EARTHQUAKE 101 – NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC Key Insights

Summary -Tectonic plates and their movement are the root cause of earthquakes.
Earthquakes occur when tectonic plates shift and cause seismic shock waves. Understanding plate boundaries and their behavior is crucial for predicting seismic
They can be devastating, with subduction zone quakes and tsunamis being the most activity.
destructive. Earthquakes kill around 10,000 people annually, and there are -Subduction zones are highly dangerous areas prone to devastating quakes and
approximately 500,000 detectable earthquakes each year. Scientists aim to predict tsunamis. Identifying and monitoring these zones is vital for early warning systems.
and minimize their impact through stronger buildings and data analysis. -The human cost of earthquakes is significant, with Haiti’s 2010 quake serving as a
Earthquakes occur due to the movement of tectonic plates, causing a sudden tragic example. Preparedness, early warning systems, and resilient infrastructure can
release of energy that breaks the Earth’s crust. Most earthquakes happen in three save lives.
regions: the mid-atlantic ridge, the alpide belt, and the circum-pacific belt. -Earthquakes are a frequent occurrence globally, with thousands of detectable quakes
Seismographs record seismic activity, and the moment magnitude scale measures each year. Monitoring and analyzing seismic activity help scientists understand
earthquake strength. The largest recorded earthquake was in Chile in 1960, with patterns and probabilities.
devastating tremors and a deadly tsunami. Communities in earthquake-prone areas -The Richter scale provides a standardized measure of earthquake magnitude. While a
take measures to protect themselves. Earthquakes can cause destruction but also magnitude 10 quake has never occurred, the scale helps assess and compare the
shape the unique features of our planet. intensity of different earthquakes.
-Engineering advancements in building design focus on creating structures that can
Highlights withstand strong earthquakes, reducing casualties and damage.
-The ground quivers, glasses rattle, and walls shift as an earthquake begins. -Through data analysis and research, scientists aim to improve earthquake prediction
-The Earth’s crust is made up of tectonic plates that constantly shift and collide, and forecasting, enabling communities to be better prepared and mitigate the impact
causing earthquakes. of future quakes.
-Subduction zones, where one plate is forced beneath another, create the most -Tectonic plate movement: The movement of tectonic plates is the primary cause of
violent earthquakes and tsunamis. earthquakes, with the edges sometimes catching and releasing energy in powerful
-Earthquakes can be deadly, with the 2010 Haiti quake claiming over 300,000 lives. tremors.
-On average, 10,000 people die annually due to earthquakes, and there are 500,000 -Moment magnitude scale: The moment magnitude scale, preferred by seismologists,
detectable quakes each year. measures earthquakes logarithmically and globally, allowing for the assessment of
-The Richter scale measures earthquake magnitude, with the strongest being 10, but a high-magnitude quakes.
10 has never been recorded. -The Valdivia earthquake: The Valdivia earthquake in 1960 was the largest recorded
-Engineers design stronger buildings, and scientists analyze data to anticipate future earthquake, causing devastating tremors and an enormous tsunami that affected
quakes and minimize destruction. distant countries.
-Introduction: Earthquakes occur in three main regions due to tectonic plate -Community protection: Communities in earthquake-prone areas implement
movement. measures like building design, public education, and drills to protect themselves
-Earthquake causes: Pressure from plate movement leads to energy release and during seismic events.
fracturing of the Earth’s crust. -Devastation and creation: While earthquakes can cause destruction, they also shape
-Measuring earthquakes: Seismographs record seismic activity, and the moment the planet by creating unique geological features.
magnitude scale measures strength. -Importance of seismographs: Seismographs play a crucial role in recording and
-The largest earthquake: The Valdivia earthquake in 1960 had a magnitude of about measuring seismic activity, providing valuable data for research and mitigation efforts.
9.5, causing devastation and a deadly tsunami. -Tsunamis: Earthquakes occurring underwater can generate tsunamis, which can
-Protecting communities: Measures like building design, public education, and drills travel across oceans and cause significant damage to coastal areas.
help mitigate the impact of earthquakes.
-Earthquakes shape the planet: While destructive, earthquakes also create unique
features on Earth.
Transcript
our planet's crust is made up of about 12 major tectonic plates, that fit together like a Transcript
giant jigsaw puzzle. these huge slabs of land float on superheated magma and . earthquakes occur around the world. they've been recorded on all seven continents,
constantly shift bump and grind against one another. it's there along the seams where but most quakes take place in just three regions, the mid-atlantic ridge, an
earthquakes tend to happen. when friction between the two plates is violent enough, underwater line that runs down the Atlantic Ocean, the alpide belt ,which stretches
seismic shock waves ripple through the ground rattling everything that stands on it, from the Mediterranean to Southeast Asia, and the circum-pacific belt, which traces
the stronger and shallower the quake the more violent the destruction. the most along the edges of the Pacific Ocean and is where about 80% of all earthquakes occur.
violent type of earthquake is born in a subduction zone, where one tectonic plate is these areas experience the most earthquakes due to what lies beneath the surface.
shoved beneath another, while one plate is forced downward into the mantle, the earthquakes are the result of pressure, specifically pressure caused by extreme stress
other juts upward often violently. this is a type of quake that rocked Nepal in May in the Earth's crust. that stress can be caused by volcanic activity or even man-made
2015. and when subduction happens under the ocean, it can create giant unstoppable activities in certain areas. However, most earthquake inducing stress is caused by the
waves called tsunamis, like the ones that killed hundreds of thousands in Japan and movement of tectonic plates. tectonic plates are constantly moving, either against,
Indonesia. on average, earthquakes kill about 10,000 people each year. sometimes away, along, or underneath each other. but sometimes their edges may catch and
numbers are far higher. the quake that hit Haiti in 2010 killed more than 300,000 by stick. The plates, however, continue to move or at least attempt to. energy from this
some cows making it one of the deadliest on record. it is estimated that there are attempted movement fields around the edges sticking point creating immense
500,000 detectable earthquakes in the world each-year. 100,000 of these can be felt pressure until the edges are forced to let go and the plates slip. this causes a sudden
