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Animated Landscapes
Animated Landscapes
History, Form and Function
Edited by
Chris Pallant
Bloomsbury Academic
An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Inc
Bloomsbury Academic
An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Inc
www.bloomsbury.com
BLOOMSBURY and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
List of Illustrations ix
Acknowledgements xi
14 Evoking the Oracle: Visual Logic of Screen Worlds Tom Klein 251
15 Beyond the Animated Landscape: Videogame Glitches and
the Sublime Alan Meades 269
Contributors 286
Bibliography 292
Animation/Filmography/Other Media 307
Index 314
List of Illustrations
Given the focus of this collection, it is worth revisiting the popular cliché that
animation can trace its origins back to the real-world cave paintings of the
Palaeolithic period. Although criticized in scholarly circles for obvious reasons –
cave people were not seeking to make animated images of the type we recognise
today – this analogy continues to enjoy popular purchase. This is perhaps a
consequence of Richard Williams’s passing comment in his influential book, The
Animator’s Survival Kit, that: ‘We’ve always been trying to make the pictures
move, the idea of animation is aeons older than the movies or television. Here’s
a quick history: Over 35,000 years ago, we were painting animals on cave walls,
sometimes drawing four pairs of legs to show motion.’1 This pseudo-mythical
origin story gained further momentum in recent years when Werner Herzog
returned to this refrain in his captivating documentary Cave of Forgotten Dreams
(2010).
To this speculative origin story could also be added the Mesolithic
petroglyphs, such as those found at Val Camonica in Northern Italy, which
go further than the Palaeolithic paintings to draw connections between the
landscape and its inhabitants. In the case of the petroglyphs at Val Camonica,
rather than ‘provide a balanced commentary on the events of daily life…
they stress certain aspects at the expense of others. In particular, they
emphasize the importance of crop production’.2 What is evident, beyond the
speculative myth-making, is that the landscape becomes a selective record,
a site of inscribed information that might serve to guide, if not animate,
agricultural behaviour across generations. While the animated landscape may
or may not have originated in the real world, through new digital projection
technologies it has, in recent years, returned in spectacular ways to inhabit
the lived environment once more through projection-mapped animation. The
instrumental dynamic – if not dialectic – here, between artist and real-world
environment, remains central to these forms of animated landscape, whereby
the physical landscape can both become animated and itself be an animating
space – forcing the animator to respond in unique, site-specific ways.
Given the cinematic lingua franca that binds many of us today, the phrase
‘animated landscape’ is perhaps more likely to prompt thoughts of the fantastical,
imagined and perhaps even shape-shifting worlds that proliferate in animated
film. In a more orthodox sense, referring to the long-established traditions of
Introduction 3
While few would argue with this proposition, the ability to make popular – and
critical – distinctions between ‘animated’ and ‘live action’ ‘film’ remains useful.
Much like we continue to use ‘silent cinema’ as a descriptor to refer to a period of
cinema exhibition that was anything but silent (while sound was not synchronized
with image via the celluloid strip, this did not stop exhibitors making their ‘silent’
films noisy spectacles with frequent piano-based accompaniment), it is unlikely
that shorthand distinctions between animated and live-action film will cease to
make sense any time soon.
Clearly, though, as the animated and live-action traditions are folding in
on each other, we need to be able to make critical distinctions that cut across
4 Animated Landscapes
(twelve) in a bid to prompt in her the emotion required to deliver the call to
arms. During this excursion, Capitol military aircraft attack the rebel party and
the makeshift hospital that they had visited. Seeing this massacre, Katniss makes
use of her new explosive arrows to bring down the two aircraft, resulting in a
spectacular, explosive crash-landing. Instinctively, the documentary crew that
are accompanying Katniss quickly act to channel her obviously emotional state,
directing her to deliver the call to arms, while tracking around her so as to fill the
shot’s background with burning wreckage. In this instance, the landscape works
with Katniss, providing the basis of a powerful call to arms.
Some viewers may find comfort in the film’s return to a photo-real world,
where the real landscape provides Katniss with all the emotional motivation
needed to deliver her call to arms; yet, other viewers may delight in the
irony that this seemingly photo-real environment remains one dependent
on animation – from the digitally enhanced flames that engulf the partially
computer-generated destroyed architecture, to the digitally composited
reflections in Kitniss’s pupils and the cameraman’s visor. With the release of
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1, it is tempting to see the culmination
of a computer-generated (CG) cinematic trajectory, where the discourse
of landscape animation has moved from a backstage trick to a centre stage
attraction.
