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Other documents randomly have
different content
azimuths; it is practicable, with a well-defined horizon, to observe
simultaneously two or more of these bodies whose bearings show
that they would produce desirable position lines. From the resulting
intersections the position of the ship is secured. This obviates
waiting for the second line, a feature that is always inconvenient and
sometimes, perhaps, dangerous.
The calculation of the altitude is accomplished by the solution of
the spherical triangle in which we have given the co-latitude (90° -
assumed latitude), the polar distance and the hour angle of the
meridian of the assumed position. Thus with two sides and the
included angle, the third side or the zenith distance (90° - altitude)
is easily determined by either of several formulas.
With the use of this method all the formulas that formerly, and
still, often puzzle the navigator to remember can be reduced to this
one sight. One of the most important features it possesses is that it
can be utilized regardless of the altitude of the body (except when
very high), its azimuth, or its hour angle, all of which are elements
that have to be used under certain favorable circumstances in order
to get accurate results from the older forms. The navigator is now
given a greater freedom in choosing bodies to observe than is found
in any other method.
The mariner to-day has been almost entirely relieved from the
labor of computing position at sea, should he care to avail himself of
a set of altitude tables, several excellent ones have made their
appearance on the market, among them Hydrographic Office
Publication No. 200. From them the altitude can be selected
corresponding to the conditions of any particular observation. With a
set of these tables a navigator is no longer required to be a
mathematician or to remember the forms of a half dozen sights.
Thus in this wonderful age the mariner’s utopian dream of obtaining
position at sea by inspection, is, in a way, realized.

In order to illustrate the practical working of a problem by this

method, the following example is taken up point by point:
 Early on the morning of May 21, 1899, while in the assumed
position of latitude 55° 00´ N., longitude 112° 08´ E. observed the
true altitude of the star Arcturus to be 37° 14´ 50´´, bearing west
of the meridian. The chronometer carrying Greenwich mean time
read 20 d. 6 h. 20 m. 03 s. The observer desired his position.
The problem by the St. Hilaire method resolves itself into the
solution of the spherical triangle shown in Fig. 10, where two sides
and an included angle are given:
Polar distance = 90° - declination (Nautical Almanac).
Co-latitude = 90° - latitude (by dead reckoning).
Hour angle of star. See figure and solution below.
The hour angle of the sun is more readily found than that of a
star. It is accomplished by applying the longitude (in time) of the
assumed position to the Greenwich time shown by the chronometer
at the time of sight. This hour angle of the mean sun must be
corrected by the equation of time to obtain the hour angle of the
actual sun.
 Fig. 9.

Fig. 10.
The cosine-haversine formula serves the purposes of this problem
very satisfactorily:
 Hav z = hav (L~d) + cos L cos d hav h
which is derived from the well-known expression:
Cos z = sin L sin d + cos L cos d cos h
where z = zenith distance; L = the latitude; and h = the hour angle.
Solution
Dec. Arcturus 19° 42´ 29´´.
Lat. 55° 00 N. (Assumed). G. M. T. 20 d. 6 h. 20 m. 03 s.
R. A. M. ⊙︎ 3 51 42
Acceleration 1 02

Lat. 55° 00´ 00´´. G. S. T. 10 12 47

Dec. 19 42 29 Long. 7 28 32
——————
L~d 35 17 31 L. S. T. 17 41 19
R. A. ⁜ 14 11 03

H. A. ⁜ 3 30 16 W.
(Observer) 52 34 00

Lat. 55° 00´ 00´´ = cos. 9.75859

Dec. 19 42 29 = cos. 9.97378
H. A. ⁜ 52 34 00 = hav. 9.29244
9.02481 = nat. hav. .10588
nat. hav. 35° 17´ 31´´ .09189
z = 52° 48´ 35´´ = nat. hav. .19777
90 00 00
Computed altitude 37 11 25
Observed altitude 37 14 50
Altitude difference = 3´ 25´´.
 Fig. 11.
A ship’s position is usually obtained by plotting the lines of
azimuth and the position lines much in the manner shown in the
chartlet. The azimuth of the body at the moment of observation is
readily taken by inspection from the azimuth tables or better still
from Weir’s Azimuth Diagram, both published by the U. S.
Hydrographic Office.
 In order to get an intersection of two lines of position and thereby
ascertain the latitude and longitude at once it is assumed that the
observer took an observation of another star bearing S. 45° E.,
simultaneously with Arcturus.
When ordinary a.m. time sights are taken the resulting longitude
establishes a north and south Sumner line but the latitude is by D.
R.; at noon the latitude by meridian altitude establishes an east and
west line but the longitude is by D. R. So it is with a Sumner line a
position is established upon it but the position along it is by D. R.
The latitude and longitude, however, can be obtained by a slight
calculation without drawing the lines on the chart; that is, the most
probable position. The altitude difference having been determined
enter Table 2, Bowditch, using the azimuth, or its reciprocal as the
case may be, as the course, and with the altitude difference as the
distance, pick out the difference of latitude and the departure and
apply them to the dead reckoning latitude and longitude as is the
usual practice. The result is the most probable position (according to
the D. R.) on the Sumner line.
 CHAPTER X

