side of bulkhead. Access doors, normally closed at sea may be of
hinged-type with gaskets and dogs spaced and designed to ensure watertight closing.
These closing appliances are to be provided with means of indicating locally and on
the bridge whether they are open or closed.
Causes of bulk carrier hull damage and failure in operation
Ships hull damage

Damage to side shell, externally through contact with docksides or tugs and,
internally from impact by cargo dislodging equipment during discharge, can result in
initiating fractures and/or fatigue of the structure. In single side-skin bulk carriers,
bulkheads, trunks and ballast tank boundaries, can present "hard spots" that
concentrate forces where the change in construction occurs (e.g. longitudinal to
transverse framing). This may lead to undetected fractures.

Internal degradation through corrosion may be accelerated through chemical action

from certain cargoes. Welds in particular may be subject to "grooving" corrosion, in
which the material forming the weld corrodes at a faster rate than the plating to
which it is attached. Fatigue failure may result due to loss of cross-sectional area in
the plating joints.

A ship loaded a full cargo of aluminium hydroxide in Australia for discharge in the
USA. The ship was equipped with box holds, which allowed for easier cleaning and
inspection before loading. At the discharge port, at the same time as the ship was
being unloaded, seawater ballast was being taken onboard. It was later found during
the discharge that 500 tonnes of the cargo was water damaged by the ballast, which
was confirmed to come from a hole measuring 100mm x 20mm in the hold/ballast
tank steel plating. The hole was most likely to have been caused by stevedore grab
damage in the discharge port.

In ballast holds, sloshing forces due to partially filled spaces (such as may occur
when changing ballast for environmental reasons) may result in damage to the
structure. This damage may go unnoticed if it is in inaccessible positions. Sloshing is
also a known cause of secondary damage after a space has become flooded.

Damage to bow plating such as is possible through impacts associated with swinging
or loosely stowed anchors may cause an initiating fracture or fatigue in bow shell
plating that could lead to failure and subsequent flooding. Internal integrity of
forward spaces (that are usually used for ballast and/or stores) is therefore of vital
importance. Corrosion degradation will seriously reduce the ability of plating and
stiffening to withstand the forces to which it will be subjected. In larger ships,
partially filled forepeak tanks may set up destructive sloshing forces unless the tank
structure is designed for this.

External forces horizontal and/or vertical - may cause hatch cover dislodgement. The
cargo hatchway, if it loses its protection in this way, is a major access for water
ingress and a serious threat to the integrity of the hull.

When a vessel requires repairs to damaged equipment or to the hull it is necessary for
the work to be carried out to the satisfaction of the classification society surveyors. In
order that the ship maintains its class, approval of the repairs undertaken must be
obtained from the surveyors either at the time of the repair or at the earliest
opportunity.

The main engine of a bulk carrier was seriously damaged when alumina in the cargo
hold got into its fuel tank. There was a hole in the air pipe that passed through the
cargo hold into the tank. Cost – $850,000. The pipe had never been properly
examined during surveys.

Use of damage control book

Damage control books issued to cargo ships contain text, tables and diagrams
providing information concerning the ship’s damage control characteristics and
systems. These books normally include the information from tank sounding tables,
stability and loading data booklets, cross curves of stability and other sources. Copies
of the damage control book should be readily available in the event of any shipboard
emergency.
Tables and Drawings.
The Damage Control Book includes tables and drawings showing the locations of:

i) Watertight and fumetight doors, hatches and scuttles.

ii)Ventilation fittings, fans and controllers.

iii) Fire main piping valves and stations.

iv) Drainage system piping and valves.

v) Sound-powered phone circuits and jacks.

What is a draft diagram ?

The draft diagram in the Damage Control Book is a nomograph for determining the
displacement from observed drafts. There are several forms of draft diagrams. In the
simplest form, drafts are plotted on vertical scales at the forward and after draft
marks, and displacement is plotted along a line describing the position of the center
of flotation relative to the draft marks at any draft. Additional scales can be added to
show other hydrostatic functions.