Inhabiting a periphery domain between the classically cinematic, animated
modes discussed above and the computer-based, interactive animated landscapes
discussed below are the abstract works of animators such as Oskar Fischinger,
Norman McLaren, Len Lye, and John and James Whitney. Working across a
range of animation process, including hand-drawn, stop-motion, computer-
based and many hybrid variations in between, and often in an abstract mode,
these animators produced works that effectively call into question – if not
problematize entirely – the basis upon which distinctions such as landscape and
character might be made in the animated form. Fischinger’s Kreise/Circles (1933),
for example, produced to match the advertising agency Tolirag’s slogan ‘Tolirag
reaches all circles of society’, synchronizes the movement and metamorphosis of
multi-coloured circles with musical excerpts from Richard Wagner and Edvard
Grieg.6 By refusing to reduce the hermeneutic potential of Circles through the
imposition of recognizable characters and landscapes, Fischinger creates a
universal space within which each viewer can read their own meaning, while
extending a powerful, and unmistakable, visual metaphor that sees the circle
become the unifying force throughout the abstract animation. McLaren’s direct
6 Animated Landscapes
II
Notes
ASCENTS.
After pulling up a short, steep hill the horses should be halted to recover their
wind. When this cannot be done, they will move very slowly.
In going up a difficult hill the carriages may be halted to rest the horses by
bringing them across the declivity and locking the limbers or chocking the wheels, or
by putting on the brake to the rear; for this purpose it may be expedient to start the
sections or platoons from the bottom in succession, leaving a distance of 20 or 30
yards between the different portions of the column.
If the draught be so difficult that the teams are liable to stall, the carriages in
rear are halted, and the lead-and swing-horses of the rear half of the carriages can
be taken out and hitched to the leading half; when these have been taken through,
all the horses, except the wheel, will be taken back, and the rear carriages brought
up. As it is very hard to make the horses pull together, not more than five pairs can
be hitched with effect to a single carriage.
DESCENTS.
The drivers never dismount going down hill; the wheel-driver holds his near horse
well in hand, and his off horse very short. Two cannoneers may be mounted on
each gun-carriage and caisson to apply the brakes. In the absence of instructions
from higher authority the chief of carriage directs whether the brakes are to be
applied to a particular wheel or to both. The brakes are easily applied and removed,
and a judicious use of them will save the horse much fatigue and prevent sore necks
and shoulders. If the descent be very steep, the sectional picket-line may be used
by the cannoneers to hold back; in this case the wheel-horses only remain hitched
to the carriage, the others being led in rear.
If a carriage have to move along a declivity so steep that a slight jolt may
overturn it, the wheels are locked, the sectional picket-line fastened to the top of
the upper wheel and held by two or three cannoneers, who march on the upper side
of the slope.
DITCHES.
If the ditch be wide and deep, the prolonge is fixed and the handspike turned
over on the flask and secured, the team is halted on the edge, and the piece run by
hand close to the limber, which then moves slowly until the piece reaches the
bottom of the ditch, when it moves quickly until the piece is out. If the ditch be
deep and narrow, it may be necessary to cut down the edges and hold back with
the sectional picket-line; should the trail sink into the ground in passing over, it is
disengaged with a handspike or by fastening a prolonge to it.
In passing shallow ditches, drains, or deep furrows the carriages must cross them
obliquely.
If the ford be not well known, it must be examined and the dangerous places
marked before the carriages attempt to cross.
If the water be deep and the current strong, great care is necessary. The men are
instructed to keep their eyes fixed on some object on the opposite bank which
marks the place of exit; they must not look at the stream, and they move rather
against the current, so as to better resist its power.
If the ford have a bad bottom and the banks be difficult, the teams are
strengthened by adding pairs; an officer or non-commissioned officer is posted at
the entrance to regulate the distance between carriages and to instruct the drivers
how to proceed; a second officer or non-commissioned officer is posted at the exit
to direct the drivers how to leave the ford.
The management of the team is the same as in crossing marshy ground; the
horses must not be allowed to halt or trot either in passing the ford or leaving it,
unless the stream be neither deep nor very rapid; in this case the carriages may be
halted to let the horses drink, or at least to give them a mouthful of water.
