Developing Cost-

Effective, Evidence-Based
Load Monitoring Systems
in Strength and
Conditioning Practice
Jo Clubb, MSc1,2 and Mike McGuigan, PhD3,4
1
Buffalo Sabres, Buffalo, New York; 2Buffalo Bills, Buffalo, New York; 3Sports Performance Research, Sports
Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand; and
4
School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia

Supplemental digital content is available for this article. Direct URL citations appear in the printed text and are provided
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ABSTRACT GRAM. FOR A VIDEO ABSTRACT OF is potentially at risk of overtraining or

THIS ARTICLE, SEE SUPPLEMENTAL injury (23).
THE PURPOSE OF THIS ARTICLE IS
DIGITAL CONTENT 1 (SEE VIDEO, When introducing such measures into
TO OUTLINE EVIDENCE-BASED
http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A239). the training environment, a needs anal-
FUNDAMENTALS OF A MONITOR-
ING SYSTEM FOR ATHLETES. THIS ysis should be conducted to under-
INCLUDES TIME- AND COST- stand the resource requirements for
INTRODUCTION
EFFECTIVE INTERVENTIONS successful implementation. If invest-
here has been a rapid evolution
ACROSS LOAD MONITORING,
MEASURING WELLNESS RE-
SPONSES, AND RECOVERY
T of technology available in the
realm of sports performance
and strength and conditioning. Conse-
ment in technology is deemed neces-
sary, the potential limitations of using
the specific technology should be con-
sidered, such as the validity, reliability,
STRATEGIES THAT CAN BE USED quently, our knowledge and execution
and specificity of a product (62). This
REGARDLESS OF BUDGET SIZE. of monitoring athletes have revolu-
article aims to highlight the cost- and
ANALYSIS APPROACHES ARE tionized decision making, training pre-
time-effective fundamentals of load
INCLUDED TO OUTLINE HOW TO scription, and injury management (62).
monitoring and recovery, which
ANALYZE DATA COLLECTED BY Indeed, scientists and practitioners are
should be used in the development of
SUCH A SYSTEM. CONSIDERA- often early adopters of integrating
a best-practice athlete monitoring sys-
TIONS FOR IMPLEMENTING TECH- technology to improve sporting perfor-
tem by strength and conditioning
NOLOGY INTO THE APPLIED mance (14). As such, monitoring ath-
coaches. Such a system has a wide
letes in the professional sport setting
ENVIRONMENT ARE ALSO DIS- application across the field of athletic
has now become commonplace (1).
CUSSED. FINALLY, AN EXAMPLE performance and is not limited to ath-
Research has demonstrated that rela-
FROM A TEAM SPORT IS INCLUDED letes at the highest level. The principles
tionships exist between training load
TO SHOWCASE HOW SUCH and tools to be discussed in this review
and performance (3), as well as training
MEASURES AND ANALYSES CAN
load and injury risk (16). Therefore,
BE INCORPORATED INTO A PRO- capturing measures of training load, KEY WORDS:
fitness, and fatigue may assist practi-
load; monitoring; nutrition; recovery;
Address correspondence to Jo Clubb, jo. tioners in assessing whether an athlete
sleep; technology
[email protected]. is adapting to their training program or

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 Evidence-Based Load Monitoring Systems