and 100 of them caused damage. that's about 0.1% the magnitude of an earthquake and powerful release of energy, so powerful that it breaks the Earth's crust. this
is measured using the Richter scale, which runs from 0 to 10, 10 being the strongest, fracturing emits shockwaves through the ground and causes intense vibrations or
every whole number increase on the scale means 10 times more ground motion quakes. in fact the world's most earthquake-prone regions are where the most
change. in recorded history, the world has never experienced a 10 on the Richter geologically active plates meet where earthquakes or any seismic activity are recorded
scale. but scientists predict an average of at least one major quake of magnitude 8 or by seismographs. when the ground shakes seismographs oscillate, drawing a jagged
higher every year. the fact is, the Earth's crust is restless and always on the move. we line to reflect this movement. the more extreme the earthquake, the greater the
can't see earthquakes coming, but we can prepare for them. engineers are now height of the jagged line. these recorded motions are then used to measure the
designing stronger buildings resilient enough to survive a direct hit. scientists are earthquake strength or magnitude. while several scales of magnitude exist, the one
crunching data to project the power of future quakes. and anticipate when and where seismologist prefer is the moment magnitude scale. it has no upper limit and it
they can strike next. right now, we can only estimate the probability an earthquake measures earthquakes logarithmically. this means that each magnitude on its scale is
will occur. but perhaps, one day, we will learn to predict them, minimizing their ten times greater than the one before it. unlike the now rarely used Richter scale, the
destruction, and saving countless lives moment magnitude scale can be applied globally and can measure quakes of the
highest magnitudes. the largest recorded earthquake occurred near Bolivia Chile in
1960. nestled within the circum-pacific belt, the Valdivia earthquake was the most
powerful in a series of quakes that struck the region, measuring at a magnitude of
about 9.5. in addition to causing devastating tremors on land, the earthquake also
generated a deadly tsunami reaching up to 80 feet high. the tsunami raced across the
Pacific Ocean, hitting faraway countries like the Philippines and Japan. in fact, data
from seismographs showed that the shock waves emitted by the Valdivia earthquake
continued to shake the entire planet for days. some earthquake prone areas have
adapted various ways to protect their communities. buildings and bridges are
designed to sway rather than break when an earthquake occurs. the public is
educated on how to protect themselves during a seismic event. and government
officials enact drills to ensure the protection of their people. earthquakes can leave
behind incredible devastation, but these same forces have also created magnificent
features with each adding character to a planet so unique.
Taipei 101 is a famous skyscraper in Taipei, Taiwan. From 2004 to 2010, it was the
tallest building in the world, and it is still the tallest building in Taiwan. C.Y. Lee &
Partners designed the structure, which was built by KTRT Joint Venture. The structure
has 101 floors, five basement levels, and a total height of 1,671 feet (509 m). The MODULE 1 - GENRAL GEOLOGY
skyscraper is supported by an innovative damper system that aids in structural LESSON 1.1 - Geology in Civil Engineering
stability and reduces the effects of earthquakes and wind; more on that system later.
The building’s exterior is clad in glass and aluminum panels with a distinctive
hexagonal pattern. The distinct appearance is enhanced further by its colorful LED • Engineering geology may be defined as that of applied sciences which deals
lighting, which can be programmed with the application of geology for a safe, stable land economical design and
to display a variety of colors and patterns. Taipei 101’s interior is divided into eight construction of a civil engineering project
zones, each with its own theme and function. The first five floors are devoted to retail • Geology is the science concerned with the Earth and the rocks of which it is
and commercial space, with a variety of shops, restaurants, and other amenities. The
composed, the processes by which they were formed during geological time,
following four levels are dedicated to office space, totaling 91 office floors. The top
four levels house a public observatory with panoramic views of Taipei and the and the modelling of the Earth's surface in the past and at the present day.
surrounding area. One of the world’s largest tuned mass-damper, battles deadly
winds in silence between the 88th and 92nd stories. The 730-ton gold-colored orb Scope of Geology in Civil Engineering
swings gently back and forth, counteracting wind forces. But how exactly does this • Engineering geology is almost universally considered as essential as that of
damper work? The pendulum is intended to swing back and forth in response to soil mechanics, strength of material, or theory of structures.
building movement, counteracting forces that would otherwise cause the building to
• The application of geological knowledge in planning, designing and
sway or oscillate. The pendulum is also outfitted with a number of sensors that detect
building movement and adjust the pendulum’s movement accordingly. The pendulum construction of big civil engineering projects.
is an example of a passive damping system, which means it operates without any The basic objects of a course in engineering geology are two folds.
external power or control. It is powered by the natural movement of the building and • It enables a civil engineer to understand the engineering implications of
the forces of gravity. The Taipei 101 tower is the first skyscraper to use a pendulum certain condition should relate to the area of construction which is essentially
for structural damping. The room-sized device can move five feet (1.5m) in any
geological in nature.
direction, reducing sway by 30 to 40%. Those who happened to be in Taipei 101 on
September 18th, 2022, got to see the damper in action. When a 6.8 earthquake • It enables a geologist to understand the nature of the geological information
struck, the damper generated ration force to combat the earthquake’s shaking, and that is absolutely essentially for a safe design and construction of a civil
visitors were astounded by the amount of movement generated. It was very engineering projects.
successful in reducing the effects of wind and earthquakes on the building, but it cost
$4 million US dollars. The battle against Mother Nature isn’t Taipei 101’s only
Scope of Geology in Civil Engineering
impressive feature. It also has some extremely fast elevators. The elevators have a
top speed of 37.6 miles per hour (60.6 kilometers per hour) and can transport
passengers from the ground floor to the observatory in just 37 seconds. In addition to Geology in Construction
the elevators, Taipei 101 houses a number of other cutting-edge technologies and • Planning
systems. A rainwater collection and reuse system, a greywater treatment plant, and a • Topographic Maps- it gives details of relief features.