Upon reaching the opposite bank the leading carriages are halted after they have
moved far enough forward to leave room for the carriages in rear.
If the chests be not water-tight and are at the usual height of two feet and ten
inches above the ground, a ford deeper than two feet four inches cannot be crossed
without danger of wetting the ammunition.
If the chests be water-tight or means have been taken to raise them high
enough, a depth of 3⅓ feet may be safely attempted.
When the ford is deeper than this, the cannoneers must carry over the cartridges,
fuzes, and primers in the pouches, which they hold above the water. The chests are
sometimes removed and taken over in boats. In crossing streams that cannot be
forded, when there are no bridges, the horses are swum, and the carriages and
harness crossed on rafts, etc.
At the entrance of the bridge the lead-and swing-drivers dismount and lead their
pairs. A distance of 12 yards is taken between the carriages, and the gait is free and
decided; the drivers keep the carriages as near the middle of the floor as possible. If
the flooring be wet, battens should be nailed across it to keep the horses from
falling. If the bridge begins to rock, the passage of the column is suspended.
In passing over a flying bridge all the drivers dismount and hold their horses; the
lead-and swing-horses should be taken out and led onto the bridge or boat; the
brakes should be applied to the rear, so that the carriage cannot be run back.
PASSAGE ON ICE.
All the carriages are moved close to one side of the road, and the pieces and
caissons unlimbered and brought about; the limbers then take their places in front
of their carriages by an about, and the carriages are limbered up; if there be not
room for the limbers to execute an about, the horses are taken out.
If the road be so narrow that the limbers cannot pass the carriages, the trails of
the pieces and the stocks of the caissons are carried around until perpendicular to
the road, and are then placed against the bank, the wheels being run close to it; on
an embankment, or a road with ditches on each side, the carriages are run as close
to the edge as possible, the wheels chocked or locked, and the trails and stocks held
up while the limbers pass.
THE ODOMETER.
SELECTION OF CAMPS.
Having fixed on the general plan of a camp, lay out the lines the tents are to
occupy, and drive pegs to mark the position of the tent-poles or the centre of each
tent. For wall-tents the distance between tent-poles of adjacent tents should be at
least 20 feet.
CAMPING.
On arriving in camp park the battery with sufficient intervals to allow each horse
at least a yard and a half on the picket-line, and have the wagons take positions
most favorable for unloading.
The sections of picket-rope are usually stretched along the spare wheels of the
caissons by cannoneers under supervision of the gunners.
Then the cannoneers, while drivers are unharnessing, etc., are told off into
detachments, each under a non-com. officer when necessary, for unloading wagons,
pitching tents, obtaining wood and water, and preparing latrines.
The drivers as soon as dismounted are directed to unhitch, and if the animals are
sufficiently cool they should be watered and fed.
Examine feet, sponge eyes and nostrils, remove harness, and tie to picket-line. As
soon as the harness has been removed pass the hand carefully over the horse's
shoulders and back, and if there be any indication of a hard lump it should be at
once hand-rubbed. Horses should be permitted to roll if backs be dry, as it is very
restful to them. Leave blanket, secured by surcingle, on horse's back until dry if
necessary. After two hours sound stables, at which the battery and platoon
commanders should be present, and let the men get to work on their horses; a
good rubbing-down is all that is necessary, without the elaborate grooming required
in garrison.
Collar-galls and girth-galls should be kept wet with salt and water, and saddle-
galls have a cloth wetted in the same manner kept on them. Or wash the galled
spot and then cover it with a powder formed of 1 part iodoform and 3 parts sulphur.
When the animal has to be used, cover it after dressing with a piece of old-
fashioned sticking-plaster.
Should a riding-or draught-horse get a sore back, he may be used as an off
leader or swing-horse. The saddle should be removed and the crupper connected to
the collar by a back-strap. Breast-harness may be used on a horse with a collar-gall.
As a rule, horses should not be unharnessed at night in the presence of an active
enemy; they should be tied closely together, tails to the wind, and should be shifted
day or night to prevent their being head to the wind.