The Moon
The moon is the most interesting of the heavenly bodies not only
from a romantic viewpoint, but from the astronomical as well.
Looking at the practical side, it is due mostly to the moon’s influence
of attraction on the waters of the earth that we have the highly
important phenomena of the tides. The moon is our nearest
neighbor in the heavens; in fact, she is a satellite, that is, revolves
around the earth. This movement is from west to east at an average
rate of 51 minutes each day. The moon’s orbit is elliptical with the
earth lying a little out of center, not unlike the situation of the sun in
the earth’s orbital ellipse but more pronounced. When the moon is at
the nearest point to the earth she is said to be at “perigee” and the
point where she is most remote is called the “apogee.”
The moon is a non-luminous body and gives off nothing but
reflected sunlight. The lunar hemisphere facing the sun is therefore
the only illuminated portion of the body, and as she turns on her axis
precisely as the earth does, the same side is always towards us. The
astronomers have seen but one side of our satellite. This solar
illumination accounts for the various interesting phases of the moon
which we see each month. When this body in her monthly revolution
around the earth passes between us and the sun, the illuminated
side is towards the sun and the dark side towards us. We see no
moon at this time and call it New Moon. Two weeks later, she has
completed one-half of her revolution and is now on the other side of
the earth and we are between the moon and the sun. The
illuminated face of the moon is now directly towards us and we call
it Full Moon. At the time of new moon, the eastward movement
quickly brings her out of range with the sun and in a couple of days
we are able to see a fine crescent in the western sky. This is the
very edge of the illuminated face—we can see around the corner just
that much. Day after day the moon’s lighted surface becomes larger
and larger until in about a week she is near our meridian at sunset
and therefore at, roughly (depending on the time of the year), 90°
from the bearing of the sun. The moon now presents to us a face
one-half dark and one-half light. This is called the quadrature. This
term also applies to the similar condition occurring a week after full
moon when she is again bearing at right angles to the sun. These
occasions are also called the first and last quarter, respectively.
The movements of the moon are very rapid. She makes her
revolution around the earth in 27⅓ days, making a change in right
ascension of 360° or 24 hours in this interval, a change of over two
minutes each hour. The declination passes through its whole cycle of
change from north to south and return also in 27⅓ days; the sun
requires a year to pass through its extremes of declination and
return. The change of the moon’s declination averages about 9´ per
hour. These facts demand careful attention when employing the
moon in navigation.
It is a very curious and happy circumstance that in the higher
latitudes when the short days of the winter sun occur, the moon at
full rides its highest declinations, and consequently gives extra long
nights of moonlight; and that in the summer, when the sun is in
higher declination and the days are long, the moon at full is in low
declination and there is less moonlight when it is least needed. The
reason of these conditions is that the full moon occurs when on the
opposite side of the earth from the sun and at the winter solstice
when the earth’s north pole is inclined away from the sun she must
be inclined towards the moon passing that body in high declination.
The reverse conditions exist at the summer solstice.
Another fortunate provision for lovers of moonlight nights is the
fact that the plane of the moon’s orbit is not in the same plane as
that of the earth’s orbit, for if such were the case each time the
three bodies, the earth, sun and moon, came in range there would
be an eclipse. The new moon coming in between the earth and the
sun would cause an eclipse of the sun, and at full moon when the
earth is between the sun and moon, there would be an eclipse of
the moon. Therefore, there would be an eclipse twice a month. This
fortunately is avoided by the angle of 5° that the plane of the
moon’s orbit takes with that of the earth. As a result they only come
in exact range occasionally when the moon at new and full happens
to be on the ecliptic—the earth’s orbit. If, to repeat, this occurs at
Full there is an eclipse of the moon, if it occurs at New, there is an
eclipse of the sun. The moon moves eastward through the heavens
on her monthly course of revolution; it then becomes apparent that
she must return to the meridian later and later each day the amount
of “retardation,” as it is called. This retardation is a variable quantity
dependent upon the moon’s irregular change in right ascension. It is
caused by the moon’s motion in her elliptical orbit and at the
