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WINTER – 19 EXAMINATION
Subject Name: Computer Graphics Model Answer Subject Code: 22318
Important Instructions to examiners:
1) The answers should be examined by key words and not as word-to-word as given in
the model answer scheme.
2) The model answer and the answer written by candidate may vary but the examiner
may try to assess the understanding level of the candidate.
3) The language errors such as grammatical, spelling errors should not be given more
Importance (Not applicable for subject English and Communication Skills.
4) While assessing figures, examiner may give credit for principal components
indicated in the figure. The figures drawn by candidate and model answer may vary.
The examiner may give credit for any equivalent figure drawn.
5) Credits may be given step wise for numerical problems. In some cases, the assumed
constant values may vary and there may be some difference in the candidate’s
answers and model answer.
6) In case of some questions credit may be given by judgement on part of examiner of
relevant answer based on candidate’s understanding.
7) For programming language papers, credit may be given to any other program based
on equivalent concept.

Q. Sub Answer Marking

No. Q. Scheme
N.
1 Attempt any FIVE of the following : 10 M
a Give two applications of computer graphics. 2M
Ans Any two
applications : 2
M

 DTP (Desktop Publishing)

Used for common paper and book publishing are sometimes used to
create graphics for point of sale displays, presentations, infographics,
brochures, business cards, promotional items, trade show exhibits,
retail package designs and outdoor signs.
 Graphical User Interface (GUI)
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reality (VR). VR is an immersive sensory experience that digitally

simulates a remote environment.
b List / name two line drawing algorithms. 2M
Ans  Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) Algorithm Any two
 Bresenham's Line Drawing Algorithm names: 2 M
c Explain the need of homogeneous co-ordinates matrix. 2M
Ans Homogeneous coordinates are used extensively in computer vision and Explanation: 2
graphics because they allow common operations such as translation, rotation, M
scaling and perspective projection to be implemented as matrix operations.
d Define polygon clipping. 2M
Ans A set of connected lines are considered as polygon; polygons are clipped Any suitable
based on the window and the portion which is inside the window is kept as it definition: 2 M
is and the outside portions are clipped.
OR
Polygon clipping is removal of part of an object outside a polygon.
e Draw Cubic Bezier Curve. 2M
Ans Any similar
type of curve: 2
M

OR

f Define Bitmap Graphics. 2M

Ans  A bitmap is an image or shape of any kind-a picture, a text character, Any suitable
a photo-that's composed of a collection of tiny individual dots. A wild definition: 2 M
landscape on your screen is a bitmapped graphic, or simply a bitmap.
 It is a pixel based image, not scalable and size of image is high.
g List various character generation methods. 2M
Ans  Stroke Method Any two
 Bitmap Method names: 2 M
 Starburst Method

2 Attempt any THREE of the following : 12 M

a Write short note on Augmented Reality. 4M
Ans  Augmented reality (AR) is made up of the word “augment” which Explanation:
means to make something great by adding something to it. 4M
 Augmented Reality is a type of virtual reality that aims to duplicate
the world's environment in a computer.
 Augmented reality is a method by which we can alter our real world
by adding some digital elements to it.

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 Step 4 : Fill all those pair of coordinates that are inside polygons and
ignore the alternate pairs.
c Write 2D and 3D scaling matrix. 4M
Ans 2D Scaling 2D matrix: 2
 Scaling means to change the size of object. This change can either be M,
positive or negative. 3D matrix: 2 M
 To change the size of an object, scaling transformation is used. In the
scaling process, you either expand or compress the dimensions of the
object.
 Scaling can be achieved by multiplying the original co-ordinates of
the object with the scaling factor to get the desired result.
 Let us assume that the original co-ordinates are (X, Y), the scaling
factors are (SX, SY), and the produced co-ordinates are (X', Y'). This
can be mathematically represented as shown below:
o X' = X  SX and Y' = Y  SY
 The scaling factor SX, SY scales the object in X and Y direction
respectively. The above equations can also be represented in matrix
form as below:
 X'   X   Sx 0 
  =    
 Y'   Y   0 Sy 
OR
P'
=P  S
 Where, S is the scaling matrix.
 The scaling process is shown in the Fig

(a) Before Scaling (b) After Scaling

3D Scaling Matrix
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structure object surfaces an approximation spline sur face credited for a

design application. Straight lines connect the control -point positions above
the surface.