To Unharness in the Field.—If harness-racks be not used, the pole-prop is
placed under the end of the pole; the single-trees are left attached to the double-
trees; the wheel-traces are unhitched from the collars only, and laid over the chest
from front to rear, or on the foot-board; the collars of the wheel-team on top of the
limber-chest (paulins having been removed) next to the rail on the near side, the
swing-collars in the middle, and the lead-collars next to the off-side rail; the collar of
the off horse is placed on top of that of the near horse of the same team; the
remainder of the harness is placed on the pole, that of the near wheel-horse next to
the double-tree and as close to it as possible, next that of the off wheel-horse, and
then the swing-and after that the lead-harness, both in the order laid down for the
wheel-harness; the traces of the lead-and swing-harness (folded once) are laid over
the pole; then on top of them the saddles with the attachments over them, so as
not to rest on the ground. The neck-yoke is placed on the foot-board.
Figs. 77 and 78 represent the ordinary methods of encampment. These methods
are modified to suit the circumstances and nature of the ground.
First Method.—The battery is parked with 15 yards interval between carriages.
The extra caissons, the battery-wagon and forge, and the artillery-wagon are in a
third line behind the caissons.
The harness of each team is arranged on the carriage.
The picket-line is 15 yards in rear of the caissons; it is either stretched between
posts about 6 feet high or between caissons, or laid on the ground and secured by
pins. When the ground picket-line is used, the end pins should be at least 1 inch in
diameter and 3 feet long, and to lessen the danger of their being pulled up no horse
should be tied nearer than 12 feet from them; a sufficient number of smaller pins,
about ¾ of an inch in diameter and 2 feet long, are used between the end pins to
keep the line straight and prevent it from swaying. The pins should be of iron with
steel heads and points. The horses are secured to the ground-line by hobbles, or by
hitching-straps if long enough to prevent constraint to the horses. The ground
picket-line should not be used unless the earth is sufficiently firm to hold the pins
securely.
Fig. 77.
The men's tents are pitched in line, about 30 yards in rear of the picket-line; the
first sergeant's tent covers the carriages of the right section; the left guard-tent
covers the carriages of the left section; the tents of each section are in the order of
their pieces in park, and are closed to the centre, or to the right, so as to have a
vacant space between the guard-tents and the tents of the left section. The men's
kitchens are in line, 10 yards in rear of the guard-tents, which may be faced to the
right, so that No. 1 can overlook the kitchen.
The officers' tents are in line, 30 yards in rear of the battery tents; the captain's
tent on the right, covering that of the first sergeant. The officers' kitchens are 10
yards in rear of their tents. The baggage-wagons are in line 30 yards in rear of the
officers' tents. The sinks are 50 yards in rear of the wagons; the officers' sink on the
right, the men's sink on the left.
When time permits, the rows of tents are ditched, and a shallow ditch 8 inches in
depth made around each tent; and these should lead into other and deeper drains
or gutters by which the water will be conducted away from the tents. No refuse,
slops, or excrement should be allowed to be deposited in the trenches for drainage
around tents.
On arriving in camp sinks should be dug at once, unless the march is to be
resumed on the following morning; the sinks are concealed by tents or brush when
practicable, and must be covered daily with fresh earth. A small sink should be dug
near the kitchen as a receptacle for all cooking refuse; the old kitchen sink should
be filled up and the earth well rammed down over it, and a new sink opened every
two or three days.
Paulins are used to protect the guns, carriages, and harness, and also to serve as
cover for the men when necessary. The paulin is 12 feet square, is provided with
double cords at each corner and at the middle of each side. Each carriage has two
paulins, which are carried on the limber-chests. For protection of material the
paulins are placed over the carriage as follows: Tie a corner of one of the paulins
over the muzzle, pull the canvas over the gun-wheels and tie diagonal corner to the
flask, tie a corner of the second paulin to the flask, pull the canvas over the wheels
of the limber and tie the diagonal corner to the pole in front of the harness. The
caisson is covered in a similar manner by its two paulins.
Second Method.—The baggage-wagons may be in line with the pieces, the
interval between the left baggage-wagon and nearest piece being about 50 yards;
the guard-tents half-way between the pieces and the baggage-wagons, facing to the
rear; the forage-pile between the guard-tents and baggage-wagons; the men's
kitchens in line with the third line of caissons, and covering the left baggage-wagon;
the officers' tents on a line perpendicular to the men's tents, facing them, and on
the prolongation of one of the baggage-wagons; the officers' kitchen in rear of the
officers' tents, and on the prolongation of the right baggage-wagon.
Fig. 78.
