Filename (2)

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 14

NOTES BY STUDY MATE

CHAPTER-4
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Covalent Bonding
Difficulty of Carbon to Form a Stable Ion
To achieve the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, He, if the carbon atom
loses four of its valence electrons, a huge amount of energy is involved. C4+ ion hence
formed will be highly unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.

If the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic configuration of
the noble gas, Ne, C4− ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount of energy is
required. Moreover, in C4+ ion it is difficult for 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to
satisfy its tetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent
bonds.

Ionic Bond
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s,
primarily between a metal and a nonmetal. The
electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged
ions hold the compound together.
Ionic compounds:
1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)
2. Have high melting and boiling points
3. Conduct electricity when melted
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents

Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. It is
primarily formed between two same nonmetallic atoms or between nonmetallic atoms
with similar electronegativity.

Lewis Dot Structure


Lewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.
These are basically diagrams with the element’s symbol in the centre. The dots around it
represent the valence electrons of the element.

NOTES BY STUDY MATE


NOTES BY STUDY MATE

Lewis structures of elements with atomic number 5-8

Covalent Bonding in H2, N2 and O2


Formation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:
Each hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell.
It requires one more to acquire the nearest noble gas
configuration (He).
Therefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a
single bond.

Formation of a double bond in an oxygen molecule:


Each oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It requires two electrons
to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.

Formation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:


Each nitrogen atom has five electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three
electrons to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.

NOTES BY STUDY MATE


NOTES BY STUDY MATE

Single, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths


A single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between
them, i.e., one electron from each participating atom.
It is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.

A double bond is formed between two atoms when four


electrons are shared between them, i.e., one pair of electrons
from each participating atom. It is depicted by double lines
between the two atoms.

A triple bond is formed between two atoms when six


electrons are shared between them, i.e., two pairs of
electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by triple lines between the two
atoms.

Bond strength:
– The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break
a bond.
– The order of bond strengths when it comes to multiple bonds is: Triple bond>double
bond>single bond
– This is to signify that the energy required to break three bonds is higher than that for
two bonds or a single bond.

Bond length:
– Bond length is determined by the distance between nuclei of the two atoms in a bond.
– The order of bond length for multiple bonds is: Triple bond<double bond<single bond
The distance between the nuclei of two atoms is least when they are triple bonded.

Covalent Bonding of N, O with H and Polarity


In ammonia (NH3), the three hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the nitrogen
atom and form three covalent bonds.

NOTES BY STUDY MATE


NOTES BY STUDY MATE

• Ammonia has one lone pair.


• All three N-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
• N atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus, the
shared pair of electrons lies more towards N atom.
• This causes the N atom to acquire a slight negative charge
and H atom a slight positive charge.

In water (H2O), the two hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the oxygen atom
and form two covalent bonds.

• Water has two lone pairs.


• The two O-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
• O atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus, the shared pair of electrons lies
more towards O atom.
• This causes the O atom to acquire a slight negative charge and H atom a slight positive
charge.

NOTES BY STUDY MATE


NOTES BY STUDY MATE

Covalent Bonding in Carbon


A methane molecule (CH4) is formed when four electrons of carbon are shared with four
hydrogen atoms as shown below.

Friendly Carbon

NOTES BY STUDY MATE


NOTES BY STUDY MATE

Why Carbon Can Form so Many Compounds


Catenation occurs most readily with carbon due to its small size, electronic
configuration and unique strength of carbon-carbon bonds. Tetravalency, catenation
and tendency to form multiple bonds with other atoms account for the formation of
innumerable carbon compounds.

Catenation
Catenation is the self-linking property of an element by which an atom forms covalent
bonds with the other atoms of the same element to form straight or branched chains and
rings of different sizes. It is shown by carbon, sulphur and silicon.

S8
In its native state, sulphur show catenation up to 8 atoms in the form of S8 molecule. It
has a puckered ring structure.

Versatile Nature of Carbon


Tetravalency, and Catenation The fact that carbon can form single, double, and triple
bonds demonstrates its versatility. It can also form chains, branching chains, and rings
when joined to other carbon atoms.

Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and a few additional elements make up organic molecules.
Organic compounds, on the other hand, are significantly more numerous than inorganic
compounds that do not form bonds.