Displacement in saltwater is read from the intersection of the displacement scale with
a straight line connecting forward and after drafts. Other parameters are shown by the
intersection of the appropriate scale with a horizontal line passing through the
displacement (the intersection of this line with the draft scales shows the draft at
LCF). A second form is similar, except that drafts are plotted on the center of
flotation scale and a table gives displacements for LCF drafts. A third form reads
displacement from a vertical scale at midships and gives a correction for trim on the
diagram. Draft diagrams are generally less accurate than the displacement curve, are
developed for saltwater only, and are not accurate when the ship has excessive trim.
Cargo holds and hatch cover strength requirement for a
seagoing bulk carrier

To carry the maximum amount of cargo, bulk carriers are designed with a high block
coefficient (Cb), ie their hulls are given a full form. Cargo holds have large
unobstructed hatches to facilitate the process of cargo loading and discharging. The
ship's holds also have hold bilges for drainage in the form of two wells, one on each
side aft the hold. The bilges are used to collect water from the tank top and must not
be more than half the height of the DB tank. They may also have high level bilge
alarms to track the level of water in them.

On ships that discharge bulk cargoes using grabs, bulldozers or hydraulic hammers,
the tanktop (the deck of the cargo hold) has to be additionally strengthened during
construction.

Bulk carriers built after 1998 are fitted with water level detectors and audible and
visual alarms as follows:

 In the aft of the cargo hold one alarm to warn when the water level is above the
inner bottom reaches 0.5 m a second alarm to warn when the water level
reaches a height of either 15% of the cargo hold or 2 m

 an alarm in the ballast tank(s) forward of the collision bulkhead to warn when
the water level in the tank reaches 10% of the tank capacity. This alarm, along
with the one fitted in the ballast hold, can be deactivated when the
compartment is used for carriage of a liquid

 an alarm in any dry or empty space (except the chain locker) that extends
forward of the first cargo hold to warn when the water level reaches height of
0.1 m above the deck of the respective compartment.
Fig: Hydraulically folded steel hatch cover

Hatch Covers

Hatch openings are covered by weathertight steel hatch covers extending to between
45 - 60% of the ship's breadth and 57 - 67% of the length of each cargo hold.

The arrangement of cargo handling equipment on a bulk carrier’s weather deck and
the cargo space layout should be designed with the highest possible level of ship
productivity in mind, making fast and efficient loading possible even in ports with
limited infrastructures.

Ship safety is of paramount importance and allows for no compromise. Many

elements combine to produce a safe system, starting with features such as the ship’s
layout. Other important factors to consider when enhancing safety at sea are hatch
cover strength and weathertightness.

Hatch cover tightness is not achieved by sealing alone. Attention must be paid to hull
movements and coaming deflections so that restraints, locators, support pads and
sealings can be arranged in an optimal way to work together for weathertight
integrity.

The marine environment is corrosive and, for maximum longevity, cargo systems
have to be built to withstand these demanding conditions. Emphasis is placed on
manufacturing either corrosion-free or easily replaceable components. Where these
measures are not enough, the design allows for sufficient corrosion margins.

From the bow (forward perpendicular) back one quarter of the ship's length, hatch
covers need to withstand a load of 1.75 tonnes per metre. Aft of this, hatch covers
must withstand a load of 1.30 tonnes per metre. The forward hatches have coamings
at least 600 millimetres high and at least 450 millimetres high aft of this.

Modern bulk carriers use hydraulic hatch covers that, generally, open in a fore and aft
direction (for folding hatch covers) or athwartships (sliding hatch covers), for
example:

Mechanical Hatch Covers

The most common are steel hatch covers, which may be of folding, sliding or rolling
types, fitted with securing devices to make them weathertight . They are commonly
opened or closed by either a hydraulic or an electric rolling system using a single
control.

Steel Pontoon Covers

Using gantries to lift and stow hatch covers, portable steel hatch covers are used and
made weathertight by securing devices such as cleats, cross joint wedges, etc. A
`piggy-back' type hatch cover is sometimes used on ships.

Piggy backing pontoons means that during loading some hatches will be closed with
another hatch pontoon on top. When switching to load the next hatch the loading
hatch must first be closed, and then the next hatch to be loaded opened with its
pontoon placed on the previous hatch. To minimise the time lost to moving between
hatches, extra care must be taken in the initial planning of the loading sequences.

To keep hatch covers weathertight, effective sealing is required between the coaming
and the hatch cover. To achieve the seal the compression bar exerts pressure on the
rubber gasket. Once properly sealed, the hatch covers are secured in position against
the coaming during sea passages by a `quick acting cleat' mechanism between the
hatch covers and the coaming. Cross joint wedges are used to seal panels or
pontoons. These exert pressure on the adjacent pontoon top which in turn exerts
pressure on the compressor bar between the pontoons to achieve weathertightness.

Fig: Hatch cover vents

Hatch Covers

After each load/discharge and before hatch closure, all coamings must be cleared of
any cargo residue to avoid damage to the hatch seals. Damage at this point could
easily compromise the weathertight integrity of the hatch lid, resulting in damage to
cargo. Drainage pipes and non return values at the coaming corners will need to be
cleared.