If the forge-fire is to be lighted, a special place is assigned the battery-wagon and
forge, sufficiently removed from the ammunition-chests for safety.
In a horse-battery two picket-lines may be used instead of one, the second line
being 15 yards in rear of the first.
On approaching the site previously selected for the encampment of the battalion
the adjutant assembles the guidons, and conducts them to the camping-ground,
and establishes each one at the point where the lead-team on the interior flank of
his battery is to rest. After all are established he returns to the column, and
indicates to each battery commander how and where his battery shall be parked.
The guidons are established with a distance between them of 94 yards (when
there are two lines of carriages with 6 horses each, and the picket-line is in rear of
the park), the guidon of the second battery in the column of march that day being
placed at the head of the line, and so on, the guidon of the leading battery being
last. The tent of the battalion commander is at a point 60 yards from the line of
guidons, and on a perpendicular line passing 17 yards in rear of the second guidon,
for an encampment of 2 or 3 batteries; and in a corresponding position in rear of
the third guidon for an encampment of 4 batteries.
When the captain commands "Front!" after parking his battery, the guidon moves
75 yards to the rear and 30 yards to the flank, and plants his flag. This point
establishes the position of the captain's tent.
The battery-officers' tents are on a line, at intervals of 5 yards, facing the interior
flank, the captain's tent being nearest the guidon.
The officers' mess-tent, of the batteries to the right of the battalion commander,
is 10 yards in rear of the tent of the lieutenant on the flank. For batteries to the left
of the battalion commander it is 10 yards in rear of the tent of the captain.
Officers' kitchens are five yards in rear of mess-tents.
In each battery:
The picket-line is 15 yards in rear of the line of carriages.
The tents for the enlisted men are 30 yards in rear of the picket-line, that of the
first sergeant being on the interior and the guard-tent on the exterior flank.
The cooks' tent is next to the guard-tent, the other tents being equally distributed
along the line.
The forage is 15 yards from the exterior flank, on the prolongation of the picket-
line.
The sinks are 90 yards from the forage, on the prolongation of the picket-line.
The kitchens are on the line of the tents and 30 yards from the guard-tent.
The tents of the battalion commander and staff are arranged, at intervals of 5
yards, on a line facing the interior flank.
The mess-tent is on the flank nearest the front of the park, and the tents of the
adjutant, quartermaster, and surgeon are on the other flank of the tent of the
battalion commander.
Non-commissioned staff-officers' and orderlies' tents are on a line 15 yards in rear
of the staff-tents.
The cook-tent is 5 yards to the rear of the outer flank of the mess-tent.
The staff-wagons are on a line 15 yards in rear of the non-commissioned staff
tents, the forage-and guard-tents being near either flank.
Officers' sinks are on a line 60 yards in rear of the staff tents.
The position of the kitchens may be varied, depending on the direction of the
wind and lay of the ground.
If the camp be established for more than a few days, the batteries will be parked
in positions corresponding to the ones they occupy at battalion formation.
BIVOUACS.
The men bivouac at a convenient distance in rear of the park, each detachment
opposite its section; the guard is on one flank and to the leeward; the cook-fires are
near the guard. If necessary, the picket-line may be stretched through the hind
wheels of the carriages of the third line, but whenever practicable the picket-line
should be stretched along the ground or between trees or posts.
A simple shelter may be formed by driving two forked sticks into the ground, with
a pole resting in the forks, and branches laid resting on the pole, thick ends
uppermost, at an angle of 45 degrees, and the screen completed with smaller
branches; or a shelter of canvas or a blanket may be similarly made.
Each man should strew his sleeping-place with dried leaves, etc., and place over
it any articles such as bags, saddle-cloths, etc. A small hollow should be scraped in
the ground just where the hip would rest.
TENTS.
The Hospital Tent, complete, weighs 215 lbs., and consists of one tent, 100
lbs.; one fly, 32 lbs.; one set tent-poles, 60 lbs.; 18 large and 28 small tent-pins, 23
lbs.
Its dimensions are: length of ridge, 14 feet; height, 11 feet; width, 14½ feet;
height of wall, 4½ feet.
Authorized allowance, 1 for battery sick.
The Conical Wall-tent, complete, weighs 128 lbs., and consists of one tent, 76
lbs.; one tent-pole and tripod, 32 lbs.; 48 tent-pins, 20 lbs.