3 Attempt any THREE of the following : 12 M

a Explain with diagram the techniques of Raster Scan Display. 4M
Ans  The most common type of graphics monitor employing a CRT is the Explanation: 2
Raster-scan displays, based on television technology M,
 JPG images are raster based. Light occurs when an electron beam Diagram: 2 M
stimulates a phosphor.
 In Raster scan, the electron beam from electron gun is swept
horizontally across the phosphor one row at time from top to bottom.
 The electron beam sweeps back and forth from left to right across the
screen. The beam is on, while it moves from left to right. The beam is
off, when it moves back from right to left. This phenomenon is called
the horizontal retrace.
 As soon as the beam reaches the bottom of the screen, it is turned off
and is rapidly retraced back to the top to start again. This is called the
vertical retrace.
 Raster scan displays maintain the steady image on the screen by
repeating scanning of the same image. This process is known as
refreshing of screen.

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 This is done by superimposing a digital image on the person’s current

view thus it enhances the experience of reality.
 Virtual reality makes a virtual environment and puts the user in it
whereas Augmented reality just adds the virtual components into the
user’s real-world view.
 For Augmented reality you only need a modern smartphone then you
can easily download an AR app like Google’s “just a line” and try
this technology.
 One of the most popular ways AR has infiltrated everyday life is
through mobile games. In 2016, the AR game "Pokémon Go" became
a sensation worldwide, with over 100 million estimated users at its
peak, according to CNET.
 The goal of Augmented Reality is to create a system in which the user
cannot tell the difference between the real world and the virtual
augmentation of it. Today Augmented Reality is used in
entertainment, military training, engineering design, robotics,
manufacturing and other industries.
b Explain scan line algorithm of polygon clipping. 4M
Ans  For each scan line crossing a polygon, the area-fill algorithm locates Algorithm: 4 M
the intersection points of the scan line with the polygon edges.
 These intersection points are then sorted from left to right, and the
corresponding frame-buffer positions between each intersection pair
are set to the specified fill color.
 Scan line algorithm works by intersecting scan line with polygon
edges and fills the polygon between pairs of intersections. The
following steps depict how this algorithm works.
Step 1 : Find out the Ymin and Ymax from the given polygon.

 Step 2 : ScanLine intersects with each edge of the polygon from

Ymin to Ymax. Name each intersection point of the polygon. As per
the Fig. 2.21 shown, they are named as p0, p1, p2, p3.
 Step 3 : Sort the intersection point in the increasing order of X
coordinate
i.e. (p0, p1), (p1, p2), and (p2, p3).

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The use of pictures, images, icons, pop-up menus, graphical objects

helps in creating a user friendly environment where working is easy
and pleasant, using computer graphics we can create such an
atmosphere where everything can be automated and anyone can get
the desired action performed in an easy fashion.
 Computer-Aided Design
Designing of buildings, automobile, aircraft is done with the help of
computer aided drawing, this helps in providing minute details to the
drawing and producing more accurate and sharp drawings with better
specifications.
 Computer-Aided Learning (Cal)
Computer Aided Learning (CAL) is the application of computers as
an integral part of the learning system for learning and teaching
process.
 Animations
Used for creating motion pictures, music video, television
shows, cartoon animation films.
 Computer Art
Using computer graphics we can create fine and commercial art which
include animation packages, paint packages.
 Entertainment
Computer graphics finds a major part of its utility in the movie
industry and game industry. Used for creating motion pictures, music
video, television shows, cartoon animation films.
 Education and training
Computer generated models are extremely useful for teaching huge
number of concepts and fundamentals in an easy to understand and
learn manner.
 Image processing
Various kinds of photographs or images require editing in order to be
used in different places.
 Medical Applications
The use of computer graphics for medical diagnosis has provided
an extraordinary ability to visualize measure and evaluate structures
in a non-intrusive manner.
 Presentation and Business Graphics
For the preparation of reports or summarizing the financial, statistical,
mathematical, scientific, economic data for research reports,
managerial reports, moreover creation of bar graphs, pie charts, time
chart, can be done using the tools present in computer graphics.
 Simulation and Virtual Reality
A simulation can also take the form of a computer-graphics image
that represents dynamic processes in an animated sequence. Virtual
reality applications are applications that make use of virtual
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Raster Scan CRT