NOTES BY STUDY MATE


NOTES BY STUDY MATE

Carbon is a chemical element with the atomic number 6 and the symbol C. It’s a
versatile element that can be found in a wide variety of chemical combinations. Carbon’s
versatility is best appreciated through properties like tetravalency and catenation.
• Tetravalency: Carbon has a valency of four so it is capable of bonding with four other
atoms of carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element.
• Catenation: The property of carbon element due to which its atom can join one another to
form long carbon chains is called catenation.

Mp, Bp and Electrical Conductivity


Covalent compounds:
1. Are molecular compounds
2. Are gases, liquids or solids
3. Have weak intermolecular forces
4. Have low melting and boiling points
5. Are poor electrical conductors in all phases
6. Are mostly soluble in nonpolar liquids

Allotropes of Carbon
– The phenomenon of the existence of the same element in different physical forms with
similar chemical properties is known as allotropy.
– Some elements like carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, etc.,
exhibit this phenomenon.
– Crystalline allotropes of carbon include diamond, graphite
and, fullerene.
– Amorphous allotropes of carbon include coal, coke,
charcoal, lamp black and gas carbon.

Diamond
Diamond has a regular tetrahedral geometry. This is because each carbon is connected
to four neighbouring carbon atoms via single covalent bonds, resulting in a single unit of
a crystal. These crystal units lie in different planes and are connected to each
other, resulting in a rigid three-dimensional cubic pattern of the diamond.

Diamond:
1. Has a high density of 3.5g/cc.
2. Has a very high refractive index of 2.5.
3. Is a good conductor of heat.
4. Is a poor conductor of electricity.

NOTES BY STUDY MATE


NOTES BY STUDY MATE

Graphite

Characteristics but different physical properties. The adjacent members differ in their
molecular formula by −CH2.
Examples of homologous series

Methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc. are all part of the alkane homologous series.
The general formula of this series is CnH2n+2.
Methane (CH4), Ethane (CH3CH3), Propane (CH3CH2CH3), Butane (CH3CH2CH2CH3).
It can be noticed that there is a difference of −CH2 unit between each successive
compound.

Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds


International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) decided some rules to
name the carbon compounds. This was done to maintain the uniformity throughout the
world. Names which are given on this basis are popularly known as IUPAC name.

Physical Properties
The members of any particular family have almost identical chemical properties due to
the same functional group. Their physical properties such as melting point, boiling
point, density, etc., show a regular gradation with the increase in the molecular mass.

Chemical Properties
A chemical property is a property that describes a substance’s ability to undergo a
specific chemical change. We look for a chemical shift to identify a chemical attribute. A
chemical change always results in the formation of one or more types of matter that are
distinct from the matter that existed before to the change.

Combustion Reactions
Combustion means burning of carbon or carbon-containing
compounds in the presence of air or oxygen to produce
carbon dioxide, heat and light.

2CH3OH + 3O2 → 4H2O + 2CO2

For example,

NOTES BY STUDY MATE


NOTES BY STUDY MATE

Naphthalene also undergoes combustion in the presence of oxygen to afford carbon


dioxide gas and water. The chemical equation for this reaction is given by:

12O2 + C10H8 → 4H2O + 10CO2

Flame Characteristics
Saturated hydrocarbons give clean flame while unsaturated hydrocarbons give smoky
flame. In the presence of limited oxygen, even saturated hydrocarbons give smoky
flame.

A black substance formed by combustion or separated from fuel


during combustion, rising in fine particles, and adhering to the
sides of the chimney or pipe conveying the smoke especially : the
fine powder consisting chiefly of carbon that colors smoke called
soot.

Oxidation
Oxidation is a chemical reaction that occurs in an atom or compound and results in the
loss of one or more electrons.

Addition
The reactions in which two molecules react to form a single product having all the atoms
of the combining molecules are called addition reactions.
The hydrogenation reaction is an example of the addition reaction. In this reaction,
hydrogen is added to a double bond or a triple bond in the presence of a catalyst like
nickel, palladium or platinum.

Substitution

NOTES BY STUDY MATE


NOTES BY STUDY MATE

The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced or substituted


by different atoms or group of atoms is called substitution reaction. In alkanes,
hydrogen atoms are replaced by other elements.