solar power system that meets a significant portion of the building’s energy needs are • Hydrologic Maps- this map gives broad details about distribution
among them. Taipei 101 is a stunning example of modern architecture and
engineering in general. Its innovative design and use of advanced technologies place
and geometry of the surface of water channel
it at the forefront of sustainable building design and make it a popular tourist • Geological Maps- the petrological characters and structural
attraction in Taipei. disposition of rock types which gives an idea about the availability of
materials for construction.
• Design
 The geological characters that have a direct or indirect bearing upon the This deals with the study of minerals. Minerals are basic units with different
designed of proposed project are; rocks and ores of the earth are made up of. Details of mode of formation,
• The existence of hard rock beds composition, occurrence, types, association, properties use etc. of minerals
• The mechanical properties (porosity, permeability, compressive form the subject matter of mineralogy.
strength, shear and traverse strength) • For example: sometimes quartzite and marble resemble one another in
• Structural weakness (fault joints, folds, cleavage and lineation) shine, color and appearance while marble disintegrates and decomposes in a
• The position of ground water table shorter period because of its mineral composition and properties.
• Seismic characteristics of the area. Petrology
• Structure Construction Petrology deals with the study of rocks. The earth’s crust, also called
The geological knowledge is important for an engineer. The type of material lithosphere, is made up of different types of rocks. Hence petrology deals with
for construction is derived from natural bed rocks, soils, banks, coastal belts the mode of formation, structure, texture, composition, occurrence, and types
and seismic zones. of rocks. This is the most important branch of geology from the civil
engineering point of view.
Geology in Water Resources Development Structural Geology
Exploration and water development of resources have become very important The rocks, which from the earth’s crust, undergo various deformations,
activity for scientist, technology and engineers in all parts of world. dislocations and disturbances under the influence of tectonic forces. The
Geology in Town and Regional Planning result is the occurrence of different geological structures like folds, fault, joints
The regional town planner is responsible for adopting an integrated approach and unconformities in rocks. The details of mode of formation, causes, types,
in all such cases of allocation of land for developmental project. classification, importance of these geological structures is the subject matter
of structural geology.
Branches of Geology Stratigraphy
Geology is a relatively recent subject. In addition to its core branches, The climatic and geological changes including tectonic events in the geological
advances in geology in allied fields have led to specialized sciences like past can also be known from these investigations. This kind of study of the
geophysics, geochemistry, seismology, oceanography and remote sensing. earth’s history through the sedimentary rock is called historical geology. It is
also called stratigraphy (Strata = a set of sedimentary rocks, graphy
Physical Geology =description).
This is also variously described as dynamic geology, geomorphology, etc. It Economic Geology
deals with: Minerals can be grouped as general rock forming minerals and economic
• Different physical features of the earth, such as mountains, plateaus, valleys, minerals. Some of the economic minerals like talc, graphite, mica, asbestos,
rivers, lakes glaciers and volcanoes in terms of their origin and development. • gypsum, magnesite, diamond and gems. The details of their mode of
The different changes occurring on the earth surface like marine formation, occurrence, classification, association, varieties, concentration,
transgression, marine regression, formation or disappearance of rivers, properties, uses is from the subject matter of economic geology.
springs and lakes. Allied Branches of Geology
• Geological work of wind, glaciers, rivers, oceans, and groundwater and their - ENGINEERING
role in constantly molding the earth surface features - GEOPHYSICS
• Natural phenomena like landslides, earthquakes and weathering. - GEOHYDROLOGY
Mineralogy - GEOCHEMISTRY
- MINING
Further, based on application of geological knowledge in other fields there is The Internal Structure of the
many other allied branches collectively called earth science. Earth
• The shell of the increasing
density are found towards the
Engineering Geology center of the earth is 8 g/cc.
This deals with the application of geological knowledge in the field of civil • Each shell is formed off different
engineering, for execution of safe, stable and economic constructions like materials on the basics of seismic
dams, bridges and tunnels. investigation the earth interior.
Mining Geology • Has been broadly divided into;
A mining engineer is interested in the mode and extent of occurrence of ores, crust, mantle and core.
their association, properties etc. It is also necessary to know other physical • The layers of the earth are separated by two sharp breaks known as major
parameters like depth direction inclination thickness and reserve of the bodies discontinuities.
for efficient utilization. -Such details of mineral exploration, estimation and • The crust has an average thickness of about 15-20 km.
exploration are dealt within mining geology. • The mantle extends from below the crust to a depth of 2900 km.
Geohydrology • Direct observation of earth is
It deals with occurrence, movement and nature of groundwater in an area. It not possible due to fact that the
has applied importance because ground water has many advantages over interior became hotter.
surface water. In general geological and geophysical studies are together taken • The deepest whole in the earth
up for groundwater investigations. This may also be called hydrogeology. is only about 11km , this is quite
Geophysics negligible in comparison with
The study of physical properties like density and magnetism of the earth or its radius of the earth
parts. To know its interior form the subject matter of geophysics. Engineering • The internal structures of earth
geophysics is a branch of exploration geophysics, which aims at solving civil is based on the existence yield at
engineering problems by interpreting subsurface geology of the area by indirect geophysical method (seismic method)
concerned. • The interior of the earth has been obtain from the study of earthquakes
Geochemistry waves through the earth (seismology)
This branch is relatively more recent and deals with the occurrence, • When seismic waves pass between geologic layers with contrasting seismic
distribution, abundance, mobility etc., of different elements in the earth crust. velocities, a sudden jump in seismic velocities across a boundary will occur.
It is not important from the civil engineering point of view. This scenario is called as Seismic discontinuities.