A Raster-Scan System Displays an Object as a Set of Discrete Points

Across each Scan Line

 Typically, a graphics display consist of three components: frame

buffer, video controller or display controller, and a TV screen or
monitor.
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It specifies three co-ordinates with their own scaling factors. If scale factors,
Sx = Sy = Sz = S > 1 then the scaling is called as magnification.
Sx = Sy = Sz = S < 1 then the scaling is called as reduction.
Therefore, point after scaling with respect to origin can be calculated as,
P=P . S
d Explain midpoint subdivision line clipping algorithm. 4M
Ans Step 1: Scan two end points for the line P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2). Algorithm: 4 M
Step 2: Scan corners for the window as (Wx1, Wy1) and (Wx2, Wy2).
Step 3: Assign the region codes for endpoints P1 and P2 by initializing code
with
0000.
Bit 1 - if (x < Wx1)
Bit 2 - if (x > Wx2)
Bit 3 - if (y < Wy1)
Bit 4 - if (y > Wy2)
Step 4: Check for visibility of line P1, P2.
 If region codes for both end points are zero then the line is visible,
draw it and jump to step 6.
 If region codes for end points are not zero and the logical Anding
operation of them is also not zero then the line is invisible, reject it
and jump to step 6.
 If region codes for end points does not satisfies the condition in 4 (i)
and 4 (ii) then line is partly visible.
Step5: Find midpoint of line and divide it into two equal line segments and
repeat
steps 3 through 5 for both subdivided line segments until you get completely
visible and completely invisible line segments.
Step 6: Exit.
e Explain interpolation techniques in curve generation. 4M
Ans Specify a spline curve by giving a set of coordinate positions, called control Diagram: 2 M,
points, which indicates the general shape of the curve These, control points Explanation: 2
are then fitted with piecewise continuous parametric polynomial functions in M
one of two ways. When polynomial sections are fitted so that the curve passes
through each control point, the resulting curve is said to interpolate the set of
control points. On the other hand, when the polynomials are fitted to the
general control -point path without necessarily passing through any control
point, the resulting curve is said to approximate the set of control points
interpolation curves are commonly used to digitize drawings or to specify
animation paths. Approximation curves are primarily used as design tools to
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
Picture definition is stored in a memory area called the refresh buffer
or frame buffer. This memory area holds the set of intensity values
for all the screen points. The stored intensity values are then retrieved
from frame buffer and painted on the screenone row at a time. Each
screen point is referred as Pixel orpel. Each pixel on the screen can be
specified by it row and column number.
 Intensity range for pixel position depends on capability of the raster
system. In black and white system, the point on screen is either on or
off. Only one bit is needed to control the intensity of the screen. In
case of color systems, 2 bits are requiredOne to represent ON (1),
another one is OFF (0).
 Refreshing on raster scan is carried out at the rate of 60 to 80 frames
per seconds.
The video or display controller has direct access to memory locations
in the frame buffer. It is responsible for retrieving data from the frame
buffer and passing it to the display device. It reads bytes of data from
frame buffer and converts 0’s and 1’s in one line into its
corresponding video signals and this is called a scan line. If the
intensity is one (1) then controller sends a signal to display a dot in
the corresponding position on the screen. If the intensity is zero (0)
then no dot is displayed.
b Write procedure to fill polygon with flood fill. 4M
Ans flood_fill(x,y,old_color,new_color) Correct
procedure: 4 M
{
if(getpixel(x,y) = old_color)
{
putpixel(x,y,new_color);
flood_fill(x+1,y,old_color, new_color);
flood_fill(x-1,y,old_color, new_color);

flood_fill(x,y+1,old_color, new_color);
flood_fill(x,y-1,old_color, new_color);
flood_fill(x+1,y+1,old_color, new_color);
flood_fill(x-1,y-1,old_color, new_color);
flood_fill(x+1,y-1,old_color, new_color);
flood_fill(x-1,y+1,old_color, new_color);

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From the above Fig. you can write that:

X' = X + tx
Y' = Y + ty

The pair (tx, ty) is called the translation vector or shift vector. The above
equations can also be represented using the column vectors.