Hatch Jacks

After each use these jacks must be inspected for possible leaks especially at the seals,
which will soon show signs of leakage. The pipe connections that run under the
coaming of these various joints, are also prone to leakage (in the same manner as the
jacks). This, in turn, can lead to slippery decks and possible accidents, including
overboard discharge causing pollution.

Chains and Rollers

On older ships, the chains will have stretched through long usage and this will, in
turn, cause problems when closing hatches as the jack-up points may not centre over
the jacks. Rollers will also show wear on the bearings and split pins, and
replacements may be required.

Hatch Cleats

As with all other parts of the hatch, cross joint cleats/ wedges , quick acting cleats or
hold downs all need to be checked as they will suffer from wear that can compromise
the watertight integrity of the lid. In the case of quick acting cleats, the rubber bush
will need to be replaced at regular intervals. Owing to the natural working of the ship
at sea, weather permitting a daily check of the hatch cleats (including hydraulic)
should be made to ensure that they are tight. These cleats should not to be bar tight as
this could cause severe compression damage of the rubber seats.
Hull stress monitoring system for oceangoing bulk carriers

The stresses upon the structure of bulk carriers are at their extreme limit in heavy
seas; this is the time when most bulk carrier losses have been recorded. The IMO,
therefore, recommended fitting hull stress monitoring systems on bulk carriers over
20,000 tonnes to minimise the dangers associated with longitudinal stresses due to
vessels bending and pitching in a seaway and possibly triggering fatigue failure and
above.

The HSMS consists of the following components:

Sensors also known as strain gauges, fitted at various locations on the vessel's deck
to sense stresses during loading, discharging and at sea

Accelerometer one fitted at the bow to measure the vertical acceleration of the bow,
and two fitted on the centreline to measure the roll and swing of the vessel.

The HSMS information is fed into a central computer and the information is
normally provided in the cargo office and on the bridge. If the stresses reach a
predetermined stress level, an audio visual alarm sounds to warn the operators.

This means that ship's personnel can use the HSMS at sea to select a better course or
speed if the ship is subjected to heavy stresses, and also during loading and
discharging operations if loads are exceeded.
Water ingress monitoring systems for seagoing bulk carriers

If an alarm is activated, the Master should – without delay - seek to verify the
condition by reference to other indicators:

 Is the vessel taking a list?

 Is the vessel trimming excessively?

 Is anything visible on deck such as dislodged hatch covers and water emerging
from spaces that would otherwise be dry?

These indicators may be provided by such systems as heel indicators, trim indicators
and draft gauges.

It should be remembered that the purpose of the investigation is to determine first

that whether a real alarm situation exists and second the extent to which the situation
has progressed.

The WIM may overtake this activity. For example, if an alarm has activated in one
space and this is followed by another alarm, either in the same space or, more
onerously in an adjacent space, it is reasonable to conclude that the situation is real.

Fig: Structural failure and flooding of bulk carrier

In the case of a bulk carrier, if two holds are flooding the ship almost certainly cannot
remain afloat. The Master should act swiftly to protect the lives of those on board.
Unless the vessel is in such shoal waters that grounding will occur before immersion
of the hull, the crew should be prepared for evacuating the vessel without delay.

EVACUATION ITSELF HOWEVER SHOULD BE A LAST RESORT AND

ONLY ON THE DIRECT ORDER OF THE MASTER.

In the event of activation of a “pre-alarm”

1. Go to emergency stations. This should include preparation of lifesaving

appliances in readiness for evacuation but the craft should not be lowered or
boarded.

2. Alert shore rescue co-ordination stations using Urgency or if rapid sinking is

detected early, Distress. It is always possible to downgrade an earlier urgency
or distress signal if a situation is not as serious as originally anticipated. It is
not possible to upgrade a signal that was never sent if a situation is truly
serious and escalates rapidly. In the event of a main alarm

3. Muster (all personnel) at abandon ship stations with the exception of those
crew Members engaged in investigation of the alarm and/or keeping systems
running.

4. Upgrade any urgency signal to one of Distress. In the event of a second space
alarm activation (either Pre-alarm or Main alarm) –

5. Ensure all personnel are recalled from investigation and other duties and sent
to abandon ship stations. This should include any crew remaining in the engine
room or other spaces.

