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 Machine Learning
Approaches for Convergence
of IoT and Blockchain
 Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener ([email protected])
Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
 Machine Learning
Approaches for Convergence
of IoT and Blockchain

Edited by
Krishna Kant Singh
Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Jain (Deemed-to-be University),
Bengaluru, India

Akansha Singh
Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India
and
Sanjay Sharma
KIET Group of Institutions, Delhi-NCR, Ghaziabad, India
This edition first published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
© 2021 Scrivener Publishing LLC
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Contents

Preface xi
1 Blockchain and Internet of Things Across Industries 1
Ananya Rakhra, Raghav Gupta and Akansha Singh
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Insight About Industry 3
1.2.1 Agriculture Industry 5
1.2.2 Manufacturing Industry 5
1.2.3 Food Production Industry 6
1.2.4 Healthcare Industry 7
1.2.5 Military 7
1.2.6 IT Industry 8
1.3 What is Blockchain? 8
1.4 What is IoT? 11
1.5 Combining IoT and Blockchain 14
1.5.1 Agriculture Industry 15
1.5.2 Manufacturing Industry 17
1.5.3 Food Processing Industry 18
1.5.4 Healthcare Industry 20
1.5.5 Military 21
1.5.6 Information Technology Industry 24
1.6 Observing Economic Growth and Technology’s Impact 25
1.7 Applications of IoT and Blockchain Beyond Industries 28
1.8 Conclusion 32
References 33
2 Layered Safety Model for IoT Services Through Blockchain 35
Anju Malik and Bharti Sharma
2.1 Introduction 36
2.1.1 IoT Factors Impacting Security 38
2.2 IoT Applications 39
2.3 IoT Model With Communication Parameters 40

v
vi Contents

2.3.1 RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) 40

2.3.2 WSH (Wireless Sensor Network) 40
2.3.3 Middleware (Software and Hardware) 40
2.3.4 Computing Service (Cloud) 41
2.3.5 IoT Software 41
2.4 Security and Privacy in IoT Services 41
2.5 Blockchain Usages in IoT 44
2.6 Blockchain Model With Cryptography 44
2.6.1 Variations of Blockchain 45
2.7 Solution to IoT Through Blockchain 46
2.8 Conclusion 50
References 51
3 Internet of Things Security Using AI and Blockchain 57
Raghav Gupta, Ananya Rakhra and Akansha Singh
3.1 Introduction 58
3.2 IoT and Its Application 59
3.3 Most Popular IoT and Their Uses 61
3.4 Use of IoT in Security 63
3.5 What is AI? 64
3.6 Applications of AI 65
3.7 AI and Security 66
3.8 Advantages of AI 68
3.9 Timeline of Blockchain 69
3.10 Types of Blockchain 70
3.11 Working of Blockchain 72
3.12 Advantages of Blockchain Technology 74
3.13 Using Blockchain Technology With IoT 74
3.14 IoT Security Using AI and Blockchain 76
3.15 AI Integrated IoT Home Monitoring System 78
3.16 Smart Homes With the Concept of Blockchain and AI 79
3.17 Smart Sensors 81
3.18 Authentication Using Blockchain 82
3.19 Banking Transactions Using Blockchain 83
3.20 Security Camera 84
3.21 Other Ways to Fight Cyber Attacks 85
3.22 Statistics on Cyber Attacks 88
3.23 Conclusion 90
References 90
 Contents vii

4 Amalgamation of IoT, ML, and Blockchain

in the Healthcare Regime 93
Pratik Kumar, Piyush Yadav, Rajeev Agrawal
and Krishna Kant Singh
4.1 Introduction 93
4.2 What is Internet of Things? 95
4.2.1 Internet of Medical Things 97
4.2.2 Challenges of the IoMT 97
4.2.3 Use of IoT in Alzheimer Disease 99
4.3 Machine Learning 100
4.3.1 Case 1: Multilayer Perceptron Network 101
4.3.2 Case 2: Vector Support Machine 102
4.3.3 Applications of the Deep Learning
in the Healthcare Sector 103
4.4 Role of the Blockchain in the Healthcare Field 104
4.4.1 What is Blockchain Technology? 104
4.4.2 Paradigm Shift in the Security of Healthcare
Data Through Blockchain 105
4.5 Conclusion 106
References 106
5 Application of Machine Learning and IoT for Smart Cities 109
Nilanjana Pradhan, Ajay Shankar Singh, Shrddha Sagar,
Akansha Singh and Ahmed A. Elngar
5.1 Functionality of Image Analytics 110
5.2 Issues Related to Security and Privacy in IoT 112
5.3 Machine Learning Algorithms and Blockchain
Methodologies 114
5.3.1 Intrusion Detection System 116
5.3.2 Deep Learning and Machine Learning Models 118
5.3.3 Artificial Neural Networks 118
5.3.4 Hybrid Approaches 119
5.3.5 Review and Taxonomy of Machine Learning 120
5.4 Machine Learning Open Source Tools for Big Data 121
5.5 Approaches and Challenges of Machine Learning
Algorithms in Big Data 123
5.6 Conclusion 127
References 127
viii Contents