inclination which her orbit takes with the celestial equator. These
causes are precisely the same in character as those producing the
equation of time in the conditions relative to the sun and the earth’s
orbit, but those of the moon are much greater. The errors causing a
variation in the right ascension of the sun requiring a year where the
similar conditions in the moon are brought about in a month, which
accounts for the marked changes in the moon’s rate of eastward
motion. The average daily retardation, or average later time in
arriving at the meridian, is very close to 51 minutes. Yet the
extremes of retardation range from 38 to 66 minutes. The average
of 51 minutes daily retardation is also noticed in the later rising and
setting of the moon. The extreme times between successive risings
or settings during the year, while they average 51 minutes like the
crossing of the meridian, they do not maintain the same extremes,
changing on account of the latitude of the observer as well as upon
her own motions. At 41° north the retardation on successive risings
and settings ranges between 23 minutes and 1 hour and 17 minutes.
As the vessel proceeds farther north the range is greater until near
66° north when the moon is in her average greatest declination
north she does not set at all becoming circumpolar for a certain time
each month. In the duration of a month the moon changes her right
ascension 24 hours, where the sun takes a year to accomplish this
amount as it (apparently for navigational purposes) moves eastward
around the earth. This shows the much more rapidly increasing
change in right ascension in the case of our satellite. Thus again the
moon’s rapid motions are accounted for.
The moon’s orbit around the earth is not coincident—does not lie
in the same plane as the earth’s orbit (the ecliptic) but takes an
angle of about 5° 8´ with it. The point of intersection between the
moon’s orbit and the ecliptic are called nodes (corresponding with
the equinoxes). The point crossed by the moon as it passes from
southern to the northern side of the ecliptic is called the ascending
and the other the descending node. The moon’s axis is very slowly
describing a circle in the heavens similar to that of the earth; and in
consequence the nodes are slowly moving westward along the
ecliptic year by year. Just as is the equinox by the movement of
precession, but at a much greater rate (see remarks on precession
elsewhere). The moon’s axis completes its revolution in about 19
years, while the earth requires 26,000 years. This is called the lunar
cycle. At the time in the lunar cycle when the ascending node of the
moon’s orbit is in range with the vernal equinox the moon has her
greatest range of declination—about 57° from extreme north to
extreme south. She is then 23° north, the amount that the ecliptic is
from the equator and 5° more, the amount that the moon’s orbit is
above the ecliptic. About 9½ years later when the moon’s axis has
listed in the opposite direction and the descending node coincides
with the vernal equinox, the moon’s maximum declination equals 23°
minus 5° or 18° north or south, a range of only about 26°.
 This figure is viewed from the sun looking towards the earth on
March 21st—the vernal equinox.
Fig. 12.
In the autumn, there occurs an interesting phenomenon
regarding the moon called the Harvest Moon. This is the time of
unusually fine moonlight nights in which the moon rises for three or
four evenings at about the same time instead of the usual rapid
retardation. The time the sun or moon is above our horizon depends
upon its declination and our latitude. As the sun moves northward in
declination from March to June, our days lengthen by the sun rising
earlier and farther in the northeast, and setting later and farther to
the northwest. Similarly the moon in September is moving northward
in declination very rapidly and would be rising earlier each evening
were it not for its own eastward movement of revolution which
causes her to slip eastward an average of 51 minutes daily and
causes her later rising at night. The result is that these two
influences at work almost counteract each other and cause the
moon to rise at about the same time for several days giving us three
or four glorious moonlight nights called the Harvest Moon.
It will be seen by the foregoing that great care must be exercised
in having the time of observation accurately determined owing to
those rapid movements of the moon. It is also a matter of great
difficulty to correct the observed altitude of this body on account of
numerous errors that become considerable in amounts due to her
proximity to the earth. And for these reasons this body is not
popular for observations with the general run of navigators. In the
case of the semi-diameter, considerable error is apparent and is fully
described, with parallax, which is excessive, under “Corrections for
Observed Altitudes.”
 CHAPTER XI