Its dimensions are: height, 10 feet; diameter, 16½ feet; height of wall, 3 feet.
Authorized allowance, 1 to 20 foot or 17 mounted men.
The Wall-tent, complete, weighs 97 lbs., and consists of one tent, 43 lbs.; one
fly, 15 lbs.; one set of poles, 25 lbs.; 10 large and 18 small tent-pins, 14 lbs.
Its dimensions are: length of ridge, 9 feet; height, 8½ feet; width, 8 feet 11
inches; height of wall, 3 feet 9 inches.
Authorized allowance, 1 to captain, 1 to 2 subalterns.
The Common Tent, complete, weighs 51 lbs., and consists of one tent, 26 lbs.;
one set of poles, 15 lbs.; 24 pins, 10 lbs.
Its dimensions are: length of ridge, 6 feet 11 inches; height, 6 feet 10 inches;
width, 8 feet 4 inches; height of wall, 2 feet.
Authorized allowance, 1 to 6 foot or 4 mounted men.
The Shelter-tent (2 halves) weighs a little over 5 lbs., and the 8 pins 1½ lbs.;
total, 6.5 lbs.
Each half is 67 inches by 65 inches.
Authorized allowance, 1 to each officer, 1 to 2 enlisted men.
The Hospital Tent will accommodate comfortably six patients. It is pitched by
eight men, after the manner described for pitching the wall-tent.
The Conical Wall-tent is provided with a hood, and will comfortably
accommodate ten men, and may be made to hold twice that number. To pitch the
tent, four men are required. No. 1 procures tent; No. 4 tripod and pole, which he
opens; Nos. 2 and 3 each 24 pins and a maul, which they place near front and rear
of tent respectively. Nos. 2, 3, and 4 unroll the tent and spread it out upon the
ground near where it is to be pitched, top of tent at its centre. No. 1 drives a pin to
mark the door of the tent, and then measures with the tent-pole directly backward,
and drives a pin at that end of the pole; No. 4 places the tripod opened out flat,
with ring over the last pin driven (the centre pin), and lays the pole on the ground,
pin-end at centre pin. All bring the canvas over the tripod until its centre comes to
the centre pin and door at the front pin, when No. 2 slips the wall-loop at one end
of the door over front pin, and fastens the rope of the flap to the same pin. Nos. 1
and 4, commencing at rear and front of tent respectively, and working to the right
and left, scatter the pins and pull out the guy-ropes. Nos. 2 and 3 take each a maul,
and, commencing front and rear respectively, work right and left of the tent, driving
the guy-pins, placing them about one yard from the edge of the tent, each on a line
with a seam. As the pins are driven Nos. 1 and 4 place the ends of the guy-ropes
over them, working on their respective sides. When the pins are set, No. 2 crawls
under the canvas, slightly raises the tent, and places the pin of the pole through the
plate attached to the chains at the top of the tent, and, raising the pole, sets it in
the ring of the tripod; No. 3, having from the outside placed the hood over the pole-
pin, enters the tent by crawling under, and assists No. 2 in raising the tripod, which
being done Nos. 1 and 4 tighten the guys; they then scatter the wall-pins. The tent
having been secured, Nos. 2 and 3 now take their posts outside and drive the wall-
pins, working as before, No. 2 toward the right rear and No. 3 toward the left front;
Nos. 1 and 4 straighten the tent and fasten the hood-guys.
A Wall-tent will accommodate four men; preferably three if there be sufficient
canvas. The rectangle marked by the pins for guy-ropes has a front of 18 feet and a
depth of 14 feet. It is pitched by four men. Nos. 1 and 2 bring ridge and upright
poles, unfasten them, and place ridge-poles as directed by the non-commissioned
officer. They then place the upright poles in position on the ground, usually on the
side opposite that from which the wind is blowing. Nos. 3 and 4 bring tent, unroll it,
and all now open canvas and place it in position for pitching; No. 1 working in rear,
No. 2 in front, fix the ridge-pole and tent, tapping with a maul, if necessary, to drive
the uprights home. The fly, if used, is now placed in position over tent, and the
centre loops are secured over front and rear pole-pins, which have been previously
driven by Nos. 3 and 4. All draw bottom of tent taut and square, the front and rear
at right angles to the ridge, and fasten it with pins through the corner loops; then,
stepping outward two paces from the corner pins and one pace to the front (or
rear), each securely sets a long pin, over which is passed the extended corner guy-
rope. The tent is now raised and the poles set in position. The other pins are then
driven and the guy-ropes properly secured.