P = [X] [Y] p'

= [X] [Y] T = [tx] [ty]

We can write it as,

P' = P + T

Rotation
 Rotation as the name suggests is to rotate a point about an axis.
The axis can be any of the co-ordinates or simply any other
specified line also.
 In rotation, we rotate the object at particular angle θ (theta) from
its origin. From the following figure, we can see that the point
P(X, Y) is located at angle φ from the horizontal X coordinate
with distance r from the origin.
 Let us, suppose you want to rotate it at the angle θ. After rotating
it to a new location, you will get a new point P' (X', Y').

Using standard trigonometric the original coordinate of point P(X, Y) can be

represented as:
X = r cos ф (1)
Y = r sin ф (2)

Same way we can represent the point P' (X', Y') as:
x′ = r cos (ф + θ) = r cos ф cos θ − r sin ф sin θ (3)
y′ = r sin (ф + θ) = r cos ф sin θ + r sin ф cos θ (4)

Substituting equation (1) and (2) in (3) and (4) respectively, we will get
x′ = x cos θ − y sin θ
y′ = x sin θ + y cos θ
Representing the above equation in matrix form,

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If we provide values less than 1 to the scaling factor S, then we can reduce
the size of the object. If we provide values greater than 1, then we can increase
the size of the object.
d Explain Koch curve with diagram. 4M
Ans Koch Curve: - In Koch curve, begin at a line segment. Divide it into third Explanation: 2
and replace the center by the two adjacent sides of an equilateral triangle as M,
shown below. This will give the curve which starts and ends at same place as Diagram: 2 M
the original segment but is built of 4 equal length segments, with each 1/3rd
of the original length. So the new curve has 4/3 the length of original
segments. Repeat same process for each of the 4 segment which will give
curve more wiggles and its length become 16/9 times the original. Suppose
repeating the replacements indefinitely, since each repetition increases the
length by a factor of 4/3, the length of the curve will be infinite but it is folded
in lots of tiny

e Explain Text Clipping. 4M

Ans Many techniques are used to provide text clipping in a computer graphics. It Explanation: 4
depends on the methods used to generate characters and the requirements of M
a particular application. There are three methods for text clipping which are
listed below –

1) All or none string clipping

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The following figure shows text clipping –

This clipping method is based on characters rather than the entire string. In
this method if the string is entirely inside the clipping window, then we keep
it. If it is partially outside the window, then you reject only the portion of
string being outside. If the character is on the boundary of the clipping
window, then we discard only that portion of character that is outside of the
clipping window.

4 Attempt any THREE of the following : 12 M

a Explain inside and outside test for polygon. 4M
Ans This method is also known as counting number method. While filling an Explanation: 4
object, we often need to identify whether particular point is inside the object M
or outside it.

There are two methods by which we can identify whether particular point is
inside an object or outside namely, Odd-Even Rule, and Non-zero winding
number rule.

1. Odd-Even Rule:
In this technique, we count the edge crossing along the line from any point
(x, y) to infinity. If the number of interactions is odd then the point (x, y) is
an interior point. If the number of interactions is even then point (x, y) is an
exterior point.
Here is the example to give you the clear idea,

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Where, R is the rotation matrix

The rotation angle can be positive and negative.

Scaling:
Scaling means to change the size of object. This change can either be positive
or negative.
To change the size of an object, scaling transformation is used. In the scaling
process, you either expand or compress the dimensions of the object.
Scaling can be achieved by multiplying the original co-ordinates of the object
with the scaling factor to get the desired result.
Let us assume that the original co-ordinates are (X, Y), the scaling factors are
(SX, SY), and the produced co-ordinates are (X', Y'). This can be
mathematically represented as shown below:

X' = X .SX and Y' = Y .SY

The scaling factor SX, SY scales the object in X and Y direction respectively.
The above equations can also be represented in matrix form as below:

Where, S is the scaling matrix.

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}
}

c Explain 2D transformations with its types. 4M

Ans A transformation is a function that maps every position (x, y) into a new 2D
position (x', y'). Instead of applying the transformation function to every point transformation:
in every line that makes up the object, we simply apply the function to the 1 M,
object vertices and then draw new lines between the resulting new endpoints. Types: 1 M
each
Basic Transformations:

1)Translation
2)Scaling
3)Rotation

1)Translation:
 A translation is applied to an object by repositioning it along a
straight-line path from one coordinate location to another.
 Translation refers to the shifting (moving) of a point to some other
place, whose distance with regard to the present point is known.
 Translation can be defined as “the process of repositioning an
object along a straight line path from one co-ordinate location to
new co-ordinate location.”
 A translation moves an object to a different position on the screen.
You can translate a point in 2D by adding translation coordinate
(tx, ty) to the original coordinate (X, Y) to get the new coordinate
(X', Y')

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Fig a: Odd-Even Rule

From the Fig., we can see that from the point (x, y), the number of
interactions point on the left side is 5 and on the right side is 3. So the total
number of interaction point is 8, which is odd. Hence, the point is
considered within the object.