may be used to monitor the load of been associated with a higher risk of technology is of the utmost importance
athletes across a range of settings, injury in elite rugby sevens players to the practitioner, to understand the
including high school, college, and pro- (63). Such research highlights the accuracy of data pertaining to external
fessional sports. potential benefit in analyzing different load (9,13). Reviewing the processes
calculations of load alongside each already in place may also be warranted,
other (40,64). The potential application given that Akenhead and Nassis (1)
INTERNAL LOAD IS ASSOCIATED
WITH INJURY RISK AND of sRPE is not limited to injury risk have suggested, where necessary, sim-
PERFORMANCE because associations have also been plifying existing monitoring processes
The association between player avail- demonstrated between internal load to alleviate the constraints imposed by
ability and on-field success is well and match outcomes in elite limited human resources.
documented across a number of sports Australian Football (3). The authors
(22,49,65). Therefore, managing injury in this study found that measures using SUBJECTIVE MARKERS OF
RPE, namely weekly load and training RESPONSE ARE MORE SENSITIVE
risk in an attempt to maximize player
stress balance, were associated with Measuring an athlete’s response to
availability is of the utmost importance
match success (3). Subjective measures training load is an important process
to sports support staff. Associations
of internal training load have also been in the monitoring cycle (21). A system-
between training load and injury risk
shown to relate better to changes in atic review by Saw et al. (52) investi-
have been established across a range
intermittent performance over a presea- gated the levels of evidence for
of sports (15,20,31). Consequently,
son in professional soccer players than objective measures (e.g., blood
monitoring training load may enable
heart rate–based measures (12). Liter- markers, heart rate at rest, oxygen con-
the prescription of appropriate loads
ature using the sRPE method confirms sumption, and heart rate responses
in the practice setting and the assess-
that it is a valid, reliable, and cost- during exercise) and subjective meas-
ment of how an athlete is responding
effective option for quantifying training ures (e.g., mood and perceived stress).
to the actual loads (23).
stress (19,33,53). Consequently, this The authors found that such objective
Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) is should be the first method used to and subjective measures did not corre-
a valid and reliable method of assessing track athletes in any sport setting. late with each other, and subjective
exercise intensity that involves the ath- measures were in fact more sensitive
lete rating how hard a session was based EXTERNAL LOAD AND ATHLETE and consistent in reflecting acute and
on either a 6–20 (7) or 0–10 scale (6). MONITORING chronic training loads (52).
The intensity from the 0–10 scale can Despite this assortment of perspectives
A study with an English Premier
then be multiplied by the duration of the from which to analyze internal load
League soccer team also showed that
session to calculate the session RPE data (e.g., RPE and heart rate), it
subjective measures of fatigue, sleep
(sRPE) (19). A large body of research would be remiss not to acknowledge
quality, and muscle soreness collected
has established the reliability and valid- the importance of external load within
in the morning were more sensitive to
ity of this method across a range of train- the athlete monitoring cycle (21). Sim-
daily training loads than heart rate–
ing modalities (33,53,58). As well as ple, cost-effective measures of external
derived methods (61). These
session load, sRPE can also be used to load are available to the practitioner,
measures provide inexpensive and
calculate training monotony and strain, including match exposure (65), balls
noninvasive alternatives to physical
which have been associated with illness bowled in cricket (31), and pitch
performance assessments that can
and injury (19). Large week-to-week counts in baseball (18) and softball
often be exhaustive and time-
changes in training load, measured (54). These studies have demonstrated
consuming, making them unsuitable
through sRPE, are associated with associations between such measures
for many sporting environments (60).
a greater risk of injury in Australian and injury risk, without the need for
A 2017 review outlined practical meas-
Football (46,50) and rugby union (15). specialized equipment.
ures for monitoring fatigue in team
As well as considering cumulative and However, if technologies to monitor sport athletes and considerations for
week-to-week changes in internal load, other aspects of external load are to implementing and analyzing them in
the acute:chronic workload ratio (32) be considered, Torres-Ronda and the applied setting (60).
can be used to assess sRPE training Schelling (62) have presented an excel-
load data (or using other variables). lent critical process for the implemen- FOCUS ON SLEEP AND NUTRITION
Both a low acute:chronic workload tation of technology in sports that can EDUCATION FOR RECOVERY
ratio, less than 0.85 (43), and a high provide guidance to practitioners. One Recovery is the umbrella term for the
acute:chronic workload ratio, more of the most common methods used to multifaceted, restorative process that
than 2.0 (32), have been associated monitor external load is the use of takes place over time and includes both
with higher risks of injury. The cou- global positioning system technology physiological regeneration and psycho-
pling of high cumulative loads and high (1). Understanding the validity and reli- logical restoration (33). Because optimiz-
acute:chronic workload ratios has also ability of the metrics captured by such ing performance involves applying