A Common Tent should not be made to hold more than three men. It is
similarly pitched.
In pitching common or wall tents care must be taken that the door is tied up, and
that it is properly squared and pinned to the ground at the door and four corners
before being raised.
A Shelter-tent merely affords cover for two men.
In assigning men to tents bear in mind that the crowding of men in tents for
sleeping purposes is highly injurious to health.
In pitching the tents disturb the ground inside and around as little as possible. Do
not allow absurd notions of order and regularity to cause tents to be pitched in
hollows, which are frequently met with in the best sites, when, by moving the tent
perhaps a few feet one way or another, a good position for it might be found.
In camps of position, when tents are used, it is advisable to supply planking for
the men to lie on, these planks to be removed and aired every fine day. If boards
cannot be had, use any sort of tarpaulin or waterproof sheet that can be obtained.
If straw be plentiful, issue enough to make good thick mats for the men to lie on.
They are easily made and most comfortable. They should be hung up to dry every
day. They should be 3 inches to 4 inches thick, 6 feet long, and about 2¼ feet wide.
Fig. 79.
Every morning, except when it rains, have the sides of tents rolled up all around,
and in fine weather strike tents frequently; it is good practice for the men; they
should regularly pack them up as if for a march. This is also advisable as a sanitary
measure, so that the ground where the tent usually stands can be well dried by the
sun. Blankets and bedding should be frequently aired and exposed to the sun. Do
not permit grass or green leaves to be used for beds in tents, but use straw when it
can be obtained. Each tent should be thoroughly swept out daily, and at night
properly ventilated, the walls being raised if the weather permits.
TO STRIKE A TENT.
The men take their posts and first remove the wall-pins and then all the guy-pins
on their respective sides, except the four corner pins of the square tents, or the
quadrant-pins of the conical tents.
Standing at their respective posts, they remove the corner, or quadrant, guys
from the pins and hold the tent until the signal for striking is given, when the tent is
lowered to the side indicated.
The canvas is then rolled up and tied by Nos. 1 and 4, while Nos. 2 and 3 fasten
the poles, or tripod and pole, together, and collect the pins.
HEATING TENTS.
The Sibley stove, for conical and wall tents, weighing about 19 pounds, is issued
by the Q. M. Dept., and is very necessary in cold weather. It is easily put up and
requires very little fuel.
For ordinary weather an officer can make himself very comfortable by means of a
small oil-stove, one or two wicks. Have a box in which it fits exactly made for
transporting it, and take along a tin of oil.
CAMP COOKING.
A field-kitchen is easily made by digging a long trench for the fire, its width not
being sufficient for the kettles, which are placed on it, to drop into it, and covering
up between them with stones and clay, that the fire, fed from the windward end,
may draw right through. A chimney, formed with the sods cut off the top of the
trench, can be built at the other end to increase the draught.
Three such trenches meeting under one chimney form a broad-arrow kitchen.
The centre trench is traced in the direction from which the wind is blowing, the
other two making angles of 40 to 45 degrees with it. The width of the trenches is 9
inches, reduced to 6 inches when they pass under the base of the chimney, and
widened at their mouths to produce a draught. The depth is one foot at the base of
chimney and 14 inches at the other end, or one foot throughout if the ground falls
at the mouth of the trench. A field-kitchen is easily made of two logs rolled nearly
together in the direction of the wind, and the fire kindled between them.
The Buzzacott field-oven is excellent, as is also the ordinary Dutch oven. They are
furnished on requisition by the Quartermaster's Department.
To Make Field-ovens.—Take any barrel (the more iron hoops on it the better),
the head being out; lay it on its side, having scraped away the ground a little in the
centre to make a bed for it; or if there is a bank near excavate a place for it, taking
care that the front end of the barrel is at least 6 inches back from the foot of the
bank. Cover it with a coating of about 6 or 8 inches of wet earth or thick mud,
except at the open end, which is to be the mouth of the oven. Pile up some sand or
earth to the thickness of about 6 inches over the mud, arranging for an opening 3
inches in diameter being left as a flue (to increase the draught) to lead from the
upper side of the barrel, at the far end, through the mud and earth. This flue is only
left open when the fire for heating is burning; when bread is put in, it should be
covered over. Form an even surface of well-kneaded mud at the bottom within the
barrel to form a flooring to place the bread on. Light a fire within the barrel and
keep it up until the staves are burnt, and the oven is then completed. When
required for use, heat it as if it were an ordinary oven; draw out ashes; put in bread,
and close the mouth with pieces of board, tin, or iron.