Charts
A difficulty was encountered when the early cartographers
attempted to represent the earth’s spherical surface on a flat sheet.
It can not be done, of course, without distortion being introduced in
some manner. There are various methods of taking care of this error
and one is adopted for one certain purpose while another scheme is
used in some other work. These methods of caring for the error or
distortion are known as projections, the principal being the Mercator,
the gnomonic and polyconic. The Mercator projection is almost
universally used for navigational purposes; the gnomonic projection
facilitates the use of great circle sailing, and the polyconic is used for
surveying sheets.
The Mercator chart represents the earth as though it were a
cylinder instead of a sphere.
If we take the skin of one-half an orange, and assume it to
represent the northern hemisphere of the earth, an attempt to
forcibly bring it flat upon a table will result in the tearing or
stretching of the skin. It can, however, be brought flat to the table in
a regular uniform way by cutting it in a saw tooth fashion from the
stem (pole) to the edge (equator), as shown in the diagram.
 Fig. 13.
The shaded portions represent actual earth’s surface and the
blank parts show the error introduced by using this method. In this
form it is useless as a chart, so the real parts are stretched or
extended each way to the dotted lines making a complete chart. It is
now, however, without a vestige of accuracy in representing the
bodies of land and water as they really exist. The result would be
that if a round island should be in the latitude of the top of the chart
it would be stretched into an elongated island lying east and west
giving a very erroneous inaccurate idea of it, as shown by the east
and west shading. If, however, the island had been on the equator
where no east and west stretching would have occurred the island
would appear in its natural shape, but the farther north or south it
lies just in proportion to the latitude will it be stretched in an east
and west direction. Such a condition will not serve the purposes of
navigation and it becomes necessary to extend the degrees of
latitude, making them appear longer and longer as the equator is
departed from. This stretches the elongated east and west island in
a north and south direction and brings it back approximately to its
actual shape of a round island. If there was a round island in 10° N.
and a similar-sized similar-shaped island in 50° N. the Mercator chart
would show the northern one to be almost twice as large owing to
this artificial distortion. But its relative shape would remain
practically correct. It will be seen that the latitude scale on the sides
of the chart carries an increasing value towards the north—on a
chart where a degree is about ¼´´ long at the equator it would be
about ½´´ long in 60° N. or S.
A minute of latitude is equal to a mile on this scale, but it
becomes necessary to use it in the latitude in which the
measurement is taken. If a course runs N. 60° E. from latitude 30°
N. to 40° N. and the distance is desired, take at the middle latitude
at the side of the chart a convenient multiple of distance, say 30´,
on the dividers and step off the distance. Or the whole course can
be taken off at once and with the points of the dividers at equal
distances north and south of the middle latitude read off the number
of minutes of latitude lying between them.
In very high latitudes the Mercator chart is not reliable. The
distortion becomes excessive and bearings taken will not plot
correctly.
All the meridians on a Mercator chart are parallel and cut the
equator at right angles. They all lie in a true north and south
direction. The parallels of latitude all lie east and west and are
parallel to each other and at right angles to the meridians. The
degrees of longitude on the globe grow smaller and smaller as the
pole is approached due to the actual convergence of the meridians,
but as all meridians are parallel on the Mercator chart the length of a
degree must be shown the same length at the top as well as at the
bottom of the chart. In just the proportion that the degrees of
longitude have been lengthened artificially beyond their true length
must the degrees of latitude be lengthened in each latitude. This
amount is shown in Table 3, Bowditch, reckoned as the distance in
miles each parallel is from the equator by the Mercator projection.
Thus in latitude 40° N. the distance is 2400´ or miles, the table
shows that in the construction of a Mercator chart this parallel
should be increased artificially to 2607.6. These are called the
meridional parts.
On a Mercator chart the ship’s course is represented by a straight
line and cuts each meridian at the same angle and is called a rhumb
line. For all practical purposes on short runs this rhumb line is the
best to use, but it is not the shortest distance between two points.
Should you be able in a course a thousand miles long, to see your
port of destination your rhumb line course at the outset would not
head your ship for it, but (in northern latitude) to the southward of
it. However, as you proceeded the ship’s head would gradually draw
towards the port and you would eventually arrive. What appears to
be a straight line on this chart is really a curve on the sphere of the
earth. Your line of actual vision is a great circle, and in order to
follow such a bee line you must constantly change your compass
course (on a long run) and describe a curve on the Mercator chart
unless the ship is headed north or south or east or west along the
equator, in which cases she is sailing on a great circle. The well-
known Hydrographic Office Pilot Charts are on the Mercator
projection and show all steamship tracks as curves, for they are
great circles.
The gnomonic chart is based on a projection of the earth’s
surface upon a plane tangent to any chosen point which is to be the
center of the chart. The eye is assumed to be at the center of the
earth looking outward to the point of tangency. It will be seen that
the surface of the earth adjacent to the point of tangency will be
very accurately shown on the chart, but becomes distorted gradually
from the center, the sides of which show the land in such an
unnatural shape that it is hardly recognizable.
With a chart on this projection great circle sailing is much
simplified. The straight line between two points indicates the great
circle to follow, and the course and distance is obtained by following
the directions and illustrated example given on each chart. They are
constructed for the different oceans and are for sale by the
Hydrographic Office.
The course can be transferred to a Mercator chart by taking
successive positions from the gnomonic chart and plotting them
according to latitude and longitude, and joining by straight or curved
lines.
In setting out on a voyage the port of destination could it be seen
ahead would indicate the great circle course, and in order to
continue to head directly for it, the course must be continually
changed. While in the North Atlantic bound for Europe the course
must be changed constantly to the east (right) in order to remain on
the great circle—the straight and shortest distance.
The course and distance can be computed by the form given in
Bowditch, in which two sides and an included angle are given to find
the other side and the (course) angle at the point of departure. The
co-latitudes of the points of departure and destination and the angle
between them at the pole, are respectively the sides and the
included angle. However, the gnomonic chart gives the course and
distance graphically.