2. Non-zero Winding Number Rule:

This method is also used with the simple polygons to test the given point is
interior or not. It can be simply understood with the help of a pin and a
rubber band.
Fix up the pin on one of the edge of the polygon and tie-up the rubber band
in it and then stretch the rubber band along the edges of the polygon.
When all the edges of the polygon are covered by the rubber band, check
out the pin which has been fixed up at the point to be test. If we find at least
one wind at the point consider it within the polygon, else we can say that the
point is not inside the polygon.

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2) All or none character clipping

3) Text clipping

The following figure shows all or none string clipping –

In all or none string clipping method, either we keep the entire string or we
reject entire string based on the clipping window. As shown in the above
figure, STRING2 is entirely inside the clipping window so we keep it and
STRING1 being only partially inside the window, we reject.
The following figure shows all or none character clipping –

This clipping method is based on characters rather than entire string. In this
method if the string is entirely inside the clipping window, then we keep it.
If it is partially outside the window, then −
You reject only the portion of the string being outside If the character is on
the boundary of the clipping window, then we discard that entire character
and keep the rest string.
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Fig b: Non-zero Winding Number Rule:

In another alternative method, give directions to all the edges of the polygon.
Draw a scan line from the point to be test towards the left most of X direction.
Given the value 1 to all the edges which are going to upward direction and
all other – 1 as direction values.
Check the edge direction values from which the scan line is passing and sum
up them.
If the total sum of this direction value is non-zero, then this point to be tested
is an interior point, otherwise it is an exterior point.
In the above figure, we sum up the direction values from which the scan line
is passing then the total is 1 – 1 + 1 = 1; which is non-zero. So the point is
said to be an interior point.
b Explain composite transformation over arbitrary point. 4M
Ans To do rotation of an object about any selected arbitrary point P1(x1 ,y1), Explanation: 2
following sequence of operations shall be performed. M,
1. Translate: Matrix: 1 M,
Translate an object so that arbitrary point P1 is moved to coordinate Diagram: 1M
origin.
2. Rotate:
Rotate object about origin.
3. Translate:
Translate object so that arbitrary point P1 is moved back to the its
original position.
Rotate about point P1(x1,y1).
1) Translate P1 to origin.
2) Rotate
3) Translate back to P1.
Equation for this composite transformation matrix form is as follows:
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First Line
2M,Second
Line 2M

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d Write DDA Arc generation algorithm. 4M

Ans 1. Read the centre of curvature, say(x0,y0) Correct
2. Read the arc angle, say Ɵ algorithm: 4 M
3. Read the starting point of the arc, say(x,y)
4. Calculate dƟ
dƟ=min(0.01,1/3.2*(|x-x0|+|y-y0|)))
5. Initialize angle = 0
6. while (angle < Ɵ)
do
{
Plot(x,y)
x=x-(y-y0) *dƟ
y=y-(x-x0) *dƟ
Angle =Angle + dƟ
}
7. stop

5 Attempt any TWO of the following : 12 M

a Use Bresenham’s line drawing algorithm to rasterize line from (6,5) to 6M
(15,10).
Ans Calculations of
x1 = 6 | y1 = 5 | & | x2 = 15 | y2 = 10 dx, dy and p: 2
Calculation Result M;
Calculations of
dx = abs(x1 - x2) 9 = abs(6 - 15) steps: 4 M
dy = abs(y1 - y2) 5 = abs(5 - 10)
p = 2 * (dy - dx) -8 = 2 * (5 - 9)
ELSE x = x1 | y = y1 | end = x2
x = 6 | y = 5 | end = 15

S while(x < x=x+1 if(p < 0) { p = p + OUTPUT

T
E end) 2 * dy } else{ p =
P p + 2 * (dy - dx) }

1 7 < 15 7=6+1 IF 2 = -8 + 2 * 5 x=7|y=5

2 8 < 15 8=7+1 ELSE -6 = 2 + 2 * x=8|y=6
(5 - 9)

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Here (x1,y1) are coordinates of point P1 and hence are translation factors tx
and ty; we want to move P1 to origin , x1 and y1 are x and y distances to
P1and hence it is translation factor.