BOATS, LIFERAFTS OR OTHER LIFE-SAVING CRAFT MUST NOT BE

LAUNCHED UNLESS THE SPECIFIC ORDER TO DO SO HAS BEEN GIVEN
BY THE MASTER.
The master should only order evacuation of the vessel.

1. If the vessel is truly sinking. Checks of other indicators should be made

quickly e.g. draft gauges, heel indicators, rapid air expulsion from vents
serving spaces suspected of flooding, dislodgement of hatch covers,
water emerging from spaces where it should not be expected.

2. The depth of water is greater than the depth of the hull (a beached ship
should not be abandoned).

3. The speed of sinking is such that launching of lifesaving craft must

begin immediately in order to reach the water before the ship sinks. Bulk
carriers are renowned for sinking fast – particularly if loaded with heavy
cargoes such as iron ore.

Warning

Seafarers have been lost when bulk carriers have sunk due to having insufficient time
to evacuate the vessel. Bulk carriers have, on occasions sunk so fast that even distress
signals were not sent out. Due to these reasons, it is important not to become
complacent about water ingress alarms.

If alarms frequently malfunction, the equipment should receive priority attention to

rectify the fault. Crew members should not be reticent to muster. If an alarm is false,
the crew can be stood down, but if it is genuine and crew are not mustered, there
could be insufficient time to do so if flooding progresses rapidly. (Loss of sleep is
less serious than loss of life). These are principles that are well established with fire
alarms.

Flooding is potentially more serious than a fire. The most serious fires can threaten
the survivability of the ship in terms of buoyancy but flooding is the beginning of
sinking. It should therefore be afforded higher importance.
Bulk carrier general arrangement ,various design ,
size range & usability

A general arrangement of a typical bulk carrier shows a clear deck with machinery
aft. Large hatches with steel covers are designed to facilitate rapid loading and
discharge of the cargo. Since the bulk carrier makes many voyages in ballast a large
ballast capacity is provided to give adequate immersion of the propeller.

The general-purpose bulk carrier, in which usually the central hold section only is
used for cargo. The partitioned tanks which surround it are used for ballast purposes
either on ballast voyages, or in the case of the saddle tanks, to raise the ship's center
of gravity when a low density cargo is carried. Some of the double-bottom tanks may
be used for fuel oil and fresh water.

The saddle tanks also serve to shape the upper region of the cargo hold and trim the
cargo. Large hatchways are a feature of bulk carriers, since they reduce cargo-
handling time during loading and unloading.

Bulk carrier general arrangement and size range are similar to that of tankers, as
shown in Figure . Single-purpose bulk carriers are generally designed as ore carriers,
built to carry heavy cargoes stowing at 25 cubic feet per long ton or less, or dry bulk
carriers, for grain and similar cargoes stowing at 45 to 50 cubic feet per ton.

Like tankers, the general arrangement of cargo spaces is dictated by the facts that the
cargo is in the form of homogeneous particles of more or less uniform size, and can
be transferred by blowers, conveyors, or grab buckets. Cargo spaces are divided into
holds to meet structural and subdivision requirements, to restrain cargo movements
and resulting upsetting moments, to permit the carrying of different cargoes
simultaneously, and to provide for ballasting. Machinery is invariably aft, and the
nonperishable nature of the cargoes leads to speeds in the 12- to 16-knot range, with
attendant full hull forms.

Relatively small volumes of dense ores and similar cargoes will settle a ship to her
summer load line. Holds on ore carriers are therefore quite small, bounded by broad
wing tanks and deep double bottoms. The double bottom and longitudinal bulkheads
are of heavy construction to carry the heavy ore load.

The narrow hold breadth limits transverse weight shifts and the depth of the double
bottom is sufficient to keep the center of gravity of the ore high enough to prevent
stiff rolling in a seaway. Large volume wing tanks are used for ballast.

Fig : Cargo hold construction of a typical bulk carrier

Designed for low-density cargoes, dry bulk carriers require much greater hold
volume than ore carriers, and therefore have much shallower inner bottoms .

In some designs the topside tanks are omitted or fitted with bolted plates in the
sloping plating facing the hold. When very light cargoes are carried, the plates are
removed and the tanks are filled along with the hold; the cargo in the tanks feeds into
the hold by gravity when discharging. Larger carriers are sometimes built with an
inner side shell, which eases hold cleaning and provides additional ballast space.

Shallow double-bottom bulk carriers are sometimes designed to carry high-density

cargo, by arranging them with alternate long and short holds. High-density cargo is
loaded only in alternate holds to keep the center of gravity high enough to prevent
excessive metacentric height.