76 VOLUME 40 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2018

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 a suitable balance between training stress (http://yoursleep.aasmnet.org/pdf/ Assessments used to monitor the train-
and recovery, strategies to enhance sleepdiary.pdf). A recent review by ing process should be critically evalu-
recovery have become an important Simpson et al. (55) outlines a number ated based on their reliability,
focus of sports science support (4). Con- of practical recommendations to usefulness, and practicality (1). This is
sequently, a wide array of methods and improve sleep in athletes, which can be of even greater concern given the
technologies are available to practi- implemented. These include strategies potential for information overload
tioners who claim to support recovery. pertaining to maintaining healthy sleep and pseudoscience marketing in the
These include, but are not limited to, habits, minimizing the impact of travel, sports community (25). Recent work
active recovery, massage, foam rolling, and identifying/addressing any possible has demonstrated that of 36 commer-
cold-water immersion, contrast baths, sleep disorders (55). Furthermore, evi- cially available wearable technologies
compression garments, and electrical dence supports the suggestion that sleep designed for athletes, only 9 devices
stimulation (44). Although conflicting hygiene education can subsequently have been evaluated scientifically (17).
research exists for a number of these improve sleep indices in athletes (45). Furthermore, commonly used variables
modalities, strong evidence exists to sup- Practical overviews for team sport ath- from micromechanical-electrical sys-
port the use of sleep, certain nutritional letes are available, which help guide tems such as accelerations (9), sport-
interventions, and cold-water immersion practitioners in their prescription of specific inertial measures (13), and
in enhancing the recovery process (44). nutritional strategies within a recovery high-speed movements (34) have dem-
It has been demonstrated that athletes in program (26,48). Such reviews rein- onstrated questionable reliability. Such
both team sports and individual events force the importance of focusing on research highlights the need to con-
obtain less sleep than recommended the inexpensive basics, first and fore- duct in-house assessments of validity
(38). Achieving sleep extension has been most, to restore the body’s functions; and reliability, as well as supporting
shown to improve the restoration of nutrition, rehydration, and sleep (59). industry pressure on technology sup-
muscle function, sprint times, and sub- Furthermore, nutritional interventions pliers to conduct honest and transpar-
jective reporting of stress (47), as well may potentially be used to enhance ent assessments themselves.
as specific measures of performance sleep (24). Thereafter, additional inter- A questionnaire of 41 top-level soccer
(41). Given this gap between recommen- ventions may be considered depending clubs demonstrated perceptions of sub-
dations and actual practice, as well as the on the sport, schedule, and individuals stantial barriers to training load moni-
potential improvement in recovery and (30). Clearly, maximizing the impact of toring that included numbers of staff/
athletic performance, a key focus of sleep and nutrition on athletic recovery human resources, coach buy-in, and the
recovery should include designing the should be in place before additional validity and reliability of assessments
program to optimize sleep times, where modalities and technologies are in- (1). Attention should also be paid to
possible, and educating athletes on sleep vested in. Kellman et al. (35) also high- the ethics of storing data on unsecure
hygiene. Therefore, a simple starting light the considerations for the entire servers and the commercial use of such
point for practitioners can be to monitor multidisciplinary team in introducing personal data (17). Halson et al. (25)
the sleep patterns of their athletes (37). a successful recovery environment. outline recommendations before incor-
An assortment of measures can be col- Regular and open communication, porating wearable devices into the
lected subjectively, including sleep qual- commitment and agreement on strate- applied environment that ensures ath-
ity, sleep onset latency, and sleep gies, as well as a supportive milieu are lete health and safety, as well as ethical
quantity, and have been shown as reli- also important elements (35). considerations surrounding testing and
able estimates of sleep-wake patterns data collection, which are at the fore-
(37,51). Because sleep hygiene includes CONSIDERATIONS FOR front of decision making. With implant-
IMPLEMENTING TECHNOLOGY
behaviors around regular bed and rise able monitoring devices and 24-hour
times, capturing information on these The evolution of technology in the monitoring of athletes now being dis-
habits may also be beneficial (2). sporting environment has enabled objec- cussed (56,57), we must maintain scien-
tive data collection on athletes in situ, tific rigor and ethical awareness when
Self-report questionnaires have been access to real-time data, and advance-
shown to be reliable instruments to considering any form of technology im-
ments of previously invasive technolo- plementation and data collection.
assess sleep measures, although there is gies to noninvasive alternatives, as well
a tendency for overestimation of sleep as the ongoing improvements in the ANALYSIS APPROACHES FOR
duration (11,39). Validated question- speed, size, and quality of data collection APPLIED PRACTICE
naires available to practitioners include tools (62). Despite the desire to explore Thus far, this article has outlined low-
the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (10) innovation, practitioners should cost, best-practice approaches for the
and the Holland Sleep Disorder Ques- avoid the temptation of an overreliance load monitoring cycle in applied prac-
tionnaire (36). A simple 2-week sleep on and/or excessive investment in tech- tice, as well as outlining considerations
diary from the American Academy of nology to maintain the integrity of the for implementing technology if invest-
Sleep Medicine is also available online sports science industry (14). ment is deemed necessary. These