The Subsistence Department issues an excellent pamphlet on army cooking.
DRINKING-WATER.
The water should be well tested, and persons living near by questioned about it.
Fig. 80.
Filters.—Two barrels (Fig. 80), one inside the other, having a space of from 4 to
6 inches clear all round between them filled with layers of gravel, sand, and
charcoal, form an excellent filter. The inside one, without a bottom, rests on three
stones placed in layers of sand, charcoal, and coarse gravel. The water flows into
the space between the barrels and forces its way through the gravel, charcoal, and
sand into the inner barrel. Or they may be placed as in Fig. 81 and connected by a
pipe.
Fig. 81.
If the water is from a small spring gushing up out of the earth, perforate the
bottom of the outer barrel with a number of holes, and leave the bottom to the
inner barrel, which should be pierced with holes round its sides near the top.
In both these filters draw off the water by a pipe running through the outer into
the inner barrel.
Allow eight pints per man in hot and six in temperate climates for cooking and
drinking, and a similar amount for washing. In stationary camps allow 5 gallons per
man for all purposes.
LOG HUTS.
Good huts to last for years are quickly made of logs placed one over the other,
being notched half their respective thicknesses at the angles so as to fit one into the
other. Moss is driven into the interstices. A roof is put on of split logs, gouged out in
the centre, so that each is like a long curved gutter. A layer of these is placed side
by side, with the hollow side uppermost, one end resting on the ridge-pole, the
other on the walls. A second layer is put over them with the hollow side down. A
large split log, well hollowed out, is used as a ridge-piece. Cowdung mixed with
water and well plastered over mud walls or floors renders them hard, tough, and
less subject to injury from weather. A thin coating of this applied every day to the
earthen floors of huts adds much to the appearance of cleanliness.
In planning huts give sufficient width for two rows of beds and a passage down
the centre. A width of at least 6 feet should be allowed for each row of beds, and
the passage may be from 2 to 4 feet wide.
BREAKING CAMP.
Ordinarily camp should not be broken before daybreak, as horses rest better from
midnight until dawn than at any other hour.
Ample time should be left after a seasonable reveille for the men to breakfast,
horses fed and the wagons to be packed.
Do not permit packing, pulling tent-pegs, or any noise before reveille. Men should
be permitted to rest until the last moment.
Immediately after reveille have drivers and such other men as may be required
feed and groom under supervision of the battery officer.
The grooming should consist in merely rubbing off the horses, and seeing that
shoulders, backs, and parts under harness are in good condition and perfectly free
from dirt. It is a mistake to groom too much in the field. It is distasteful to men, and
does not improve the horses.
The other men should pack up, remove tent-pegs, and fold tents. Then breakfast.
After breakfast let the men complete their packing and attend to personal
requirements. Or tents may be left standing until after breakfast, depending on
weather or other conditions. Drivers water and harness; cannoneers pack wagons
and fill in sinks. Part of the cannoneers should be detailed to assist the drivers if
required.
In packing the wagons it is well to have one or two men in the wagon who
understand the work. Articles least required should be packed first. Those required
by the cooks should be packed so that they can be easily gotten at immediately on
reaching camp. When the camp has been cleared, an officer should ride over it
carefully, and see that all tent-pins have been removed and no articles forgotten.
Signals for the performance of the various duties should be sounded by the
trumpeter at prescribed hours.
WAGONS.
On field marches two six-mule teams will readily carry the baggage and ten days'
rations of a battery (enlisted strength as now authorized, viz., 75).
If grain is to be transported, two more six-mule teams will be required.
Battalion commander and staff, one four-mule team.
Medical department, one ambulance and possibly one four-mule team.
A good six-mule team in the best part of the season will haul a load of 4000
pounds, marching with troops. It will haul 1400 short rations of provisions—bread,
coffee, sugar, salt, and soap—and eight days' rations of forage for the six mules.
TRANSPORTATION OF ARTILLERY.
RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION.