Lec2

Map Projection
by: Omayma Obada

Special thanks to Dr. Maher Amin, The
Godfather of the science of map projection.
Main topics
1. Map Projection General meaning
2. Types of map projections
3. Geometrical projection systems
4. Map distortion theory
5. Mathematical projection
6. How to identify a suitable projection
7. Different World map types
8. Projection system used in Egypt and how to convert between them
9. Projection transformation
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1. Projection: May be defined as the method of representing the features of one surface on to another
surface, keeping certain relations between both the features and their representation, such that each
point on the first surface is represented by only one point on the other surface .
2. Map projection: It is the kind of projection in which one surface is the surface of the earth and the other
surface is the surface of the map.
3. Datum surface: This is the surface which is going to be projected in case of map projection; it is the
earth surface on the earth surface points are defined by their curvilinear coordinates (Φ, λ).
4. Earth: It is a body in the shape of oblique spheroid, ellipsoid or sphere.
5. Ellipsoid: It is the shape made by the revolution of an ellipse around its minor axes, so in the 3D
system. For simplest in this course, the earth will be considered as sphere of radius (R).
6. The Projection surface: It’s the surface in which we are going to project the different point on the
earth,[this is the surface on the map or plan sheet on which the points are defined by the Cartesian
coordinates (X, Y)].
7. Developable surface: They are surfaces when developed no distortion existed such as (Cylinder, Cone
and Cube).
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8. Undevelopable surface: They are surfaces when developed distortion will occur such as: (Sphere,
Spheroid and Ellipsoid).
9. Map: It is a collection of points and lines combined with conventional signs, all are put down on a flat
surface intended to give representation of the features of a part of all the earth surface.
10. Nominal scale: It is the ratio between the length of a line on the ideal map ( without any distortion) and
the actual length of that line on the earth's surface.
11. Scale factor: It indicates the amount of distortion at any point; in general, it is the ratio between the
actual scale and the nominal scale at certain point.
The distortion is zero at the center, and maximum at the corner. In meridian direction: The scale factor is
donated by "b." In parallel direction: The scale factor is donated by "a." If a or b =1 there will be no
distortion in that direction.
12. Graticules: It is a series of lines and curves on the earth' surface representing the meridian of longitudes
and the parallel of latitudes of earth.
13. Meridian convergence "M "or "C:" it's the angle between the projection of the tangent of the meridian at
any point and the direction of the grid north of the map of this point.
14. Indicatrix of Tissot: It is an infinitesimal circle drawn on the earth's surface, when it's projected on the
map sheet, will be represented by an infinitesimal ellipse which is called the Indicatrix of Tissot.
15. Ideal map: It's the map without any distortion. It must satisfy the following:
 All distances, angles and areas should have correct magnitude on the map surface.
 All shapes should be preserved.
 All great circles on the earth's surface should appear as straight lines on the map.
 Geodetic latitudes and longitudes should be correctly shown on the map.
However, it's impossible to satisfy all these conditions on one map, only one or two conditions may be
satisfied on one map.
16. Great circle: It's the circle made by the intersection of any plane with the earth passing through its
center, and it denotes to the shortest distance between two points on this circle.
Why all great circles on the earth's surface should appear as straight lines on the map?
Because great circle is the circle which made by the intersection of any plane with the earth's surface
passing through its center, and it's denotes to the shortest distances between two points on this circles. Also
the shortest distances between any two points on the map is the straight line. So the great circle on the
earth's surface should appear as straight lines on the map.
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17. Map Distortions: Due to the projection from a curving surface to a plane, map scale varies from place to
place and for different directions on maps.
18. The scale factor in any map location is the actual map scale at that location divided by the nominal map
scale. For those special locations where the actual map scales equals the nominal scale, the scale factor
equals 1.
19. Distortion: Is the change in angles, distances, areas or shapes due to the process of projection where the
undevelopable of the earth is projected upon a flat sheet.
• Length distortion: It’s the ratio between the length on the map and the corresponding length on the earth.
Distortion = L`/ L where L`→ length on the map L→ length on the earth
• Area distortion: It’s the ratio between the area on the map and the corresponding area on the earth .
Distortion = A`/ A where A`→ area on the map A → area on the earth
• Angle distortion: It’s the difference between the angle on the earth and the angle on the map . Distortion
= α – α` where α`→ angle on the map α → angle on the earth
• Shape distortion: It’s the change in the shape between the map and the earth due to the process of
projection
Classes of projection
Projection may be classified into different classes according to the following:
1. The method of generation of the projection.
• Central or geometrical or perspective.
• Mathematical or conventional or non- perspective.
2. The nature of projection surface.
• Azimuthal projection, surface is plane.
• Cylindrical projection, surface is cylinder.
• Conical projection, surface is cone.
3. Coincidence of the projection surface with the datum surface.
• Tangential: when the projection surface is tangent to the earth surface.
• Secant: when the first surface is cutting the earth surface.
4. Position of the projection surface with respect to the datum surface.
• Normal: when the axis of the projection surface lies with that of the earth or parallel to it.
• Transverse: when the axis of the projection surface is in the plane of equator or parallel to it or perpendicular to the axis of the earth surface.
• Oblique: when the axis of the projection surface from any arbitrary angle with the axis of the datum surface.
5. The properties of the projection.
• Conformal or orthomorphic projection: in this kind of projection, angles between any two short intersecting lines will be projected in correct value. So,
shapes in this case will be preserved specially in the area around the center of the map. In this type of projection a = b
• Equal area or equivalent projection: in this type of projection, small area will be preserved, even though shapes may be out of order . 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 1
• Equidistance or simple projection :in this type projection, distance along meridian directions will be projected in their corrected value b = 1
• Azimuthal or zenithal projection: in this type of projection, all directions radiated from the center of the map are correctly projected; angles at the center of
the map are preserved.
Central zenithal projection
It may be classified according to the following:

1. The position of the center of projection:
a. Gnomonic projection: When the center of projection is the center of the earth.
b. Stereographic projection: When the center of projection lies on the surface of the earth at the other end
of the diameter passing through (P.T) and normal to the projection plane.
c. Orthographic projection: When the center of projection is at infinity.
2. The position of the center of the map:
Where, each of the above mentioned classes may be divided into three classes:
i. Polar case: When the projection plane touches the earth at one of the poles.
ii. Equatorial case: When the projection plane touches the earth at a point lying in the plane of the equator.
iii. General or oblique case: When the projection plane touches the earth at any point except the pole and
the equator.

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Map Projection

by: Omayma Obada

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