The double-bottom structure under the holds intended for heavy cargo is augmented.
The alternating cargo distribution causes high vertical shear near the bounding
bulkheads, which may require increased shell scantlings.

With the increase in industrial demand for raw materials paralleling that for
petroleum, the design of bulk carriers, like tankers, also evolved to include larger
hulls. Bulk carrier deadweights range from quite small to over 200,000 tons.

In order to increase the proportion of payload operation above the 50-percent level
typical of most straight bulk carriers (for tankers or dry bulk carriers operating
between specific ports, cargo is often carried on only one leg of the journey), a trend
toward combination carriers began about 1950. At first, these were dual purpose
ships (ore/oil, bulk/oil) which carried different cargos on separate legs of a voyage
cycle consisting of two or more legs. This development has evolved into combination
carriers known as ore/bulk/oil ships (OBO). Despite differences, bulk carriers of all
types have certain features in common:

i) Single cargo deck, without ’tween decks.

ii) Machinery aft of cargo spaces so shaft tunnel does not interfere with discharging
gear.

iii) Large ballast capacity.

iv) Double bottoms under bulk cargo holds.

To facilitate rapid cargo discharge and minimize cleaning requirements, holds are
designed with a minimum of internal obstructions that might catch and hold cargo.
Bulkhead stiffening is attained by the use of corrugated plate rather than welded
stiffeners. Hold cross section, is arranged so that cargo is self-trimming and self-
loading:

i) Cargo will flow outwards from the point of discharge of bucket grabs or gravity
chutes to fill the entire cargo space with a minimum of hand trimming.

ii) The narrowing width at the top of the hold limits transverse cargo shifts when the
hold is not completely filled.

iii) During discharge, remaining cargo will flow to a fairly small area where it can be
picked up by the discharging equipment.

Holds of different lengths may be distributed throughout the length of the ship for
flexibility in cargo distribution; cargoes of varying densities can be distributed so as
to keep the longitudinal bending moment within acceptable limits.

Except for equipment to open or remove hatch covers, most bulk carriers are without
cargo gear. Cargo is loaded by gravity chutes or derrick grabs and discharged by
grabs, conveyor systems, or in the case of grain and similar light cargo, by suction.

Some bulk carriers are built as self unloaders, either by the provision of derrick
grabs, or by trimming the cargo spaces to belt conveyers running under the holds to a
bucket conveyer which transfers the cargo to another belt conveyor on a long
unloading boom. Conveyor type self-unloaders are fairly common on the Great Lakes
Combination carriers are fitted with cargo pumps and piping systems for discharging
oil cargoes.
SOLAS CHAPTER XII – ADDITIONAL SAFETY MEASURES FOR BULK
CARRIERS

Application

Bulk carriers shall follow with the requirements of this chapter in addition to the
applicable requirements of other chapters.

Damage stability requirements applicable to bulk carriers

1. Bulk carriers of 150 m in length & above of single side skin construction, designed
to carry solid bulk cargoes having a density of 1000 kg/m3 and above, constructed on
or after 1 July 1999 shall, when loaded up to their summer load line, be able to
withstand flooding of any one cargo hold in all loading conditions and remain afloat
in a satisfactory condition of equilibrium.

2. Bulk carriers having length of 150 m & above of single side skin construction,
carrying solid bulk cargoes having a density of 1780 kg/m3 and above, constructed
before 1 July 1999 shall, when loaded up to their summer load line, be able to
withstand flooding of the foremost cargo hold in all loading conditions and remain
afloat in a satisfactory condition of equilibrium.

3. The permeability of the loaded hold shall be assumed as 0.9 and the permeability
of an empty hold shall be assumed as 0.95.

Structural strength of bulk carriers

(This regulation applies to the bulk carriers constructed on or after 1 July 1999)

Bulk carriers of 150 m in length & above of single side skin construction, designed to
carry solid bulk cargoes having a density of 1000 kg/m3 and above, shall have
sufficient strength to withstand flooding of any one cargo hold in all loading and
ballast conditions, taking also into account dynamic effects resulting from the
presence of water in the hold, and taking into account the directions adopted by the
Organization.

Structural and other requirements for bulk carriers

(This regulation applies to the bulk carriers constructed before 1 July 1999)
1. Bulk carriers of 150 m in length & above of single side skin construction, carrying
solid bulk cargoes having a density of 1780 kg/m3 and above, shall comply with the
requirements of this regulation in accordance with the implementation schedule.

