Behavioristic Approach

-The behavioristic approach in grammar teaching and learning is rooted in behaviorism, a psychological
theory that emphasizes learning through repetitive imitation and conditioning.
- The behaviorist theory believes that “infants learn oral language from other human role models through
a process involving imitation, rewards, and practice. Human role models in an infant’s environment
provide the stimuli and rewards,” (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004).
-It views language acquisition as a process of habit formation, where learners acquire language through
repeated exposure, practice, and reinforcement.
-This approach focuses on observable behaviors and measurable outcomes, emphasizing the role of
environmental stimuli and responses in shaping language skills.

Basic Tenents of Behaviorist Theory

The following principles illustrate the operating principles of behaviorism:
1) Behaviorist theory dwells on spoken language. That is, primary medium of language is oral: speech is
language because there are many languages without written forms, because we learn to speak before we
learn to read and write. Then, language is primarily what is spoken and secondarily what is written. That's
why spoken language must have a priority in language teaching.
2) Behaviorist theory is the habit formation theory of language teaching and learning, reminding us the
learning of structural grammar. Language learning concerns us by "not problem-solving but the
information and performance of habits" (Nelson Brooks, 1960; 46-47). In other words, language learning
is a mechanical process leading the learners to habit formation whose underlying scheme is the
conditioned reflex. Thus, it is definitely true that language is controlled by the consequences of behavior.
3) The stimulus-response chain, S→ Response, is a pure case of conditioning. Behaviorist learning theory
"emphasizes conditioning and building from the simplest conditioned responses to more and more
complex behaviors" (David S. Palermo, 1978; 19-20). This comes to mean that clauses and sentences are
learned linearly as longer and longer stimulus-response chains, produced in a left-to right series of
sequence like SSSS..., as probabilistic incidents, which are basically Markov's processes. Each stimulus is
thus the caser of a response, and each response becomes the initiator of a stimulus, and this process goes
on and on in this way.
4) All learning is the establishment of habits as the result of reinforcement and reward. Positive
reinforcement is reward while negative reinforcement is punishment. In a stimulus situation, a response is
exerted, and if the response is positively augmented by a reward, then the association between the
stimulus and response is itself reinforced and thus the response will very likely be manipulated by every
appearance of stimulus. The result will yield conditioning. When responses to stimuli are coherently
reinforced, then habit formation is established. It is because of this fact that this theory is termed habit-
formation-by-reinforcement theory.
5) The learning, due to its socially-conditioned nature, can be the same for each individual. In other
words, each person can learn equally if the conditions in which the learning takes place are the same for
each person.

Timeline: Historical Development of Behavioristic Approach

Late 19th Century: Origins of Behaviorism

o 1890s: Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

Contribution: Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, conducted groundbreaking experiments on dogs,

discovering the phenomenon of classical conditioning. Pavlov’s work revealed that neutral stimuli (such
as a ringing bell) could be paired with an unconditioned stimulus (like food) to elicit a conditioned
response (salivation). This demonstrated that behavior could be learned through association, marking an
early understanding of behaviorist principles.
Impact: Pavlov’s work was pivotal in the development of behaviorism, as it emphasized the importance
of observable behaviors and the influence of the environment on behavior. His research helped shape the
emerging behaviorist school by providing empirical evidence that behavior can be conditioned in
predictable ways.
1913: Birth of Behaviorism
o 1913: John B. Watson and Classical Behaviorism

Contribution: John B. Watson, often credited as the founder of behaviorism, published his seminal paper
"Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" in 1913. In this work, Watson rejected introspective methods
and the study of consciousness, advocating for psychology to focus strictly on observable behavior. He
argued that behavior could be objectively studied without recourse to internal mental states, such as
thoughts or emotions. Watson's famous experiment with "Little Albert" demonstrated that emotional
responses, like fear, could be conditioned in humans, just as Pavlov had shown with animals.
Impact: Watson’s ideas revolutionized psychology by shifting its focus from the study of the mind to the
study of behavior. His work laid the foundation for behaviorism to become the dominant school of
thought in psychology for several decades. Watson's emphasis on the environment's role in shaping
behavior influenced future generations of psychologists.
1930s-1950s: Rise of Operant Conditioning
o 1938: B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning

Contribution: B.F. Skinner, one of the most influential figures in behaviorism, expanded the theory by
introducing the concept of operant conditioning. In his book The Behavior of Organisms (1938), Skinner
differentiated between classical conditioning (which he called "respondent conditioning") and operant
conditioning. Skinner argued that behavior is not just elicited by stimuli but can also be shaped by the
consequences that follow it. He demonstrated that behaviors followed by rewards (reinforcement) are
likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by punishment are less likely to occur. Skinner also
developed the "Skinner Box," an apparatus used to study operant conditioning in animals.
Impact: Skinner’s work on operant conditioning became central to the behaviorist movement,
emphasizing the role of reinforcement and punishment in learning. His ideas influenced fields such as
education, where reinforcement techniques are used in classroom management, and therapy, particularly
in behavior modification practices. Skinner’s contributions significantly extended the practical
applications of behaviorism.
1950s: Neobehaviorism
o 1950s: Clark Hull and Edward Tolman

Contribution: In the mid-20th century, a new wave of behaviorists, often referred to as

"neobehaviorists," emerged, seeking to refine behaviorist theories. Clark Hull proposed the drive
reduction theory, suggesting that learning occurs when a behavior reduces a biological drive (such as
hunger or thirst). Hull developed a complex, mathematical formula to explain the learning process.
Meanwhile, Edward Tolman introduced cognitive elements to behaviorism with his concept of "cognitive
maps." Through his research on rats navigating mazes, Tolman demonstrated that animals form mental
representations of their environments, implying that learning involves more than just stimulus-response
relationships.
Impact: Neobehaviorism bridged the gap between traditional behaviorism and cognitive psychology.
Hull's theories attempted to quantify learning, making the study of behavior more scientific and rigorous.
Tolman’s work on cognitive maps challenged strict behaviorism by suggesting that internal mental
processes play a role in learning. This set the stage for the eventual rise of cognitive psychology, but
neobehaviorism still adhered to the principles of observable behavior as the primary focus.
1960s-1970s: Decline of Strict Behaviorism
o 1960s: Albert Bandura and Social Learning Theory

Contribution: Albert Bandura, a key figure in the transition away from strict behaviorism, introduced
social learning theory, which expanded the understanding of how people learn by incorporating
observational learning. Bandura’s famous "Bobo Doll" experiments demonstrated that children could
learn aggressive behaviors simply by observing a model, without receiving any direct reinforcement.
Bandura argued that people learn by watching others and that mental processes such as attention,
memory, and motivation are essential in understanding how learning occurs.
Impact: Bandura’s social learning theory challenged traditional behaviorist views by showing that
reinforcement is not the only mechanism for learning. His work highlighted the importance of cognitive
factors and opened the door for the integration of cognitive psychology into behaviorist frameworks.
Bandura’s theory has had lasting implications for education, therapy, and understanding social behaviors.
1960s-1970s: Cognitive Revolution
o Late 1960s: Cognitive Psychology Emerges

Contribution: By the late 1960s, the field of psychology underwent a "cognitive revolution," shifting
away from the behaviorist focus on observable behaviors to an emphasis on internal mental processes.
This period saw the rise of cognitive psychology, which studied how people perceive, think, remember,
and learn. Cognitive psychologists criticized behaviorism for neglecting the internal processes that
influence behavior.
Impact: The cognitive revolution marked a significant decline in the dominance of strict behaviorism.
However, behaviorism’s influence persisted in areas such as behavioral therapy and educational practices.
Cognitive psychology became the dominant paradigm in psychology, but many of its concepts, such as
reinforcement and punishment, were inherited from behaviorism.
Modern Behaviorism
o 1980s-Present: Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

Contribution: Despite the cognitive revolution, behaviorism has continued to evolve, particularly
through Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), which applies behaviorist principles to real-world settings.
ABA is widely used in interventions for individuals with autism and other developmental disorders.
Techniques such as positive reinforcement and shaping are used to modify behaviors and improve social
and communication skills.
Impact: ABA represents the practical application of behaviorist principles and demonstrates the enduring
relevance of behaviorism in therapeutic and educational contexts. Its effectiveness in behavior
modification has made it one of the most widely used interventions in special education and therapy for
developmental disorders.
Proponents

1. Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)

 Contribution: Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is best known for his discovery of classical
conditioning. His experiments with dogs demonstrated how a neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound of
a bell) could become associated with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) to elicit a conditioned
response (e.g., salivation). Pavlov’s work revealed that behavior could be conditioned through
repeated associations.
 Impact: Pavlov’s research laid the groundwork for behaviorism by introducing the concept of
reflexive responses to stimuli. His studies emphasized the importance of environmental stimuli in
shaping behavior, influencing later behaviorists such as John B. Watson.