CH4+Cl2+Sunlight → CH3Cl+HCl

Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid


Ethanol
(i) Ethanol, C2H5OH is a colourless liquid having a pleasant smell.
(ii) It boils at 351 K.
(iii) It is miscible with water in all proportions.
(iv) It is a nonconductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)
(v) It is neutral to litmus.

Uses:

1. As an antifreeze in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.


2. As a solvent in the manufacture of paints, dyes, medicines, soaps and synthetic
rubber.
3. As a solvent to prepare the tincture of iodine.

How Do Alcohols Affect Human Beings?


(i) If ethanol is mixed with CH3OH and consumed, it causes serious poisoning and
loss of eyesight.
(ii) It causes addiction, damages the liver if taken in excess.
(iii) High consumption of ethanol may even cause death.

Reactions of Ethanol with Sodium


Ethanol reacts with sodium to produce hydrogen gas and
sodium ethoxide. This reaction supports the acidic
character of ethanol.
2C2H5OH+2Na → 2C2H5ONa+H2(↑)

Elimination Reaction
An elimination reaction is a type of reaction in which two substituents are removed from
a molecule. These reactions play an important role in the preparation of alkenes.

Dehydration Reaction

NOTES BY STUDY MATE


NOTES BY STUDY MATE

Ethanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to produce ethylene. This
reaction is known as dehydration of ethanol because, in this reaction, a water molecule
is removed from the ethanol molecule.

CH3CH2OH → CH2=CH2+H2O

(reaction taking place in presence of Conc.H2SO4)

Ethanoic Acid or Acetic Acid


(i) Molecular formula: CH3COOH
(ii) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether.
(iii) It often freezes during winter in cold climate and therefore it is named as glacial
acetic acid.

Esterification
When a carboxylic acid is refluxed with alcohol in the presence of a small quantity of
conc.H2SO4, a sweet-smelling ester is formed. This reaction of ester formation is called
esterification.

When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in presence of


conc.H2SO4, ethyl ethanoate and water are formed.
CH3COOH+C2H5OH → CH3COOC2H5+H2O

(reaction taking place in presence of Conc.H2SO4)

Saponification
A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of long-chain carboxylic acids (fatty acid). The soap
molecule is generally represented as RCOONa, where R = non-ionic hydrocarbon group
and −COO−Na+ ionic group. When oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin is treated with
a concentrated sodium or potassium hydroxide solution, hydrolysis of fat takes place;
soap and glycerol are formed. This alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is commonly
known as saponification.

NOTES BY STUDY MATE


NOTES BY STUDY MATE

Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Metals and Bases


Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid) reacts with metals like
sodium, zinc and magnesium to liberate hydrogen gas.
2CH3COOH+2Na→2CH3COONa+H2(↑)

It reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form


sodium ethanoate and water.
CH3COOH+NaOH→CH3COONa+H2O

Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Carbonates and Bicarbonates


Carboxylic acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates with the evolution of CO2 gas.
For example, when ethanoic acid (acetic acid) reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium
bicarbonate, CO2 gas is evolved.
2CH3COOH+Na2CO3→2CH3COONa+H2O+CO2
CH3COOH+NaHCO3→CH3COONa+H2O+CO2

Soaps and Detergents


Cleansing Action of Soap
When soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely orient themselves to form
spherical shape micelles.

NOTES BY STUDY MATE


NOTES BY STUDY MATE

The non-polar hydrophobic part or tail of the soap molecules


attracts the dirt or oil part of the fabric, while the polar
hydrophilic part or head,(−COO−Na+, remains attracted to
water molecules.

The
agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt particles and
detach them from the fibres of the fabric.

Hard Water
Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium, principally as bicarbonates,
chlorides, and sulphates. When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium
ions of hard water react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium
and magnesium salts of fatty acids.

2C17H35COONa+MgCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Mg+2NaCl
2C17H35COONa+CaCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Ca+2NaCl

NOTES BY STUDY MATE


NOTES BY STUDY MATE

These precipitates stick to the fabric being washed and hence, interfere with the
cleaning ability of the soap. Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if the water is hard.

NOTES BY STUDY MATE

You might also like