2. The transverse watertight bulkhead between the two foremost cargo holds and the
double bottom of the foremost cargo hold shall have sufficient strength to withstand
flooding of the foremost cargo hold, considering dynamic effects resulting from the
presence of water in the hold, in compliance with the Bulk carrier bulkhead and
double bottom strength standards.

Survey of the cargo hold structure of the bulk carriers

(This regulation applies to the bulk carriers constructed before 1 July 1999)

A bulk carrier of 150 m in length & above of single side skin construction, of 10
years of age and over, shall not carry solid bulk cargoes having a density of 1780
kg/m3 & above unless it has satisfactorily undergone either:

1. A periodical survey according to the enhanced programme of inspections required

by regulation XI/2; or

2. A survey of all cargo holds to the same extent as needed for the periodical surveys
in the enhanced survey programme of inspections required by regulation XI/2.

Information on compliance with requirements for bulk carriers

1. Any limitation in force on the carriage of solid bulk cargoes having a density of
1780 kg/m3 and above in accordance with the requirements of regulation 6 shall be
identified and recorded in the booklet.

2. A bulk carrier shall be continually marked on the side shell at three positions at
amidships, port and starboard, with a solid equilateral triangle having sides of 500
mm and its apex 300 mm beneath the deck line, and painted a contrasting colour to
that of the hull.

Requirements for bulk carriers not being capable of complying with regulation
4.2 due to the design configuration of their cargo holds
 1. Are provided with the bilge well high water level alarms in all cargo holds, or
in the cargo conveyor tunnels, as appropriate, giving an audible and visual
alarm on the navigation bridge, as endorsed by the Administration or an
organization recognized by it.

2. Are provided with the complete information on the particular cargo hold
flooding scenarios. This instructions shall be followed by complete directive
on the evacuation preparedness under the provisions of Section 8 of the
International Safety Management (ISM) Code and be used as the basis for
crew training and drills.

Solid bulk cargo density declaration

 carriage of the solid bulk cargoes having a density of 1780 kg/m3 or above,
any cargo declared to have a density within the range 1250 kg/m3 to 1780
kg/m3 shall have its density endorsed by an accredited testing organization.

Loading Instrument

 Bulk carriers of 150 m in length & above shall be fitted with a loading
instrument capable of providing information on hull girder shear forces and
bending moments, taking into account the recommendation adopted by the
Organization.

Water level detectors in cargo holds

Bulk carriers shall be fitted with the water level detectors in the aft end of each cargo
hold, giving both audible and visual alarms on each occasion the water level above
the inner bottom of cargo hold reaches:

(a) A height of 0.5 metres; and

(b) Whichever is the lower of either:

(i) The height of a point which is not less than(<) 15% of the depth of the cargo hold,
or

(ii)A height of two metres.

Water level detectors in ballast tanks

  A water level detector shall be fitted in each forward ballast tank of a bulk
carrier shall give both an audible and visual alarm when the liquid in the
forward ballast tank reaches a level not exceeding 10% of tank capacity.

 A device which overrides the alarm be installed and activated when the
forward ballast tank is in use.

Water level detectors in dry or void space

water level detector shall be fitted in each & every dry or void space of a bulk carrier,
any part of which extends forward of the foremost cargo hold, giving an audible &
visual alarm at a water depth of 0.1m in that space.

These alarms need not be fitted in the following areas:

(a) a dry/void space which is a chain cable locker; or

(b) in an enclosed space having volume which does not exceed 0.1% of the ship’s
maximum displacement volume.
Damage prevention check items on board bulk carriers
: The traditional design and configuration of single-side skin bulk carriers presents
obstacles to safe and efficient cargo handling, especially discharge with grabs. The
usual types of damage that occur during grab discharge operations are grab and
payloader damage in the holds, damage to hatch coamings and covers, and damage to
deck fittings and equipment.

Grab damage in the holds can be classified into three categories:

1. Damage to ladders or coamings during free digging.

2. Damage to frames and hopper side during the second phase of digging.

3. Damage to the tank top during the third phase of digging.

Prevention of damage to ladders

When free digging the Operator should: Check for the location of sloping ladders
with intermediate platforms extending into the hold space, check if it is going to the
outboard or inboard side, and check for the location of platforms.

Check location of vertical ladders and look out for intermediate platforms.