2. John B. Watson (1878–1958)

 Contribution: John B. Watson is credited with formally establishing behaviorism as a scientific

discipline in psychology. In his 1913 paper "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It," Watson
rejected the study of consciousness and introspection, arguing that psychology should focus
exclusively on observable behavior. His famous Little Albert experiment demonstrated that fear
responses could be conditioned in humans, extending Pavlov’s ideas to human behavior.
 Impact: Watson’s work revolutionized psychology by shifting its focus from the internal
workings of the mind to the external, observable behaviors. His radical stance on behaviorism
influenced generations of psychologists and set the stage for later developments in behavioral
conditioning and learning.

3. Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949)

 Contribution: Edward Thorndike introduced the concept of trial and error learning and the
Law of Effect, which states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are likely to be
repeated, while those followed by negative outcomes are not. His work with animals, particularly
his puzzle box experiments with cats, showed how behaviors could be gradually shaped by their
consequences.
 Impact: Thorndike’s connectionism theory, which posited that learning was the result of
forming associations between stimuli and responses, was a precursor to operant conditioning. His
 laws of learning, including the Law of Effect, greatly influenced the development of educational
psychology and behavioral conditioning.

4. B.F. Skinner (1904–1990)

 Contribution: B.F. Skinner expanded upon behaviorist principles by developing operant

conditioning, a theory that emphasizes the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping
behavior. Skinner’s experiments with the Skinner Box, where animals learned to press levers for
food, illustrated how behaviors could be strengthened or weakened based on the consequences
that followed them. He also introduced concepts like reinforcement schedules to explain how
behavior could be maintained over time.
 Impact: Skinner’s work was crucial in understanding how behaviors are learned and maintained
through reinforcement. His theories on behavior modification and teaching methods, such as
programmed instruction, have had a lasting influence on education, therapy, and behavior
management practices.

5. Edwin Guthrie (1886–1959)

 Contribution: Edwin Guthrie is known for his contiguity theory, which posits that learning
occurs when a response is consistently paired with a stimulus in close temporal proximity.
According to the law which he called law of contiguity, if an action with a contingent stimulus is
repeated, the stimulus tends to be followed by that action. This law can be accepted as another
expression of behaviorist opinion. Guthrie emphasized that learning happens in a single trial and
that repetition is not necessary for learning to occur. He also introduced methods for breaking
habits, such as the method of threshold and the method of reaction formation.
 Impact: Guthrie’s ideas provided a simple but powerful explanation of learning, emphasizing the
immediate and direct association between stimuli and responses. His theories on habit formation
and extinction influenced later research in behavior modification.

6. Edward C. Tolman (1886–1959)

 Contribution: Edward Tolman introduced the concept of cognitive maps and latent learning,
challenging the strict stimulus-response association of traditional behaviorism. Tolman’s
experiments with rats in mazes demonstrated that animals could learn without immediate
reinforcement, using their internal cognitive representations of the environment.
 Impact: Tolman’s work was instrumental in bridging behaviorism and cognitive psychology. His
theories showed that mental processes, such as expectations and cognitive maps, play a role in
learning, leading to the development of cognitive behaviorism.

Nuances of the Behavioristic Approach:

 Emphasis on Observable Behavior: Behaviorism focuses solely on observable behaviors and

measurable outcomes, neglecting internal cognitive processes. This means the focus is on
producing correct grammatical structures through repetition and reinforcement, rather than
understanding the underlying principles.

Example: Imagine a child learning to say "I am going to the park." A behaviorist would focus on whether
the child correctly uses the verb tense ("going") and the correct word order. They wouldn't worry about
whether the child actually understands the concept of future tense or the grammatical structure.

 Reliance on Drill and Repetition: The approach relies heavily on drill exercises and repetitive
practice to reinforce grammar rules. While this can be effective for initial learning, it can become
monotonous and hinder the development of fluency and spontaneous language use.

Example: A behaviorist might have students repeatedly practice phrases like "I am eating an apple" or
"He is playing soccer." This can help them learn the structure, but it doesn't teach them how to use those
phrases in different contexts or to express themselves creatively.

