Unit I: Python Fundamentals

1. Introduction to Python Programming Language

 What is Python?
o Python is a high-level, general-purpose programming language
known for its simplicity and readability. It supports multiple
programming paradigms including procedural, object-oriented, and
functional programming.
 Introduction to Program and Debugging
o Programs are sequences of instructions that a computer follows to
perform a task.
o Debugging is the process of finding and fixing errors or bugs in a
program.
 Formal and Natural Languages
o Formal languages (like Python) have strict syntax and semantics
used for programming.
o Natural languages (like English) are more flexible but less precise.

2. Variables, Expressions, and Statements

 Values and Types
o Python supports different data types like integers, floats, strings,
and booleans.
 Variables
o A variable is a named reference to a value stored in memory.

 Variable Names and Keywords

o Variable names follow certain rules (e.g., they can’t start with a
number) and some names are reserved as keywords (like for, while,
if).
 Statements
o A statement performs an action (e.g., assignment statements like x
= 5).
 Operators and Operands
o Python provides operators like +, -, *, / for arithmetic and and, or for
logical operations.
 Order of Operations
 o Python follows PEMDAS (Parentheses, Exponents,
Multiplication/Division, Addition/Subtraction) for evaluating
expressions.
 Operations on Strings
o Python allows concatenation (+) and repetition (*) of strings.

 Composition and Comments

o You can compose multiple statements into a more complex
operation, and add comments for documentation using #.

3. Conditionals and Iteration

 Modulus Operator
o The modulus operator (%) returns the remainder of a division.

 Boolean Expressions
o Boolean expressions return True or False.

 Logical Operators
o Logical operators include and, or, and not.

 Conditional Operators
o Conditional operators like ==, !=, >, <, are used for comparison.

 Alternative Execution and Nested Conditionals

o if-else and elif statements allow for multiple branches of execution.

 Return Statements
o return is used in functions to return a value.

 Loops
o While Loops: Repeat as long as a condition is true.

o For Loops: Iterate over a sequence (like a list or string).

4. Functions and Recursion

 Function Calls
o Functions allow code reuse by encapsulating logic that can be called
multiple times.
 Type Conversion and Coercion
o Functions like int(), float(), and str() convert data types.

 Math Functions
 o Python provides built-in math functions like abs(), pow(), and the
math module for more complex operations.
 Adding New Functions
o Define a function using def with a name, parameters, and a body.

 Parameters and Arguments

o Parameters are the inputs defined by a function, and arguments are
the values passed during a function call.
 Recursion
o A function that calls itself is recursive. Recursion is useful for
problems like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing
trees.

Unit II: Advanced Data Types

1. Strings
 String: A Compound Data Type
o A string is a sequence of characters.

 String Length
o The len() function returns the number of characters in a string.

 String Traversal
o You can loop through the characters of a string using a for loop.

 String Slices
o Slicing allows access to a substring using s[start:end].

 Comparison
o Strings can be compared using relational operators.

 Find Function
o The find() method searches for a substring and returns the index of
its first occurrence.
 Looping and Counting
o You can loop through a string and count occurrences of a character
using a loop.

2. Lists
 List Values
o Lists are ordered collections of values (like [1, 2, 3]).
  Length
o The len() function returns the number of elements in a list.

 Membership
o You can check if an item is in a list using in.

 Operations
o Lists support concatenation (+) and repetition (*).

 Slices
o You can access parts of a list using slicing (e.g., list[start:end]).

 Deletion
o Elements can be deleted using del or remove().

 Accessing Elements
o Elements are accessed by their index (e.g., list[0]).

 List and For Loops

o You can iterate through a list with a for loop.

 List Parameters and Nested Lists

o Lists can be passed as parameters to functions and can contain
other lists (nested lists).

3. Tuples and Dictionaries

 Mutability and Tuples
o Tuples are immutable, meaning their values cannot be changed
after creation.
 Tuple Assignment
o You can assign multiple values to variables using tuples (e.g., x, y =
1, 2).
 Tuple as Return Values
o Functions can return multiple values using tuples.