Work carefully across each end of the hold in turn, keeping clear of the ladders until
the cargo falls away and the handrails and intermediate platforms can be seen.

i) Ladder may be buried under the cargo with only the top section visible. ii) Grab
may topple over and strike the ladder, so make due allowances.
Fig: bulk terminal grab-operation

Prevention of damage to hoppers and sides frames by grab

a) Grab evenly over the full area of the hold to avoid development of steep banks in
the wings.

b) Avoid pendulum swinging of the grab into the wings so that it will not strike the
ship's side shell frames.

c) Grab should be straight and parallel to the ship's side.

d) Do not land the grab on the hopper side where bare steel is visible.

e) Do not attempt to land the grab close to the foreward and after bulkheads, as there
may be an outward sloping stool plate under the cargo.

f) Operate grab from the highest point of the cargo at all times.

g) Any damage to the frames may affect the seaworthiness of the ship, and has to be
reported to the master.

h) Avoid swinging the grab in at an angle, as the corner of the grab may strike the
hopper tank first. This will cause heavy indents or puncture holes in the tank plate.

Prevention of damage to inner bottom plating (tanktop)

Lower the grab carefully and evenly on to the tank top. Never drop the grab at speed.
Be particularly careful where there are mounds of cargo on the tank top. One side of
the grab will land safely on the cargo but the other side may drop corner first on to
bare steel. If it lands heavily it can puncture the tank top.

Prevention of damage to hatch coamings and covers

The operator should always check along the line of hatches that the covers are
completely opened clear of the coaming. The travel of the grab into the hold should
be controlled so that the grab and the grab trolley are in line as the grab is moving out
and down into the hold. This will ensure that the swing is under control at all times.

When working in the wings the grab trolley should be positioned so that the grab
ropes and the grab itself are raised clear of the coaming.

This is caused by grab or rope contact with the coamings or covers. Ship's crew may:

Leave covers slightly closed over the top of the coaming to prevent spillage getting
into the drain channels.

Fail to secure the open covers in place, which can allow them to roll closed.

Always be aware that the ship can move in or out, fore and aft, and up and down due
to wind, tide, movement of cargo and ballast, or crew adjusting mooring ropes.

Raising or lowering the grab close to the coaming may result in the grab or the grab
rope shackles catching on the lips of the hatch cover. This will result in the cover
being lifted and dropped heavily, causing major damage to the coaming, the cover
and the cover drive mechanism.

Damage to the cross-joint sealing arrangement could also occur.

Prevention of damage by payloader to bottoms of ladders, stool plates and

bulkheads

In co-ordination with the master, the operator should be informed of:

Location of the bottoms of ladders.

Location of any pipes or pipe guards.

Location of bilge covers plates.

Payloader drivers should:

Operate carefully around ladders and projections. Remove material manually where
necessary.

Avoid grinding the corners of the payloader bucket along the bottom of the
bulkheads and hopper tanks, as this kind of heavy pressure can cause unseen damage.

The master should point out the position of any obstructions on the tank top. On
some ships the locations of bilge cover plates are marked by a line of paint on the
bulkhead.
Prevention of damage to deck fittings and equipment

Before travelling the unloader to a new location.

Check that the grab is well clear of all deck fittings and equipment before moving.

Check that it is clear for the unloader to long travel.

When working close to the bridge front or foremast make due allowances for aerials
and other obstructions to the unloader boom and keep well clear.

Geared Ships:

Derrick and crane jibs not in use should be lowered below the level of the unloader
boom.

As the ship rises up as the cargo is unloaded, the unloader operator should always
check that there is safe clearance over all obstructions before attempting to move the
unloader. The unloader boom should always be raised before moving if there is any
doubt.

Error inducing conditions

The following conditions may lead to operator error or misjudgement:

Overfilled or unevenly filled holds having ladders and platforms buried under the
cargo.

Environmental conditions poor lighting, dust, glare, fog.

Mechanical or control problems on the unloader faulty grab controls, slipping winch
brakes, slipping long travel brakes.

Poor working conditions such as poor conditions in the operator cab, faulty
indicators, inadequate means of communications with ship and/or co-workers, faulty
seat, dirty windows.

Never grab from the foreward and aft ends of the holds without being sure of where
the ladders are.

Do not work unless the cargo in the hold is clearly visible.

All equipment faults should be reported to the terminal representative or relevant

maintenance person immediately.

Unloader operation is a demanding job that requires concentration and care.