LESSON 1.2 – STRUTURE OF THE EARTH AND ITS COMPOSITION 1. CRUST The outermost solid layer of the earth where we can find all our
landforms and life. It has two subdivision; the upper and lower crust
THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH 2. MANTLE Just below the crust is the Mantle. Just like the crust, it has also
Equatorial Radius is 6370 km upper and lower layer.
Polar radius is shorter by about 22km 3. CORE That is the central layer of the planet. Core is very hot that it may
Surface Area of 510x10^6 square km. have the same temperature with the surface of the sun. Core is also
composed of upper and lower core.
 Upper Mantle -predominantly molten
Crust magma
• It is the uppermost shell of the earth which has varying thickness in different Lower Mantle - solid state
areas: • The upper mantle (molten magma) is
 Under the ocean: 5-10 km also called ASTHENOSPHERE (“weak”)
 Under the continent: 20-35 km layer of the mantle where the crust is
 Under the mountains: 60-70 km drifting.
• Subdivided into two layer: • The layer of both the crust and the upper part of the mantle is called the
Upper Layer (continental crust) LITOSPHERE(Greek: lithos = stone).
-predominantly continents and land surface • The lower mantle is the one responsible for all
• It consists of all types of rocks (Igneous, Sedimentary, and the earth seismic and volcanic activities due to
Metamorphic) its very spacious area for such natural
• The rocks are granitic and granodiotic composition. catastrophes. • The boundary between the
• Predominantly continents and land surface. upper and lower mantle is called the REPETTI
• This layer is rich in Silica and Aluminum Discontinuity
• This layer is commonly called the SIAL.
• The density of SIAL is 2.4 g/cc. Core
• The boundary between the Upper and Lower Crust is called the • The central layer and extends up to the
CONRAD Discontinuity. very center of the earth.
Lower Layer (oceanic crust)  S-Waves do not pass in this layer
- basically the ocean floor  Pressure and temperatures are
• Composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor. very high.
• The types of rock are basalitic in nature. • The layer is mostly made up of Nickel (Ni)
• Basically the ocean floor and Iron (Fe)
• This layer is rich in Silica, Iron and Magnesium • This is also called as the NIFE Layer or the
• This layer is called the SIMA. BARYSPHERE.
• The continental crust float above the oceanic crust because it is less • The boundary between the core and the mantle is called the GUTENBERG
dense. Discontinuity.