When a chart is purchased or received from the Government

offices the date of issue stamped upon it should be carefully noted.
It can safely be taken for granted that the chart has been corrected
up to that date and it is incumbent upon the navigator or master to
seek in all Notices to Mariners subsequent to this date for any that
affect the chart. If a Notice contains information requiring a
correction the number of the chart appears in boldface type. The
alterations should be made neatly with India waterproof ink, and if
by the nature of the information it is impracticable to make the
changes a note should be made in a conspicuous place.
Charts are printed from copper, zinc or aluminum plates and small
changes easily made by hand are not changed on the plate until an
accumulation of errata make it necessary, or sweeping changes of a
more extensive nature takes place such as a new survey, dredged
channels, etc. A chart under extensive correction is brought up to
date in every particular, including the latest geographic spelling, new
docks and public works. The date is noted on the right of the center
margin and the dates of smaller hand corrections are indicated at
the lower left corner; the figures denote the number of the weekly
Notice to Mariners, in which the information is found, and the year.
The different scales of charts range from those of the world to a
harbor plan. There are charts of oceans; general coasts, such as
from the St. Lawrence to below New York; intermediate coasts, as
from Eastport, Maine to Cape Ann; and approaches to ports, say
from Cape Ann to Cape Cod for the port of Boston; and lastly there
are harbor plans. Those covering large areas are known as small-
scale charts while harbor charts are called large-scale charts.
A chart depends on the surveys that furnished its data, and its
accuracy and reliability rests upon that survey. Even with the most
careful surveys, where the lead is used to ascertain depths, there
are many instances where pinnacle rocks have escaped detection by
coming between the casts of the lead taken by the surveying party.
These isolated rocks become points of great danger to vessels of
deep draft, and it becomes a measure of safety to avoid rocky coasts
and offshore patches by giving them a wide berth. Spaces devoid of
soundings may well be viewed with suspicion if in reasonably
shallow water, for it would appear to indicate a lack of thoroughness
in the survey, at least a lack of soundings. The wire drag, a device
used to sweep important areas to a certain depth, is the only sure
way of discovering all the dangers of the bottom.
The aids to navigation shown on the charts are described by
symbols and abbreviations as fully as possible with the limited space.
All symbols are placed in the location of the aid, but in some cases
the actual position may be in doubt by the nature of the symbol, for
instance a buoy’s location is denoted by the ring that accompanies
the symbol and not the triangle; a light vessel by the position of the
dot of the light, or between them if there are two dots (lights).
Buoys and light vessels often drag their moorings or go adrift
entirely, especially in the winter season. It is therefore the part of
wisdom to check a ship’s position by shore marks when possible and
be prepared to find buoys out of position. The mechanism of a light
buoy is often disarranged through various causes.
The characteristics of all lights are briefly given with the visibility
and height above the sea. The charted visibility is the distance they
should be seen from a vessel’s deck on which the height of the eye
is fifteen feet above the sea, so, from the deck of an ordinary power
boat a light will not be seen until well within the range of visibility as
published, while from the deck of a large steamer the light will be
seen outside its charted visibility. This refers to high-powered lights
where the curvature of the earth has to be given consideration. A
flashing light is one in which the flash is of less duration than the
eclipse, while an occulting light has an eclipse equal to or less than
the period of light. Flashes and eclipses are often grouped and
receive the name of group flashing or group occulting. An alternating
light is one in which two colors are shown each for an equal interval
with no intervening eclipse, but if an eclipse separates the color flash
from a white flash, for instance, it becomes a flashing white light
varied by a red flash. It is a very common practice to insert sectors
of different colors into the arc of visibility of a light in order to cover
a dangerous shoal or to indicate a channel. Bearings defining these
sectors are taken from seaward and not from the light. The term
luminous range will be met with, and indicates the distance the
power of the light can carry the visibility irrespective of an
intervening horizon. A light may have a luminous range much in
excess of its visibility which is limited by the horizon but in a haze or
fog its penetrating power will greatly exceed that of a light of similar
visibility but less luminous range. The power of a light is more