 Random Numbers and Lists of Random Numbers

o The random module allows generation of random numbers, which
can be stored in lists.
 Counting and Many Buckets
o You can count occurrences of items in a list or other data structures.

 Dictionaries: Operations and Methods

 o Dictionaries store key-value pairs and support operations like
adding, accessing, and deleting key-value pairs.
 Sparse Matrices
o Sparse matrices are represented using dictionaries to store non-zero
elements efficiently.
 Aliasing and Copying
o Copying data types like lists or dictionaries can result in aliasing,
where multiple variables refer to the same object in memory.

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example python code for each
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Here are Python code examples for each of the topics you mentioned:

Unit I: Python Fundamentals

1. Introduction to Program and Debugging
python
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# Simple program: Add two numbers
a=5
b=3
print(a + b) # Output: 8

# Debugging example: fixing division by zero error

try:
result = 10 / 0
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero")
2. Variables, Expressions, and Statements
python
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# Variables and types
x = 10 # Integer
y = 3.5 # Float
name = "Alice" # String

# Expressions and statements

z=x+y
print("Sum:", z)

# Operations on strings
greeting = "Hello"
name = "World"
print(greeting + " " + name) # Concatenation

# Comments
# This is a comment and it won't be executed by Python
3. Conditionals and Iteration
python
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# Conditional statements
x = 10
if x > 5:
print("x is greater than 5")
else:
print("x is 5 or less")

# While loop
count = 0
while count < 5:
print("Count:", count)
 count += 1

# For loop
for i in range(5):
print("For loop iteration:", i)
4. Functions and Recursion
python
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# Function definition and call
def add_numbers(a, b):
return a + b

result = add_numbers(2, 3)
print("Sum:", result)

# Recursion example: factorial function

def factorial(n):
if n == 1:
return 1
else:
return n * factorial(n - 1)

print("Factorial of 5:", factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Unit II: Advanced Data Types

1. Strings
python
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# String traversal and slicing
word = "Python"
for letter in word:
print(letter)
# String slice
print(word[0:2]) # Output: Py

# String comparison
print("apple" > "banana") # False, because 'a' comes before 'b'

# Find function
sentence = "Hello, welcome to Python!"
index = sentence.find("Python")
print("Index of 'Python':", index) # Output: 18
2. Lists
python
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# List values and operations
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
print(numbers[0]) # Output: 1

# List membership
print(3 in numbers) # True

# List slicing
print(numbers[1:3]) # Output: [2, 3]

# Deleting element
del numbers[2] # Deletes the element at index 2
print(numbers) # Output: [1, 2, 4, 5]

# List and for loop

for num in numbers:
print(num)
# Nested list
nested_list = [[1, 2], [3, 4]]
print(nested_list[0][1]) # Output: 2
3. Tuples and Dictionaries
python
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# Tuple example
tuple_example = (10, 20, 30)
print(tuple_example[1]) # Output: 20

# Tuple assignment
x, y = (5, 10)
print(x, y) # Output: 5 10

# Dictionary operations
student_grades = {"Alice": 90, "Bob": 85}
print(student_grades["Alice"]) # Output: 90

# Adding a new key-value pair

student_grades["Charlie"] = 95
print(student_grades)

# Random numbers
import random
random_number = random.randint(1, 100)
print(random_number)

# Counting using dictionary

fruit_counts = {}
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "apple", "orange"]
for fruit in fruits:
if fruit in fruit_counts:
 fruit_counts[fruit] += 1
else:
fruit_counts[fruit] = 1
print(fruit_counts) # Output: {'apple': 2, 'banana': 1, 'orange': 1}

# Sparse matrix representation

sparse_matrix = {(0, 1): 5, (2, 3): 10}
print(sparse_matrix.get((0, 1), 0)) # Output: 5
print(sparse_matrix.get((1, 2), 0)) # Output: 0