LESSON 1.3 - SEGMENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Mantle
• The second part of the earth is the source region of the earth internal Environment is derived from the French word ‘Environner’ which means to
energy and of forces responsible for ocean floor spreading and continental encircle, around or surround. It is the physical and biotic habitat that
drift and earthquake. surrounds us; that which we can touch, see, hear, smell and taste.
 Thickness of about 2865 km.
• The boundary between the crust and mantle is called the MOHOROVICIC Segments of the Environment
Discontinuity. The environment consists of four segments of the earth namely biosphere,
• Subdivided into two layer: lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere :
Biosphere • ARGON - 0.94% by volume
Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms and their interactions with • CO2 - 0.03% by volume
environment, atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. • H2 - 0.01% by volume
• When we consider all the different biomes, each blending into the other, will
all humans living in many different geographic areas, we form a huge THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
community of humans, animals and plants, in their defined habitats. The atmosphere has been divided into several types based on change in
• A biosphere is the sum of all the ecosystems established on Earth. composition, temperature and degree of ionization
Lithosphere 1. TROPOSHERE Lowermost zone rising from the surface to a height of 11 km.
Lithosphere is the crust and the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists of 2. STRATOSPHERE Second layer starting from the tropopause and extending
minerals occurring in the earth’s crusts and the soil e.g. minerals, organic up to a height of 50 km.
matter, air and water. 3. MESOSPHERE Third thermal zone staring from the stratopause and
Hydrosphere continues up to a height of 80 km above.
The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources oceans, seas, lakes, 4. THERMOSPHERE Temperature starts rising once again and the thickest
rivers, streams, reservoirs, polar icecaps, glaciers, and ground water. • Oceans layer.
represent 97% of the earth’s water and about 2% of the water resources is 5. EXOSPHERE Much about the exosphere is yet to be known.
locked in the polar icecaps and glaciers. • Only about 1% is available as fresh
water as surface water in rivers, lakes, streams, and as ground water for Troposphere
human use. • SPHERE means a ball
Atmosphere • TROPO means turning or changing
The Atmosphere forms a distinctive protective layer about 100 km thick • Lowest layer of the atmosphere and closest to the surface of the earth
around the earth which is a blanket of gases that surrounds our planet and because it is the densest of all the layers.
protects its from the Sun’s harmful, ultraviolet rays. • It also regulates • This is where all weather occurs
temperature, preventing the earth from becoming too hot or too cold. It saves • Anywhere from 9 to 16 km above sea level.
the earth from the hostile environment of outer space. • Contains almost all of the carbon dioxide, water vapor, clouds, air pollution,
weather and life forms
• Different air temperatures and density causes gases to mix continuously
• Temperature goes from warm to cold as you increase in altitude.