commonly shown by units of a thousand candle power, thus, 5.6
indicates a power of fifty-six hundred candles. The catoptric (C.)
light employs the reflecting, and the dioptric (D.) the refracting
principle.
 There is a large amount of useful information given on every
chart that the average mariner allows to escape his notice. This
failure on his part is mostly due to familiarity, or reliance on pilots
with local knowledge.
The first important feature of a chart to be considered is the
shoreline, which is shown as a continuous line representing the high-
water mark. This, it must be borne in mind, is much changed at low
water, and where the range of tide is large the shoreline is
proportionately in error. Again, where the water is shallow the
change is more marked than where the shores are steep-to. If
account is not taken of the stage of the tide it is easy to be very
much deceived.
In approaching a strange harbor the chart should be scrutinized
for prominent marks, and these identified as soon as possible, then
the lesser objects can be picked up by their relative positions with
the already identified landmarks. Among the lesser marks may be
found cliffs, boulders, sandy beaches, vegetation, buildings
(particularly church spires and houses with cupolas). Prominent
elevations of land always serve to identify a locality. The chart shows
these elevations clearly by contour lines.
A twenty-foot contour line, for instance, shows the line of the cut,
should the hill be sawed off twenty feet above the sea. When
contour lines are wide apart the land has a gradual slope, and as the
grade becomes steeper the contour lines come closer
proportionately.
The chart, wherever possible, represents the earth as seen from
overhead, but in the case of vertical objects, they are of necessity
shown horizontally. One of the notable cases of this is in the
representation of cliffs, which in order to show their height are
drawn with the side view as seen from the water.
Numbers seen on the land show the height above the high water.
From the topographical features of a chart we turn to those of
hydrography. All the depths indicated on a chart are those existing at
mean low water, on the Atlantic Coast, and mean lower low water on
the Pacific Coast.
All the British Admiralty and most of the Hydrographic Office
charts are reduced to the level of low water at ordinary spring tides.
While there is usually more water to be expected than shown, it
must be remembered that when the plane of mean low water is
used, the low waters that, roughly speaking, come between the
moon’s first and last quarters, will fall below the soundings on the
charts.
 The effect of an abnormal barometer and high winds must at
times be borne in mind, for a continuous northwest wind will make a
vital difference in the depths along the Atlantic seaboard, especially
in the Delaware and Chesapeake Bays.
 Very often there is information that can not be symbolized on the
chart and is placed in italics in the form of a note. These are always
important and should be read carefully.
Sailing directions are written to supplement the charts and
preserve for the mariner a mass of information which otherwise
would not reach him.
It is always well to pay attention to the current arrows, as they
are a means by which the strength and direction of the tidal stream
may be ascertained. The symbol of a tide rip should not be ignored
by one in a small boat, as the conditions might be right to make
them dangerous.
On the water areas of the chart we find contours of depths as on
the land are contours of height. It is a good scheme, if one wanted
to take the trouble to run a contour line indicating a depth a few feet
greater than the draft of his boat, and tint the shallow water with a
brush.
Large vessels of deep draft upon approaching the coast are
guided by the ten-fathom curve unless the shore is very steep-to
and the water very deep. The masters of such vessels would remain
outside that curve until their position was well established. Lighter
draft vessels are guided by the five-fathom curve in a similar
manner.
When approaching the land and the landmarks are not available,
the character of the bottom further assists the mariner as he sounds
slowly towards the land. The kind of bottom is indicated by
abbreviations which are obvious on almost every portion of the
charts.
The three-fathom curve is the most important to the greatest
number of navigators and for this reason is made the most
pronounced. In the majority of charts it is shown by a “sanded” area
within it, but in many new charts it is heavily tinted.
In changing from one chart to another while working in an
unfamiliar locality, take especial note whether the soundings are in
feet or fathoms.
It is an excellent practice when a vessel is brought to anchor and
cross bearings taken, to estimate the radius of her swinging circle by
adding the amount of chain out to the length of the vessel and with
this describe a circle on the chart and note if there is any danger of
tailing into shoal water at any quarter.