It is demonstrated in following figure:

c Use the Cohen Sutherland algorithm to clip two lines P1(35,10)- 4M

P2(65,40) and P3(65,20)-P4(95,10) against a window A(50,10), B(80,10),
C(80,40) and D(50,40).

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b Find the transformation of triangle A(1,0) B(0,1) C(1,1) by 6M

i. Rotating 30° about the origin
ii. Translating one unit x and y direction and then rotate 45° about
origin.
Ans i. Rotating 30° about the origin. Rotation 30°: 3
We can represent the given triangle, in matrix form, using homogeneous M; Translation,
coordinates of the vertices: rotation 45°
𝐴 1 0 1 and
[ABC] = [𝐵 0 1 1] retranslation: 3
𝐶 1 1 1 M
√3 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠30 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 0 0
2 2
The rotation matrix is R𝜃 = R30 = [−𝑠𝑖𝑛30 𝑐𝑜𝑠30 0] = 1 √3
−2 2 0
0 0 1
[0 0 1]
So the new coordinates A’B’C’ of the rotated triangle ABC can be found as:
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3 9 < 15 9=8+1 IF 4 = -6 + 2 * 5 x=9|y=6

4 10 < 15 10 = 9 + 1 ELSE -4 = 4 + 2 * x = 10 | y =
(5 - 9) 7
5 11 < 15 11 = 10 + 1 IF 6 = -4 + 2 * 5 x = 11 | y =
7
6 12 < 15 12 = 11 + 1 ELSE -2 = 6 + 2 * x = 12 | y =
(5 - 9) 8
7 13 < 15 13 = 12 + 1 IF 8 = -2 + 2 * 5 x = 13 | y =
8
8 14 < 15 14 = 13 + 1 ELSE 0 = 8 + 2 * x = 14 | y =
(5 - 9) 9
9 15 < 15 15 = 14 + 1 ELSE -8 = 0 + 2 * x = 15 | y =
(5 - 9) 10

OR

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√3 1
1 0 1 2 0
2
A’B’C’]=[ABC]. R30° =[0 1 1] 1 √3 =
−2 0
1 1 1 2
[0 0 1]
0.866025 −0.5 0
[ 0.5 0.866025 0]
1.36603 0.366025 1

ii. Translating one unit x and y direction and then rotate 45°
about origin.
Points A, B and C, 𝜃= 45° and about points are (1,1)
tx = 1;
ty = 1;
for rotation about arbitrary point we followed sequence of operation
as
Translation -> Rotation about origin -> Retranslation
1 1
− 0
𝑥′ 1 0 1 √2 √2 1 0 −1 1 0 1
[𝑦 ′ ] = [0 1 1 ] 1 1 [0 1 −1] [0 1 1]
𝑧′ 0 0 1 √2 √2 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
[0 0 1]
1 1
− 1
𝑥′ √2 √2 1 0 −1 1 0 1
[𝑦 ′ ] = 1 1 [0 1 −1] [0 1 1]
1 0 0 1 1 1 1
𝑧′ √2 √2
[0 0 1]
1 1
− 1
𝑥′ √2 √2 1 0 1
[𝑦 ′ ] = 1 1 2 [0 1 1 ]
− − +1 1 1 1
𝑧′ √2 √2 √2
[ 0 0 1 ]
1 1
− +1 +1 1
𝑥′ √2 √2
[𝑦 ′ ] = 1 1 4
′ − − +3
𝑧 √2 √2 √2
[ 1 1 1 ]

c Write C program for Hilbert’s Curve. 6M

Ans #include <stdio.h> Correct
program: 6 M

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for(y = 0; y < MAX; ++y) pts[x][y] = ' ';

prev.x = prev.y = 0;
pts[0][0] = '.';
for(d = 1; d < N * N; ++d){
d2pt(N, d, &curr);
cx = curr.x * K;
cy = curr.y * K;
px = prev.x * K;
py = prev.y * K;
pts[cx][cy] = '.';
if(cx == px ){
if(py < cy)
for(y = py + 1; y < cy; ++y) pts[cx][y] = '|';
else
for(y = cy + 1; y < py; ++y) pts[cx][y] = '|';
}
else{
if(px < cx)
for(x = px + 1; x < cx; ++x) pts[x][cy] = '_';
else
for(x = cx + 1; x < px; ++x) pts[x][cy] = '_';
}
prev = curr;
}
for(x = 0; x < MAX; ++x){
for(y = 0; y < MAX; ++y)printf("%c", pts[y][x]);
printf("\n");
}
return0;
}