Deficiencies and problems that distract the operator should be rectified immediately.
Procedures & Precautions during
carriage of Heavy Lift Cargoes
Procedure for Carriage of Heavy Lift Cargoes
 When vessel loads or discharges heavy lift cargoes with its own cargo
gear, the Chief Officer must anticipate that the vessel will take up an
angle of heel when the load is lifted with the derrick or crane. This angle
of heel must be calculated and the loss of Meta-centric Height (GM)
ascertained prior commencing the lift.
 The loss of positive stability during loading should be kept to a minimum
by reducing or eliminating free surface effects by either pressing up or
emptying the tanks.
 Prior commencing loading of heavy lift cargo, a check on the condition of
the derrick or crane and all associated gear shall be made and particular
attention paid to the SWL of shackles, blocks and wires. The rigging plan
must also be consult ed w.r.t. the positioning of preventive back-stays to
support the mast structure.
 All cargo winches used for the heavy lift shall be kept in double or high
gear.
 Ensure all ship’s moorings are taut and monitored, the fenders in position
and gangway lifted clear of the quay.
 The vessel’s deck capacity plans shall be checked to determine if the
deck space is capable of supporting the load (load density).
 The area where the load is to be landed shall be cleared of all
obstructions. Bearers must be laid to accept and spread the deck load.
Securing points on the load and adequate securing arrangements must
be determined in advance.
 Use of chocks and shoring against ship’s structure may be deployed as
necessary.
 Competent crew member s / winch drivers shall man the winches and
non-essential personnel shall be moved clear of the lifting area.

 Steadying lines should be secured to the load and collar of the floating
block if fitted.
 Ship’s side rails in way of the load may need to be lowered or removed.
 Any barges secured to the outboard side of the ship should be cast off.
 HODs to be advised well before the start of the operations for effective
coordination
 Use only the designated lifting points on the load.
 Lift the load slowly. Stop and inspect all round once the load clears the
deck before allowing the lift to continue. Control any excessive
movement of the lift with steadying lines.
  Ensure the weather conditions are suitable during the lifting operations
and suspend / defer such operations during heavy rains and when
experiencing high velocity winds.
 Ensure any ballast arrangements for trim and list have been
appropriately addressed.
 Ensure effective communications are maintained by relevant parties
throughout the operations.
 Once the heavy lift is landed on the ship during loading, ensure
arrangements are made to secure the load under strict and effective
supervision.

Precautions when loading Heavy Lift Cargoes

 SWL: the SWL of the ship’s gear should be more than the weight of the
cargo, taking into consideration the weight of the rigging gear to be used.
 Stowage Location: the cargo should preferably be loaded on deck. if
loaded under deck the space is lost as cargo cannot be loaded on top of
the heavy lift, also the heavy lift cannot be loaded on top of any other
cargo. On tween deck, there is a height restriction so it cannot be loaded
on tween deck.
 Special attention should be given for load density when the cargo is
loaded on deck, if required extra strengthening should be provided from
below the tween deck in the form of props made of 4×4 or 6×6 hard
wood.

 Stability: calculate the stability for the worst condition, i.e. when the
cargo is just lifted from the wharf as at that time it is furthest away from
centre line. Also the stability should be calculated for the entire
operation.
 Engine department: the engine department should be informed about this
as they will check if they will be able to give maximum power for the
operation.
 Proper dunnage requirements
 Proper securing material available as per the cargo securing manual.
 Ample fixed securing point (eye-pads) available on deck.
 Overhauling of all mechanical and movable parts.
 Greasing and lubrication of all moving parts and inspection of the wire
rope/sheaves for any damage/wear n tear.
 Wire ropes should be properly reeved on the drums.
 Winch should be on slow gear.
 Limit switches should be tested.

 Entries in the chain register (if any surveys are due or if there is any
c.o.c.)
 The appliance should be rigged as per the approved rigging plan.
 The cargo should be physically checked prior to loading (number of
resting point, lifting points, actual weight of the cargo, if one end is
 heavier so as to adjust the length of the wire slings in order to lift the
cargo horizontally).
 A meeting should be held with the ship’s crew briefing them about the
entire operation.
 Crew members should be stationed fwd and aft to attend to the mooring
lines.
 • Gangway to be lifted off the wharf to avoid any damage in case of any
heavy list.
 All bunkering and double banking operations to be stopped.
 There should be no barges/boats alongside.
 Stop all other cargo operations.
 Secure all other cargo onboard.
 Unauthorised persons should not be allowed onboard.
 Winch operator and signalman to be efficient in their job.
 One person to be standby to correct the list.
 Preferably the operation should be done during day light but if at night,
proper illumination should be in place.
 Discuss the plan with stevedores and foreman.
 Fix steadying lines.
 Lift cargo off the wharf and stop to check if everything is satisfactory.
Carry out thorough visual inspection of the lifting gear.
 If everything is satisfactory lift and load the cargo.