This has been a long voyage and I am glad to tie up and let the
printers take charge. If any of my readers see places where I have
stood into the shallow water of inaccuracy, I will be grateful for a
passing hail that I may shift helm and get out with as little damage
as possible.
 INDEX

A
Acceleration for longitude, 91
Amplitude, 12, 97
Aphelion, 8
Apogee, 139
Astronomical triangle, 102
Azimuth, 12, 96
altitude, 98
Weir’s diagram of, 98
Azimuths and amplitudes, 93

C
Calendar, 64
Celestial latitude, 14
longitude, 14
Chart, contours, 155
corrections, 151
scales, 152
Charts, 146
datum, 155
diagrams of symbols, 156
fathom curves, 158
information on, 154
symbols, 152
Chronometer time, necessity of accuracy in, 87
Circles of equal altitudes, 110
Circum-meridian altitude, 82
Compass, 93
deviation of, 94
error of, 94
naming of, 99
Coordinates, 9
Corrections for observed altitudes, 68

D
Day lost and day gained, 37
Dead reckoning, 1
Declination, 15
daily change of, 24
Deviation, naming of, 100
Dip, 72
Double altitude problem, 120

E
Earth’s orbit, 8
revolution around the sun, 20
Eclipses, 141
Ecliptic, 14
Equal altitude circle, 109
Equal altitude method, 104
Equation of Time, 56
diagram of, 62
 error due to obliquity, 60
Equinoctial colure, 26
Ex-meridian altitude, 82
bodies below the pole, 86
planets, 86
stars, 86

F
First point of Aries, 14, 26

G
Gnomonic chart, 150
Great circles, 10, 17
Great-circle sailing, 150
Greenwich mean time on navigator’s watch, 54

H
Horizon, rational, 11, 75
sensible, 12, 73
visible, 11, 73
Hour circles, 13

I
Index correction, 68

J
Johnson’s method, 123
diagrams, 126
 K
Kepler’s Law, 56

L
Latitude, 78
by Polaris, 88
factor, 129
formula for finding, 80
Laying a course, 96
Lights, characteristics, etc., 153
Longitude, 101
and time, 102
by equal altitudes, 104
factor, 125
prime vertical, 103
stars and planets, 105
Lunar cycle, 143

M
Mean time into sidereal, 106
Mercator Projection, 146
diagram, 147
Meridian altitude, 78
time to observe a star, 81
to report at noon, 81
Meridional parts, 149
Middle latitude sailing, 4
Mizar, 89
Moon, 139
full, 140
 harvest, 143
new, 140
Moon’s declination, 143
diagram, 144
nodes, 143
retardation, 142
revolution, 140
right ascension, 142

N
Nadir, 11
Napier’s diagram, 96
Nautical astronomy, 5
New navigation, 102, 129
advantages of, 133
diagrams of, 135, 137
finding position without plotting on chart, 138
illustrated examples, 134
Notices to mariners, 151
Nutation, 32

P
Parallax, 75
horizontal, 76
moon, 77
Parallel sailing, 3
Perigee, 139
Perihelion, 8
Plane sailing, 2
Planets, 6-7