 Reinforcement and Reward Systems: Behaviorism often incorporates reward systems to

encourage desired behaviors. This can be motivating for some learners, but it can also create an
extrinsic motivation for learning, potentially diminishing intrinsic interest in language.
Example: A teacher might give a student a sticker every time they correctly conjugate a verb. This can be
effective in the short term, but it might make the student less interested in learning the language for its
own sake.

 Focus on Stimulus-Response: Behaviorism views language acquisition as a stimulus-response

chain, where learners respond to external stimuli (e.g., teacher instructions, prompts) with
specific grammatical responses. This can be limiting, as it doesn't account for the complexities of
language use in real-world contexts.

Example: A teacher might say "What is your name?" (stimulus) and expect the student to respond with
"My name is..." (response). This doesn't teach the student how to ask questions, how to respond to
different types of questions, or how to use language in a natural conversation.

Issues and Criticisms of the Approach

Despite its historical influence, the behavioristic approach has faced significant criticism in recent
decades. Some of the key issues and criticisms include:

 Limited Creativity: Critics argue that the behavioristic approach may restrict students' creativity
and critical thinking skills by focusing on rote learning and imitation. It may not adequately foster
the development of spontaneous language use and creative expression.
 Lack of Contextual Understanding: Some critics suggest that behaviorism in grammar teaching
may overlook the importance of understanding language in context, leading to superficial
learning without comprehension. It may not adequately address the nuances of language use in
different situations and with different audiences.
 Overemphasis on Repetition: Critics raise concerns about an overreliance on repetitive
exercises, which may hinder students' ability to apply grammar rules in diverse contexts. It may
not effectively promote the development of fluency and natural language production.
 Neglect of Cognitive Processes: The behavioristic approach has been criticized for neglecting
the role of cognitive processes in language acquisition. It may not adequately address the
complex cognitive mechanisms involved in language comprehension, production, and learning.
 Ignores Individual Differences: Critics argue that the behavioristic approach may not
adequately address individual differences in learning styles, cognitive abilities, and language
backgrounds. It may not cater to the diverse needs of learners and may not provide sufficient
support for students who struggle with language acquisition.

Application in Teaching and Assessment of Grammar

Despite the criticisms, the behavioristic approach continues to influence some aspects of grammar
teaching and learning. Some examples of its application in actual teaching include:

Structured Practice Activities- Grammar teaching and assessment using behaviorism often involve
structured practice activities, such as drills and exercises, to reinforce grammar rules and language
patterns. This can involve filling in gaps in sentences, transforming sentences from one form to another,
or completing multiple-choice questions.

1. Drills

Drills are teaching techniques that involve steady repetition of a desired action. Behaviorism theory
encourages the repeating of a behavior to act as reinforcement of that behavior. Drills can be used when
teaching things that require memorization such as grammar. By drilling, students can know the pattern. In
substitution drills, the students may transform the teachers’s line, as here the teacher give instruction to
the students for using “let’s” and give an example first.

Examples:

Target Structure: Simple Past Tense (regular verbs ending in “-ed”)

1. Repetition Drill
 The teacher gives a model sentence, and students repeat it exactly:
Teacher: "I walked to school yesterday."
Students: "I walked to school yesterday."
2. Substitution Drill
 Students replace a word or phrase in the sentence given by the teacher:
Teacher: "I walked to school yesterday. Now, change ‘walked’ to ‘played.’"
Students: "I played to school yesterday."
3. Transformation Drill
 Students are given a sentence and asked to change its form:
Teacher: "Change the sentence to a negative form: ‘I walked to school yesterday.’"
Students: "I did not walk to school yesterday."
4. Completion Drill
 The teacher provides a partial sentence, and students complete it:
Teacher: "Yesterday, I ___ to the park."
Students: "Yesterday, I walked to the park."