77
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78

Evidence-Based Load Monitoring Systems

VOLUME 40 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2018

Table
Examples of monitoring variables that can be used by practitioners in team sports
Measure Purpose Example data Type of analysis Intervention

Session Provide a rating of the intensity of Rating of 7 for a 90-minute Use z-score/standard Z-score $1.5 and then intervention can occur
RPE each training session and the session. difference score Avoid large spikes (.10%) in week-to-week

Training associated metrics. Training load 5 90 3 7 5 Measure week-to-week workload
load 630 AU variation

Monotony Acute to chronic ratio

Strain
Sleep Measure of the quality and amount Sleep quality 5 more tired Use z-score/standard Z-score $1.5 and then intervention can occur
quality of sleep each night (and any than normal (2 of 5 scale) difference score
and naps) and 6-h sleep.
duration
Wellness Provide global measure of wellness Fatigue 5 fresh (4) Use z-score/standard Z-score $1.5 and then intervention can occur
(incorporating stress, muscle Sleep 5 good (4) difference score
soreness, fatigue, mood, and Soreness 5 normal (3)
sleep quality). Stress 5 normal (3)
Mood 5 good (4)
Total 5 18
Vertical Assess fatigue and performance Vertical jump height 5 18 Compare relative baseline If result was below the smallest meaningful change,
jump through measures such as jump inches (46 cm) with smallest measure and smallest then this could indicate fatigue, and practitioner
height and flight time. meaningful change 5 0.5 meaningful change/ could make adjustments to the session as they
inch (1.3 cm) reliability value deem necessary.
AU 5 arbitrary units; RPE 5 rating of perceived exertion.

Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 approaches, regardless of whether data load monitoring data (https:// require minimal investment in technol-
are collected subjectively or objectively, progressiveathleticperformance.com/ ogy exist, which could be the founda-
require some form of data analysis. For free-downloads/). These resources tion of an effective athlete monitoring
statistical analysis of applied sports sci- include evidence-based approaches system. sRPE is a valid and reliable
ence data, the magnitude-based infer- including the acute:chronic workload measure of internal load that has been
ence approach has been suggested as ratio (32) and exponentially weighted associated with injury risk and perfor-
more appropriate than null hypothesis calculations (66). When using various mance. Data can be analyzed from
significance testing (8). This approach resources, practitioners are encouraged a variety of perspectives that include
enables the assessment of change in in- to reverse engineer the calculations to monotony, strain, cumulative loads,
dividuals, magnitude of change which is understand the analyses that are being week-to-week changes, and the acute:
often what matters most to practitioners, conducted. Once comfortable with the chronic workload ratio. Subjective
allows for the distinction between clear analysis, it may be that practitioners are wellness questionnaires are valid, reli-
and unclear trivial effects (based on con- capable of building modified versions able, and sensitive tools to measure re-
fidence limits), and improves informative of such resources themselves. For infor- sponses to assess how the athletes are
data visualization (5,8,27). The smallest mation on developing Excel skills rel- coping with the training load. Despite
worthwhile change (SWC) is the mag- evant for sports science analysis, the a range of recovery tools available,
nitude of performance enhancement reader is directed to the ExcelTricks- there remains potential for competitive
needed to exceed the uncertainty or forSports YouTube channel for over advantage with the education of opti-
noise in the test result (27): 100 free videos (https://www. mal sleep and nutrition strategies.

For individual elite athletes, the youtube.com/channel/UCagflprv_C- Should further technology be justified
required change in performance is UPPdzSJ0bMCA). Although it can be and within budgetary restrictions, con-
0.3 3 typical variation in perfor- tempting to be attracted to expensive siderations should be given for the fol-
mance (27). technology and data management/ lowing before implementation:

For individuals within a team setting, analysis systems, this section highlights
Athlete health and safety;
the SWC is one-fifth of the between- the variety of cost-effective resources
Validity and reliability of the
athlete SD (a Cohen effect size of available to every practitioner to assist technology;
0.2) (27). them with the storage and analysis of
Human resources required;

A systematic review has published load monitoring data.
Data management and analysis;
variability (as a coefficient of varia-
Ethics surrounding the data use and
tion percentage) of performance of EXAMPLE IMPLEMENTATION storage.
elite athletes across a range of sports, WITHIN THE APPLIED SETTING In addition, several resources exist on-
through mixed modeling reliability The Table outlines an example of line that provide useful tools for practi-
analysis (42). a low-cost monitoring system that tioners for analysis and interpretation
The web site http://sportsci.org/ could be implemented by a strength of monitoring data. In conclusion, the
resource/stats/index.html provides and conditioning practitioner working quality and efficiency of an athlete
a variety of resources to read and use with a team sport. monitoring system is not determined
in applied practice to robustly analyze by the time and budget constraints,
Modified z-score can be calculated for
data. In addition, strength and condi- but by the selection, implementation,
these monitoring variables using the
tioning practitioners can use several and analysis of appropriate and
following formula:
spreadsheets including: evidence-based measures.

A Spreadsheet for Monitoring an In- ðAthlete score 2 Baseline scoreÞ=
dividual’s Changes and Trend (29); Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding:
SD of Baseline: The authors report no conflicts of interest

Spreadsheets for Analysis of Validity
and Reliability (28). The baseline can be determined by and no source of funding.
Although a variety of athlete data man- the practitioner over an appropriate
agement systems exist, with a range of period, for example, beginning of pre-
season for a 2-week period. Jo Clubb is an
financial commitment, there are low-
Applied Sports
cost options available to all practi-
Scientist for the
tioners to store and manage data. Mi- PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Buffalo Bills
crosoft Excel and Google Docs provide The evolution of technology continues
(NFL) and the
2 excellent options to practitioners. Fur- to provide a seemingly endless variety
Buffalo Sa-
ther to the resources mentioned above, of tools available to strength and con-
bres (NHL).
a number of free excel spreadsheets are ditioning coaches and sports scientists.
available to download for managing However, cost-effective options that

79
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 Evidence-Based Load Monitoring Systems

Does self-perceived sleep reflect sleep 24. Halson SL. Sleep in elite athletes and
Mike estimated via activity monitors in nutritional interventions to enhance sleep.
McGuigan works professional rugby league athletes? Sports Med 44: 13–23, 2014.
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