THE LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE Stratosphere

• Atmosphere is the outer gaseous part of the earth starting from the surface • SPHERE means a ball
and extending as far as 700 km and even beyond is termed as atmosphere. • STRATO means layer
• It is the envelope of air which surrounds earth. • Gases are layered and do not mix very much
• Since the atmosphere is not of same • Air is very thin and contains little moisture
density throughout, atmospheric pressure • The upper state is rich in ozone layer which serves as a shield protecting the
decreases with an increase in height. troposphere and the earth surface by absorbing most of the ultraviolet
• Composition of the Atmosphere (Dry Air): radiation.
• NITROGEN - 78.03% by volume • Planes often fly here.
• OXYGEN - 20.99 % by volume
• Temperature goes up as you rise in altitude due to the ozone absorbing the • SPHERE means a ball
suns heat. • EXO means outside or exit
• Boundary between the troposphere, and the stratosphere is called the • Hottest of all the layers.
tropopause. • Atoms and molecules can escape to space.
• The interface between Earth and spac
Mesosphere
• SPHERE means a ball
• MESO means middle
• The middle layer and the coldest layer
• Temperature decreases as altitude increases.
• This is the mesosphere protecting us from a meteor. The trail of hot, glowing
gases is the meteor burning up in the mesosphere layer.
• Starts at 50km above sea level and ends at 80km.
• Boundary between the mesosphere, and the stratosphere is called the
stratopause

Thermosphere
• SPHERE means a ball
• THERMO means heat
• Temperatures in the thermosphere are very high, more that 2000 degrees
Fahrenheit.
• This is where space begins. The International Space Station orbits Earth in
this layer.
• Readily absorbs solar radiation.
• Hottest layer, temperatures reach up to 1,800 ̊ C, but you would not feel
warm here.
• Boundary between the mesosphere, and the thermosphere is called the
mesopause

Ionosphere
• A layer in the thermosphere where all the molecules are electrically charged
into ions due to the sun’s heat energy.
• These charged particles is very useful in reflecting radio waves for
communication.
• Very famous in producing shimmering lights in the polar regions known as TECHTONIC PLATES AND CONTINENTAL DRIFT
the Aurora Borealis (Northern Lights) and Aurora Australis (Southern Lights) INSIDE EARTH CONTINENTAL DRIFT

Exosphere The Earth’s Layers

• The Earth is made of many different and distinct layers. The deeper layers The crust and the upper layer of the mantle together make up a zone of rigid,
are composed of heavier materials; they are hotter, denser and under much brittle rock called the Lithosphere.
greater pressure than the The Mantle
outer layers. • The Mantle is the largest layer of the
• Natural forces Earth.
interact with and affect the • The middle mantle is composed of very
earth’s crust, creating the hot dense rock that flows like asphalt
landforms, or natural under a heavy weight. The movement of
features, found on the the middle mantle (asthenosphere) is the
surface of the earth. reason that the crustal plates of the Earth
move
crust - the rigid, rocky CONVECTION CURRENTS
outer surface of the Earth, The middle mantle "flows" because of convection currents. Convection
• The crust is composed of two rocks. The continental crust is mostly granite. currents are caused by the very hot material at the deepest part of the mantle
The oceanic crust is basalt. Basalt is much denser than the granite. Because of rising, then cooling and sinking again --repeating this cycle over and over .
this the less THE OUTER CORE
dense • The core of the Earth is like a ball of very hot metals.
continents • The outer core is so hot that the metals in it
ride on the are all in the liquid state. The outer core is
denser composed of the melted metals of nickel and
oceanic iron
plates. THE INNER CORE
• The inner core of the Earth has temperatures
• The Earth's Crustis like the skin of an and pressures so great that the metals are
apple. It is very thin in comparison to the squeezed together and are not able to move
other three layers. The crust is only about like a liquid, but are forced to vibrate in
about 3-5 miles (8 kilometers) thick place like a solid.
under the oceans (oceanic crust) and Continental Drift Theory
about 25 miles (32 kilometers) thick • In the early 1900s a German explorer and scientist (Alfred Wegener)
under the continents (continental crust). proposed the continental drift theory.
• He proposed that there was once a single “super continent” called Pangaea.
• He believed that the continent floated on the oceanic crust (like an iceberg
in the ocean).
• Most scientist rejected his theory due to lack of evidence.
THE LITHOSPHERIC PLATES
The crust of the Earth is broken into many pieces called plates. The plates
"float" on the soft, semirigid asthenosphere
Evidence of continental drift
• Continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle
• Fossils match across oceans
• Rock types and mountain ranges match across oceans
• Climate Evidence (Glacial Deposits)