 Assessing this activity

Formative assessment is the most suitable type. This involves evaluating students' understanding and
progress during the learning process, allowing for immediate feedback and correction. Here are specific
formative assessments you can use:
Oral Drill Assessment (Oral Recitation)
 Students perform drills aloud to assess their verbal grammar accuracy. Immediate feedback helps
correct errors.
Written Drill Assessment (Fill-in-the-Blank)
 Students complete sentences with correct grammar forms to assess written grammar application.
Matching Exercises (Matching Pairs)
 Students match sentences with correct grammar forms to check recognition and differentiation of
grammar structures.
Sentence Transformation Quiz (Short Quiz)
 Students transform sentences (e.g., affirmative to negative) to assess their ability to manipulate
grammar.
Dictation (Listening and Writing)
 Students write down sentences read aloud using the target grammar, testing their listening and
writing accuracy.
2. Segmented Teaching
Segmented teaching is another example of behaviorist theory instruction. In this method, the teacher
breaks a topic down into smaller, comprehensive lessons. Each segment is built upon and connected
together. For example, students who are learning to read begin with identifying the sound of individual
letters, and then letter blends, until they are able to read entire words.
Example:
Introduce Regular Verb Endings
 Students learn to identify the simple past tense for regular verbs by adding “-ed.”
Activity: Start by focusing only on regular verbs. Teach students to recognize how to form the past tense
by adding “-ed” (e.g., walk → walked, play → played).
Drill: Use repetition exercises where students practice converting present tense verbs to their past tense
forms.
 Here are the types of assessments for evaluating segmented teaching:
Checkpoint Quizzes (Formative Assessment)
 Short quizzes to test understanding at key points in the lesson.
Step-by-Step Exercises (Formative Assessment)
 Tasks completed in stages to assess progress on smaller concepts.
Segment Reviews (Formative Assessment)
 Brief reviews at the end of each lesson segment to ensure understanding.
Cumulative Tests (Summative Assessment)
 A final test covering all lessons to assess overall knowledge.
Practical Application Tasks (Summative Assessment)
  Tasks where students use grammar in real-life situations.
Observation and Oral Feedback (Formative Assessment)
 Real-time observation and immediate verbal feedback.
Progressive Sentence Building (Formative Assessment)
 Students create more complex sentences as they master grammar.
Error Analysis (Formative Assessment)
 Identifying and correcting errors in students' language use.

3. Modeling
Modeling, simply speaking, is learning by imitation. The teacher demonstrates a behavior, which is then
repeated by the student. Modeling is commonly used when teaching language or writing to children.
Example
Modeling Simple Present Tense Sentences

 The teacher starts by modeling how to describe daily routines using the simple present tense. For
example, “I wake up at 7 AM. I eat breakfast. I go to school.”
 Activity: Students repeat the teacher’s sentences and then create their own sentences describing
their daily routine using the same structure.

 Here are the assessment types for activities based on modeling in grammar instruction:
Oral Performance Assessment
 Observation and Oral Recitation of correct grammar structures.
Peer Assessment
 Students provide feedback on each other's grammar usage.
Written Drills
 Worksheet exercises where students replicate or apply the modeled grammar.
Sentence Construction Tasks
 Students build sentences using the target grammar.
Formative Quizzes
 Short quizzes focusing on the modeled grammar structure.
Role-Playing or Simulation
 Students simulate language use from the model in context.
Real-Time Feedback (during Modeling Activity)
 Immediate corrective feedback during imitation practice.
Self-Assessment
 Students reflect on their performance and identify areas for improvement.
Performance-Based Assessment
 Task-based assessments where students use the grammar in context.

Feedback and Reinforcement

Immediate feedback on grammar tasks allows for correction and reinforcement of correct language usage.
This can involve providing positive reinforcement for correct answers and offering corrective feedback
for errors.
 Jeremy Harmer - In his book "The Practice of English Language Teaching," Harmer discusses
the importance of immediate feedback and correction in language teaching. He emphasizes that
timely feedback helps students internalize correct forms and adjust errors quickly, particularly in
grammar drills and practice (Harmer, 2007).
 Stephen Krashen - Krashen's "Monitor Model" includes the concept of a "monitor," which is a
learner’s internal editor. According to Krashen, feedback during the learning process helps
students notice gaps in their language knowledge, reinforcing correct usage when they
consciously attend to corrections (Krashen, 1982).
 Penny Ur - In her book, "Grammar Practice Activities," Ur highlights the role of feedback in
grammar instruction, pointing out that reinforcement strengthens correct language habits. She
suggests that immediate feedback during oral and written practice allows learners to adjust their
responses, leading to better grammar acquisition (Ur, 1988).
Incremental Learning Approach

Behavioristic grammar teaching often follows an incremental learning approach, gradually

introducing and reinforcing grammar concepts to build a strong foundation for language proficiency.
 This involves starting with simple grammar rules and gradually introducing more complex concepts
as students progress.

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