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CHAPTER-4
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Covalent Bonding
Difficulty of Carbon to Form a Stable Ion
To achieve the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, He, if the carbon atom
loses four of its valence electrons, a huge amount of energy is involved. C4+ ion hence
formed will be highly unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.
If the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic configuration of
the noble gas, Ne, C4− ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount of energy is
required. Moreover, in C4+ ion it is difficult for 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to
satisfy its tetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent
bonds.
Ionic Bond
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s,
primarily between a metal and a nonmetal. The
electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged
ions hold the compound together.
Ionic compounds:
1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)
2. Have high melting and boiling points
3. Conduct electricity when melted
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents
Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. It is
primarily formed between two same nonmetallic atoms or between nonmetallic atoms
with similar electronegativity.
Bond strength:
– The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break
a bond.
– The order of bond strengths when it comes to multiple bonds is: Triple bond>double
bond>single bond
– This is to signify that the energy required to break three bonds is higher than that for
two bonds or a single bond.
Bond length:
– Bond length is determined by the distance between nuclei of the two atoms in a bond.
– The order of bond length for multiple bonds is: Triple bond<double bond<single bond
The distance between the nuclei of two atoms is least when they are triple bonded.
In water (H2O), the two hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the oxygen atom
and form two covalent bonds.
Friendly Carbon
Catenation
Catenation is the self-linking property of an element by which an atom forms covalent
bonds with the other atoms of the same element to form straight or branched chains and
rings of different sizes. It is shown by carbon, sulphur and silicon.
S8
In its native state, sulphur show catenation up to 8 atoms in the form of S8 molecule. It
has a puckered ring structure.
Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and a few additional elements make up organic molecules.
Organic compounds, on the other hand, are significantly more numerous than inorganic
compounds that do not form bonds.
Carbon is a chemical element with the atomic number 6 and the symbol C. It’s a
versatile element that can be found in a wide variety of chemical combinations. Carbon’s
versatility is best appreciated through properties like tetravalency and catenation.
• Tetravalency: Carbon has a valency of four so it is capable of bonding with four other
atoms of carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element.
• Catenation: The property of carbon element due to which its atom can join one another to
form long carbon chains is called catenation.
Allotropes of Carbon
– The phenomenon of the existence of the same element in different physical forms with
similar chemical properties is known as allotropy.
– Some elements like carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, etc.,
exhibit this phenomenon.
– Crystalline allotropes of carbon include diamond, graphite
and, fullerene.
– Amorphous allotropes of carbon include coal, coke,
charcoal, lamp black and gas carbon.
Diamond
Diamond has a regular tetrahedral geometry. This is because each carbon is connected
to four neighbouring carbon atoms via single covalent bonds, resulting in a single unit of
a crystal. These crystal units lie in different planes and are connected to each
other, resulting in a rigid three-dimensional cubic pattern of the diamond.
Diamond:
1. Has a high density of 3.5g/cc.
2. Has a very high refractive index of 2.5.
3. Is a good conductor of heat.
4. Is a poor conductor of electricity.
Graphite
Characteristics but different physical properties. The adjacent members differ in their
molecular formula by −CH2.
Examples of homologous series
Methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc. are all part of the alkane homologous series.
The general formula of this series is CnH2n+2.
Methane (CH4), Ethane (CH3CH3), Propane (CH3CH2CH3), Butane (CH3CH2CH2CH3).
It can be noticed that there is a difference of −CH2 unit between each successive
compound.
Physical Properties
The members of any particular family have almost identical chemical properties due to
the same functional group. Their physical properties such as melting point, boiling
point, density, etc., show a regular gradation with the increase in the molecular mass.
Chemical Properties
A chemical property is a property that describes a substance’s ability to undergo a
specific chemical change. We look for a chemical shift to identify a chemical attribute. A
chemical change always results in the formation of one or more types of matter that are
distinct from the matter that existed before to the change.
Combustion Reactions
Combustion means burning of carbon or carbon-containing
compounds in the presence of air or oxygen to produce
carbon dioxide, heat and light.
For example,
Flame Characteristics
Saturated hydrocarbons give clean flame while unsaturated hydrocarbons give smoky
flame. In the presence of limited oxygen, even saturated hydrocarbons give smoky
flame.
Oxidation
Oxidation is a chemical reaction that occurs in an atom or compound and results in the
loss of one or more electrons.
Addition
The reactions in which two molecules react to form a single product having all the atoms
of the combining molecules are called addition reactions.
The hydrogenation reaction is an example of the addition reaction. In this reaction,
hydrogen is added to a double bond or a triple bond in the presence of a catalyst like
nickel, palladium or platinum.
Substitution
CH4+Cl2+Sunlight → CH3Cl+HCl
Uses:
Elimination Reaction
An elimination reaction is a type of reaction in which two substituents are removed from
a molecule. These reactions play an important role in the preparation of alkenes.
Dehydration Reaction
Ethanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to produce ethylene. This
reaction is known as dehydration of ethanol because, in this reaction, a water molecule
is removed from the ethanol molecule.
CH3CH2OH → CH2=CH2+H2O
Esterification
When a carboxylic acid is refluxed with alcohol in the presence of a small quantity of
conc.H2SO4, a sweet-smelling ester is formed. This reaction of ester formation is called
esterification.
Saponification
A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of long-chain carboxylic acids (fatty acid). The soap
molecule is generally represented as RCOONa, where R = non-ionic hydrocarbon group
and −COO−Na+ ionic group. When oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin is treated with
a concentrated sodium or potassium hydroxide solution, hydrolysis of fat takes place;
soap and glycerol are formed. This alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is commonly
known as saponification.
The
agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt particles and
detach them from the fibres of the fabric.
Hard Water
Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium, principally as bicarbonates,
chlorides, and sulphates. When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium
ions of hard water react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium
and magnesium salts of fatty acids.
2C17H35COONa+MgCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Mg+2NaCl
2C17H35COONa+CaCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Ca+2NaCl
These precipitates stick to the fabric being washed and hence, interfere with the
cleaning ability of the soap. Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if the water is hard.