SEA-FLOOR SPREADING

EVIDENCE OF SEA FLOOR SPREADING

Evidence from Molten Material – Rocks shaped like pillows (rock pillows)
show that molten material has erupted again and again from cracks along the
mid-ocean ridge and cooled quickly
Mid-Ocean Ridge
The mid-ocean ridge system is the most extensive chain of mountains
on earth, but more than 90% of this mountain range lies in the deep ocean.
The mid-ocean ridge wraps around the globe for more than 65,000 km like the
seam of a baseball.
• Mid-ocean ridges occur along the kind of plate boundary where new
ocean floor is created as the plates spread apart. "divergent plate boundary."
The plates spread apart at rates of 1 cm to 20 cm per year. As oceanic plates
move apart, rock melts and wells up from tens of kilometers deep. Some of
the molten rock ascends all the way up to the seafloor, producing enormous
volcanic eruptions of basalt, and building the longest chain of volcanoes in the
world!
Evidence from Magnetic Stripes – Rocks that make up the ocean floor lie in a These plates are not anchored in place but slide over a hot and bendable layer
pattern of magnetized stripes which hold a record of the reversals in Earth’s of the mantle
magnetic field • As mentioned earlier, those tectonic plates are always moving.
Evidence from Drilling Samples – Core samples from the ocean floor show • pulling away from each other (Divergent)
that older rocks are found farther from the ridge; youngest rocks are in the • crashing head-on (Convergent)
center of the ridge • or sliding past each other. (Transform)
Sea-Floor Spreading – Harry Hess in the 1960’s; the process that continually DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES
adds new material to the ocean floor while pushing older rocks away from the • Boundary between two plates that are
ridge moving apart or rifting
PLATE TECTONICS • RIFTING causes SEAFLOOR SPREADING
• Most of these changes in the earth’s surface takes place so slowly that they • When plates pull away from one another
are not immediately noticeable to the human eye. they form a diverging plate boundary, or
• The idea that the earth’s landmasses have broken apart, rejoined, and spreading zone.
moved to other parts of the globe forms part of the plate tectonic theory. Features of Divergent Boundaries
Plate Tectonic Theory • Mid-ocean ridges
Along the mid-ocean ridge the seafloor is pulling apart and the two parts are • Rift valleys
moving in opposite directions, carrying along the continents and oceans that • Fissure volcanoes
rest on top of them. These pieces of Earth’s top layer are called tectonic CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
plates. • Boundaries between two plates that are colliding
They are moving Ocean to Continent
very slowly, but • Ocean plate colliding with a less dense continental plate
constantly. (Most • Subduction Zone: where the more dense plate slides under
plates are moving the less dense plate
about as fast as • VOLCANOES occur at subduction zones
your fingernails are Subduction – Process by which the ocean floor sinks beneath
growing -- not very a deepocean trench and back into the mantle; allows part of
fast!) Currently the ocean floor to sink back into the mantle
Earth’s surface layers are Deep-Ocean Trench – Occurs at subduction zones. Deep
divided into nine very large underwater canyons form where oceanic crust bends
plates and several smaller downward
ones Ocean to Ocean
According to the theory of • Ocean plate colliding with another ocean plate
plate tectonics, the earth’s • The more dense plate slides under the less dense plate
outer shell is not one solid creating a subduction zone called a TRENCH
piece of rock. Instead the Converging... They crash! And they’re both ocean plates!
earth’s crust is broken into a • When both are oceanic plates, one slides under the other.
number of moving plates. Often an island group forms at this boundary.
The plates vary in size and thickness
 glaciers; chemical action such as crystal growth, oxidation, hydration,
carbonation and leaching by water, especially rainwater, with time
Continents to Continents
• A continental plate colliding with another continental plate MECHANICAL WEATHERING
• Have Collision Zones: Also known as the physical weathering which is a processes that break
• The plates push against each other, creating mountain a rock or mineral into smaller pieces without altering its composition
ranges. Abrasion When rocks collide one another or scrap against each other, their
They Crash and are both continental plates! exposed surfaces can be chipped or fractured
• Earth’s highest mountain range, the Himalayas, was formed Exfoliation Outer layers of rocks peel off like an onion
millions of years ago when the Indo-Australian Plate crashed Frost Action when liquid water goes into cracks and then freezes causing the
into the Eurasian Plate. Even today, the Indo-Australian Plate cracks to get wide
continues to push against the Eurasian Plate at a rate of about Organic Activity These may include: Root Pry (Plant Activities) Burrowing
5 cm a year! (Animal Activities) Mining/Construction (Human Activities
TRANSFORMED BOUNDARIES Hydraulic Action Hydraulic action occurs when water (generally from powerful
• Boundary between two plates that are sliding past each other waves) rushes rapidly into cracks in the rock face, thus trapping a layer of air
• EARTHQUAKES along faults at the bottom of the crack, compressing it and weakening the rock. When the
San Andreas Fault, CA wave retreats, the trapped air is suddenly released with explosive force
• For example: Here, the San Andreas Fault lies on the boundary between Haloclasty A process in which the growth of salt crystals causes physical
two tectonic plates, the north American Plate and the Pacific Plate. The two weathering when saline solution seep into cracks and joints in the rocks and
plates are sliding past each other at a rate of 5 to 6 centimeters each year. This evaporate, leaving salt crystals behind. These salt crystals expand as they are
fault frequently plagues California with earthquakes. heated up, exerting pressure on the confining rock.
• These areas are likely to have a rift valley, earthquake, and volcanic action CHEMICAL WEATHERING
is the decomposition of materials by a series of chemical reactions
WEATHERING OF ROCKS AND SOIL FORMATION that result in the rust on cars or the corrosion or staining of building facades
ORIGINS OF SOILS AND ROCKS Hydrolysis is a decomposition process in which water is one of the reacting
agents. It can be illustrated by the hydrolysis of orthoclase feldspar (potassium
SOIL originated from the Latin word Solum. aluminum silicate) by carbonic acid and water to produce kaolinite, an
Origin of Soil and Grain Size important clay mineral
In general, soils are formed by weathering of rocks. The physical properties of Carbonation may be illustrated by the decomposition of calcite (calcium
soil are dictated primarily by the minerals that constitute the soil particles carbonate) to calcium bicarbonate. Calcium bicarbonate is highly soluble and
and, hence, the rock from which it is derived. is readily leached from soils
Oxidation When oxygen combines with iron in rocks, it changes into iron oxide
Weathering (rust). Occurs when oxygen in air assisted by water combines with minerals to
Weathering breaks down and alters rocks and minerals at or near the earth's form oxides. Oxidation normally occurs to rock or minerals such as olivine
surface and is divided into physical/mechanical weathering and chemical pyroxene and amphibole that contain high iron content and therefore produce
weathering. The factors of weathering may be atmospheric, such as changes rusty, red, yellow and brown rocks and soils.
in temperature and pressure; erosion and transportation by wind, water and FACTORS IN SOIL FORMATION
-CLIMATE AND TIME
 -BIOTA FACTOR brought about by weathering processes. It may extend to different depths at
-PARENT MATERIAL different places and each stratum may have varying thickness.
-TOPOGRAPHY O Horizon The top, organic layer of soil, made up mostly of leaf litter and
Soil Deposition is a geological process in which sediments, soils, and rocks are humus
added or to form a landform or land mass. A Horizon The layer called topsoil; is made up of humus mixed with mineral
Soils Produced by Weathering and Deposition particles. (black soil)
1. Residual Soils – soils that remain where they were formed, simply overlying E Horizon This layer is light in color; It is made up mostly of sand and silt,
the rock from which they came from having lost most of its minerals and clay as water drips through the soil called
2. Transported Soils – soils formed when rock weathers at one site and the leaching. Also called as Leaching or Eluviation Layer
particles are moved to one location B Horizon Also called the subsoil. It contains clay and mineral deposits (like
SOIL DEPOSITS iron, aluminum oxides, and calcium carbonate) Also named as the Illuviation
Residual Soil Deposits Layer.
- Deposited at the place of decomposition or weathering. C Horizon The slightly broken-up bedrock. The regolith. SOLUM
a. Coarse- Grained Soils. Depends on the size of the particle. R Horizon The unweathered rock (bedrock) layer that is beneath all the other
b. Fine- Grained Soils Greatly influenced by mineral content, moisture content, layers
etc.
Common transporting agents for particles: SOIL STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
1. Gravity 2. Running water 3. Glaciers 4. Wind Soil Structure refers to the arrangement of particles in soils (sand, silt, clay,
Types of transported soils with regards to the agents and organic matter) commonly called aggregates into porous compounds
1. Gravity deposits – soil deposits transported by the effect of gravity. (ex. which are separated by pores and cracks. Soil structure will also influence
Landslide) water movement. Structural composition of sedimented soils influences,
2. Alluvial deposits – soils carried and deposited by flowing water many of their important engineering properties such as permeability,
3. Glacier deposits – result from the action of glaciers compressibility and shear strength. Hence, a study of the structure of soils is
4. Wind deposits (aeolian deposits) – deposits that have wind as the important
transporting agent (ex. Dunes) Soil Structure the behavior of the individual soil particle and their interaction
Soil profile is a natural succession of zones or strata below the ground surface with another particle is influenced by the following forces:
and represents the alterations in the original soil material which have been 1. Weight of the particle due to gravitational force, Fg
2. Particle surface forces, due to surface electrical forces, Fs