6 Machine Learning Applications for IoT Healthcare 129

Neha Agarwal, Pushpa Singh, Narendra Singh,
Krishna Kant Singh and Rohit Jain
6.1 Introduction 130
6.2 Machine Learning 130
6.2.1 Types of Machine Learning Techniques 131
6.2.1.1 Unsupervised Learning 131
6.2.1.2 Supervised Learning 131
6.2.1.3 Semi-Supervised Learning 132
6.2.1.4 Reinforcement Learning 132
6.2.2 Applications of Machine Learning 132
6.2.2.1 Prognosis 132
6.2.2.2 Diagnosis 134
6.3 IoT in Healthcare 135
6.3.1 IoT Architecture for Healthcare System 135
6.3.1.1 Physical and Data Link Layer 136
6.3.1.2 Network Layer 137
6.3.1.3 Transport Layer 137
6.3.1.4 Application Layer 137
6.4 Machine Learning and IoT 138
6.4.1 Application of ML and IoT in Healthcare 138
6.4.1.1 Smart Diagnostic Care 138
6.4.1.2 Medical Staff and Inventory Tracking 139
6.4.1.3 Personal Care 139
6.4.1.4 Healthcare Monitoring Device 139
6.4.1.5 Chronic Disease Management 139
6.5 Conclusion 140
References 140
7 Blockchain for Vehicular Ad Hoc Network and Intelligent
Transportation System: A Comprehensive Study 145
Raghav Sharma, Anirudhi Thanvi, Shatakshi Singh,
Manish Kumar and Sunil Kumar Jangir
7.1 Introduction 146
7.2 Related Work 149
7.3 Connected Vehicles and Intelligent Transportation System 152
7.3.1 VANET 153
7.3.2 Blockchain Technology and VANET 153
7.4 An ITS-Oriented Blockchain Model 155
7.5 Need of Blockchain 156
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 Contents ix

7.5.1 Food Track and Trace 159

7.5.2 Electric Vehicle Recharging 160
7.5.3 Smart City and Smart Vehicles 161
7.6 Implementation of Blockchain Supported
Intelligent Vehicles 164
7.7 Conclusion 165
7.8 Future Scope 166
References 167
8 Applications of Image Processing in Teleradiology
for the Medical Data Analysis and Transfer Based on IOT 175
S. N. Kumar, A. Lenin Fred, L. R. Jonisha Miriam,
Parasuraman Padmanabhan, Balázs Gulyás
and Ajay Kumar H.
8.1 Introduction 176
8.2 Pre-Processing 178
8.2.1 Principle of Diffusion Filtering 178
8.3 Improved FCM Based on Crow Search Optimization 183
8.4 Prediction-Based Lossless Compression Model 184
8.5 Results and Discussion 188
8.6 Conclusion 202
Acknowledgment 202
References 203
9 Innovative Ideas to Build Smart Cities with the Help
of Machine and Deep Learning and IoT 205
ShylajaVinaykumar Karatangi, Reshu Agarwal,
Krishna Kant Singh and Ivan Izonin
9.1 Introduction 206
9.2 Related Work 207
9.3 What Makes Smart Cities Smart? 208
9.3.1 Intense Traffic Management 208
9.3.2 Smart Parking 209
9.3.3 Smart Waste Administration 210
9.3.4 Smart Policing 211
9.3.5 Shrewd Lighting 211
9.3.6 Smart Power 211
9.4 In Healthcare System 212
9.5 In Homes 213
9.6 In Aviation 213
9.7 In Solving Social Problems 213
x Contents