6 Attempt any TWO of the following : 12 M

a Explain character generation methods: 6M
i. Stroke
ii. Starburst
iii. Bitmap
Ans 1) STROKE METHOD Each Method of
 Stroke method is based on natural method of text written by human character
being. In this method graph is drawing in the form of line by line. generation: 2 M

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3) Starbust method:
In this method a fix pattern of line segments are used to generate characters.
Out of these 24 line segments, segments required to display for particular
character are highlighted. This method of character generation is called
starbust method because of its characteristic appearance
The starbust patterns for characters A and M. the patterns for particular
characters are stored in the form of 24 bit code, each bit representing one
line segment. The bit is set to one to highlight the line segment; otherwise
it is set to zero. For example, 24-bit code for Character A is 0011 0000
0011 1100 1110 0001 and for
character M is 0000 0011 0000 1100 1111 0011.
This method of character generation has some disadvantages. They are
1. The 24-bits are required to represent a character. Hence more memory
is required.
2. Requires code conversion software to display character from its 24-
bitcode.
3. Character quality is poor. It is worst for curve shaped characters.

Character A : 0011 0000 0011 1100 11100001

Character M:0000 0011 0000 1100 11110011
b Apply shearing transformation to square with A(0,0), B(1,0), C(1,1) and 6M
D(0,1) as shear parameter value of 0.5 relative to the line Y ref = -1 and
Xref=-1.

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c Explain Cyrusblek line clipping algorithm. 6M

Ans Cyrus Beck Line Clipping algorithm: Description of
Cyrus Beck Line Clipping algorithm is used to clip 2D/3D lines against algorithm: 6 M
convex polygon/polyhedron. **Cyrus Beck
• Cyrus Beck Line clipping algorithm is actually, a parametric line-clipping is considered
algorithm. instead of
• The term parametric means that we require finding the value of the Cyrusblek
parameter t in the parametric representation of the line segment for the point
at that the segment intersects the clipping edge.
• Consider line segment P1P2. The parametric equation of line segment P1P2
is,
P(t) = P1 + t(P2 – P1) … (1)
Where, t value defines a point on the line going through P1 and P2.
0 <= t <= 1 defines line segment between P1 and P2.
If t = 0 then P(0) = P1.
If t = 1 then P(1) = P2.
• Consider a convex clipping region R, f is a boundary point of the convex
region R and n is an inner normal for one of its boundaries as shown in Fig

Convex region, boundary point and inner normal.

• Then we can distinguish in which region a point lie by looking at the value
of the dot product
n.[P(t) – f ], as shown in Fig.
• If dot product is negative i.e.,
n.[P(t) – f ] < 0 … (2)
then the vector P(t) – f ] is pointed away from the interior of R.
• If dot product is zero i.e.,
n.[P(t) – f ] = 0 … (3)
then the vector P(t) – f ] is pointed parallel to the plane containing f and
perpendicular to the normal.
• If dot product is positive i.e.,
n.[P(t) – f ] > 0 … (4)
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 Line drawing algorithm DDA follows this method for line drawing.
 This method uses small line segments to generate a character. The small
series of line segments are drawn like a stroke of pen to form a
character.
 We can build our own stroke method character generator by calls to the
line drawing algorithm. Here it is necessary to decide which line
segments are needed for each character and then drawing these
segments using line drawing algorithm.

2)BITMAP METHOD
 Bitmap method is a called dot-matrix method as the name suggests this
method use array of bits for generating a character. These dots are the
points for array whose size is fixed.
 In bit matrix method when the dots is stored in the form of array the
value 1 in array represent the characters i.e. where the dots appear
we represent that position with numerical value 1 and the value where
dots are not present is represented by 0 in array.
 It is also called dot matrix because in this method characters are
represented by an array of dots in the matrix form. It is a two
dimensional array having columns and rows.
A 5x7 array is commonly used to represent characters. However 7x9 and
9x13 arrays are also used. Higher resolution devices such as inkjet printer or
laser printer may use character arrays that are over 100x100.

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#define N 32
#define K 3
#define MAX N * K

typedefstruct{int x; int y; } point;

void rot(int n, point *p, int rx, int ry){

int t;
if(!ry){
if(rx == 1){
p->x = n - 1 - p->x;
p->y = n - 1 - p->y;
}
t = p->x;
p->x = p->y;
p->y = t;
}
}

void d2pt(int n, int d, point *p){

int s = 1, t = d, rx, ry;
p->x = 0;
p->y = 0;
while(s < n){
rx = 1&(t / 2);
ry = 1&(t ^ rx);
rot(s, p, rx, ry);
p->x += s * rx;
p->y += s * ry;
t /= 4;
s *= 2;
}
}

int main(){
int d, x, y, cx, cy, px, py;
char pts[MAX][MAX];
point curr, prev;
for(x = 0; x < MAX; ++x)
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then the vector P(t) – f ] is pointed towards the interior of R.

Dot products for three points inside, outside and on the boundary of the
clipping region

• As shown in Fig. if the point f lies in the boundary plane or edge for which
n is the inner normal, then that point t on the line P(t) which satisfies,
n.[P(t) – f ] = 0 condition is the intersection of the line with the
boundary edge.
• To get the formal statement of the Cyrus-Beck algorithm we substitute
value of P(t) in equation 3.
n . [P(t) – f ] = n . [P1 + (P2 – P1)t – f ] = 0 … (5)
• The relation should be applied for each boundary plane or edge of the
window to get the intersection points. Thus in general form equation (5) can
be written as,
ni . [P1 + (P2 – P1)t – fi ] = 0 … (6)
where, i is edge number.
• Solving equation (6) we get,
ni . [P1 – fi ] + ni . (P2 –P1)t = 0 … (7)
• Here the vector P2 – P1 defines the direction of the line. The direction of
the line is important to correctly identify the visibility of the line. The vector
P1 - fi is proportional to the distance from the
end point of the line to the boundary point.
• Let us define,
D = P2 – P1 as the direction of a line and
Wi = P1 – fi as weighting factor.
• Substituting newly defined variable D and Wi in Equation (7) we get,
ni.Wi + (ni . D)t = 0 … (8)

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Ans Shear in Yref=-

1: 3 M;
Shear in Xref =
-1: 3 M

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t = – (ni.Wi) /(ni.D) … (9)

where, D ≠ 0 and i = 1, 2, 3 .....
• The equation (9) is used to obtain the value of t for the intersection of the
line with each edge of the clipping window. We must select the proper
value for t using following tips :
1. If t is outside the range 0<= t <= 1, then it can be ignored.
2. We know that, the line can intersect the convex window in at most two
points , i.e. at two values
of t. With equation (9) , there can be several values of t in the range of 0<= t
<= 1 . We have to choose the largest lower limit and the smallest upper
limit.
3. If (ni . Di) > 0 then equation (9) gives lower limit value for t and if (ni. Di)
< 0 then equation (9)
gives upper limit value for t.

Algorithm Cyrus Beck Line Clipping Algorithm:

Step 1 : Read end points of line P1 and P2.
Step 2 : Read vertex coordinates of clipping window.
Step 3 : Calculate D = P2 – P1.
Step 4 : Assign boundary point b with particular edge.
Step 5 : Find inner normal vector for corresponding edge.
Step 6 : Calculate D.n and W = P1 – b
Step 7 : If D.n > 0
tL = – (W.n)/(D.n)
else
tU = – (W.n)/(D.n)
end if
Step 8 : Repeat steps 4 through 7 for each edge of clipping window.
Step 9 : Find maximum lower limit and minimum upper limit.
Step 10 : If maximum lower limit and minimum upper limit do not satisfy
condition 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 then
ignore line.
Step 11 : Calculate intersection points by substituting values of maximum
lower limit and minimum upper limit in parametric equation of line P 1P2.
Step 12 : Draw line segment P(t L) to P(tU).
Step 13 : Stop.

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