Soil Types
The major engineering categories of soil are gravel, sand, silt, and clay.
There is not unanimous agreement on the exact division between each of
these major soil types, but gravel and sand are universally considered coarse-
grained soil, for the individual particles are large enough to be distinguished
without magnification. Silts and clays are considered fine-grained soil because
of their small particles—too small, for the most part, to be seen unaided

Soil Structure can be described in terms of the following:

 1. Grade – degree of aggregation • Structureless – no observable aggregation
2. Class – average size • Weak – poorly formed
3. Type of aggregates – forms Single particles when assembled appear as • Moderate – formed from aggregates that are moderately durable
larger particles. These are called aggregates . • Strong – formed from aggregates that are durable
Class of structure – describes the average size of individual aggregate.
Five classes of structure
• Very fine or very thin
• Fine or thin • Medium
• Coarse or thick
• Very coarse or very thick
Type of structure – describes the form or shape of individual aggregates
Types of soil structure
• Granular – found in A horizon
• Blocky – found in B horizon
• Prismatic – found in B horizon
• Platy – found in A horizon, greatly found on forest soils
• Columnar – found in B horizon, found in compacted soils
• Single-grained – found in sandy soil

The Unified Soil Classification System is now almost universally accepted and
has been adopted by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).

Grade of structure – expresses the

difference on cohesion within
aggregates and adhesion between
aggregates.
Four major grades of structure:
 SEISMIC GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS

Soil Composition the combinations of these determine the soil’s properties

such as texture, structure, porosity, and color.
Mixture of mineral matter, organic matter, water, and air.
• Weathered rock particles (minerals) is the main ingredients (about 45%)
• Organic Matter (about 5%)
• Water (about 20% to 30%)
• Air (about 20% to 30%)
SOIL ELEMENTS AND ITS PHASES

EARTHQUAKES
TYPES OF NATURAL EARTHQUAKES
1. TECTONIC – earthquakes produced by sudden movement along faults
and plate boundaries
2. VOLCANIC – earthquakes produced by movements of magma beneath
volcanoes
 PHILIPPINES

TRIANGULATION
SEISMIC GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
GROUNDWATER

The Hydrologic Cycle Also called as the water cycle is simply the complete
journey that water makes in its life, from one place to the other, and from one
state to the other
Evaporation, Transpiration and Evapotranspiration Aquifers are typically made up of gravel, sand, sandstone, or fractured rock,
• Evaporation- liquid phase to gas phase. like limestone. Water can move through these materials because they have
• Transpiration- the release of moisture from the leaves of plants to the large connected spaces that make them permeable. The speed at which
atmosphere. groundwater flows depends on the size of the spaces in the soil or rock and
• Evapotranspiration- simultaneous event of evaporation from the soil and how well the spaces are connected
moisture release from the plants
• Sublimation- solid phase to gas phase ▪ The sources of groundwater are:
Condensation ▪ Meteoric Water. From precipitation (rain, sleet or snow)
• Aerosolsparticulate matters such as dusts, soot and salts. ▪ Juvenile Water. A water that have separated from magma from a volcanic
• Coalescence- the process of cloud formation. activity and often heavily contaminated
Precipitation ▪ Connate Water. A water that have isolated from the water cycle for millions
• This is simply the various water forms present in the atmosphere, usually of years sealed in between pores of sedimentary rocks and other porous
falling as snow, rain, sleet and hail. Sometimes, it can represent as fog and sediments and rocks.
may not fall as rain does, but they are all classified as precipitation.
Run-off and Infiltration Zones of the Groundwater
• Run-off- precipitation that did not get absorbed by the soil Zone of Aeration, near the surface of the earth
• Infiltration- is the process by which precipitation or water soaks into ranging from 0 thickness on swamplands and
subsurface soils and moves into rocks through cracks and pore spaces. be several hundred feet thick on mountainous
• Percolation- movement of water downward to replenish water tables and regions.
aquifers. ▪ Soil void spaces contain both air and water.
FACTORS THAT MAY AFFECT THE AMOUNT OF RUN-OFF THAT MAY HAPPEN: ▪ PELLICULAR WATER is the first moisture to
• Topography • Nature of Soil • The Amount of Precipitation infiltrate below the ground that wets the soil
FACTORS THAT MAY AFFECT THE RATE OF INFILTRATION: grains and adheres to them
• Topography • Nature of Soil • The Amount of Precipitation . ▪ GRAVITY WATER is the moisture that infiltrates below at over the first films
• Amount of Vegetative Cover • Pre- Saturation Level of water but does not fill the
void completely.
THE GROUNDWATER ▪ VADOSE WATER comprises
Groundwater hydrology may be defined as the science of the occurrence, both moisture in the zone of
distribution and movement of water below the surface of the earth. ▪ aeration.
Ground water is the underground water that occurs in the saturated one of Capillary Fringe, above the
variable thickness and depth below the earth’s surface. Zone of Saturation
▪ The height to which the
capillary fringe rises above the
water table depends upon the
size of the voids in the ground
and the dryness and
temperature of the
atmosphere.
▪ This is usually between a few centimeters and a few meters in thickness, but
may be over 10 m thick in very fine-grained rocks in which capillary pressures Permeability - How easily and rapidly the water can flow through and out of
are high. it. • The property of soil that permits the passage of water.
• Described empirically by Darcy’s Law

Zone of Saturation, located below the zone of aeration, the soil pores are
filled with water, and this is what
we call as the groundwater • Darcy’s Law
▪ A stratum that contains a • Specific Discharge, Q= Av
substantial amount of • A = the area of the discharging soil
groundwater is called an aquifer. • v = superficial velocity
▪ Water Table or phreatic surface • Where v = Ki
is the surface between the two • K = coefficient of permeability or =
zones and has a hydrostatic hydraulic conductivity
pressure in the groundwater • i = hydraulic gradient = Δh over ΔL
equal to atmospheric pressure.

Properties of Soils for Groundwater Control

Behavior of water in rocks and soils
Porosity - Determines how much water the rock or soil can hold in empty
spaces within it.

volume to its total volume: 𝐧 = 𝐕𝐯𝐨𝐢𝐝𝐬/ 𝐕𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥

• In Geotechnical Engineering, porosity, n is expressed as the ratio of void

• Porosity can also be expressed as the function of the VOID RATIO, e as the

𝐞 = 𝐕𝐯𝐨𝐢𝐝𝐬/𝐕𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝𝐬
ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of the total solids:

the void ratio as; 𝐧 = 𝒆/ 𝟏 + 𝒆

• The porosity can be expressed in using

• Or vice versa 𝐞 = 𝒏/ 𝟏 – 𝒏
• Void Ratio is the property used to

range. 𝐡 = 𝑪/ 𝒆𝑫𝟏𝟎
determine the height of the capillary

• h - the capillary rise in millimeters

• C - constant
• D10 - effective size
• e - void ratio