9.8 Uses of AI-People 214

9.8.1 Google Maps 214
9.8.2 Ridesharing 214
9.8.3 Voice-to-Text 215
9.8.4 Individual Assistant 215
9.9 Difficulties and Profit 215
9.10 Innovations in Smart Cities 216
9.11 Beyond Humans Focus 217
9.12 Illustrative Arrangement 217
9.13 Smart Cities with No Differentiation 218
9.14 Smart City and AI 219
9.15 Further Associated Technologies 221
9.15.1 Model Identification 221
9.15.2 Picture Recognition 221
9.15.3 IoT 222
9.15.4 Big Data 223
9.15.5 Deep Learning 223
9.16 Challenges and Issues 224
9.16.1 Profound Learning Models 224
9.16.2 Deep Learning Paradigms 225
9.16.3 Confidentiality 226
9.16.4 Information Synthesis 226
9.16.5 Distributed Intelligence 227
9.16.6 Restrictions of Deep Learning 228
9.17 Conclusion and Future Scope 228
References 229
Index 233
 Preface

Blockchain technology and the Internet of Things (IoT) are two of the
most impactful trends to have emerged in the field of machine learning.
And although there are a number of books available solely on the subjects
of machine learning, IoT and blockchain technology, no such book has
been available which focuses on machine learning techniques for IoT and
blockchain convergence until now. Thus, this book is unique in terms of
the topics it covers. Designed as an essential guide for all academicians,
researchers and those in industry who are working in related fields, this
book will provide insights into the convergence of blockchain technology
and the IoT with machine learning.
A rapidly advancing fourth industrial revolution, brought about by a
digital revolution characterized by the convergence of technologies, is blur-
ring the lines between physical, digital and biological objects. The speed of
the fourth revolution, which is evolving at an exponential rate, certainly
cannot be compared with that of any previous technologies. Some of these
technologies include the artificial intelligence (AI) and IoT currently being
used in interactions and operations in various fields such as home appli-
ances, autonomous vehicles, nanotechnology, robotics, cognitive systems
and wearable devices; and nowadays the potential of blockchain technol-
ogy is also being realized in many sectors as well, since security is a crucial
factor everywhere.
Readers in many domains will be interested in this book as it covers
two major areas of the field of machine learning—blockchain technology
and the IoT. Also, it will be appealing for those who want to further their
research in this area, as the latest topics are covered. Therefore, the target
audience of this book is composed of professionals and researchers work-
ing in the field of machine learning with IoT and blockchain technology.
Moreover, the book will provide insights and support from practitioners
and academia in order to highlight the most debated aspects in the field.
A detailed description of each topic relevant to machine learning technol-
ogies is presented along with the concepts involved in their convergence.

xi
xii Preface

In addition, research problems are included to facilitate further research

based on the concepts described in the book.
First and foremost, we express heartfelt appreciation to all contribut-
ing authors for their hard work and patience. I would like to thank them
for contributing chapters in this book. Thanks to the Scrivener Publishing
team who helped us so much. Special thanks to Martin Scrivener for all his
support, suggestions, and patience.

The Editors
June 2021
 1
Blockchain and Internet of Things
Across Industries
Ananya Rakhra*, Raghav Gupta and Akansha Singh

Department of CSE, ASET, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

Abstract
In this chapter, we will come across different kinds of industries and how Internet
of Things and blockchain technologies are applied to them. We commence with an
overview about what an industry is and the nature of various industries, followed
by knowledge about the technologies of IoT and blockchain. These technologies
have facilitated advancement and ease in one’s day-to-day life, the industrial sector
being one among many where its impact is prevalent notably. Further, incorpora-
tion of these technologies across various sectors of industry and their scope has
been focused upon. The advancements brought about, especially in fields such
as that of healthcare sector, have revolutionized the previously existing methods,
helping us attain better care and improved life expectancy. Also, the scope of these
technologies beyond the industrial sector has been discussed. These technologies
have facilitated specialization, so much so that its positive imprint can clearly be
seen onto the nation’s economy. This text on the whole allows the readers to attain
a clear understanding and also unveils the great scope for further research and
development offered by this sphere.

Keywords: IoT, Internet of Things, blockchain, technology, industry,

smart devices

1.1 Introduction
Through the course of this chapter, we will come across various types of indus-
tries and how implementing IoT and blockchain through these industries

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Krishna Kant Singh, Akansha Singh and Sanjay Sharma (eds.) Machine Learning Approaches for
Convergence of IoT and Blockchain, (1–34) © 2021 Scrivener Publishing LLC

1
2 ML Approaches for Convergence of IoT and Blockchain

will help facilitate the achievement of enormous endeavors beyond the scope
one could think of a few years ago. These technologies have widened pro-
spective and enhanced scope across varied fields; we will attempt to obtain
an in-depth understanding of the same. Industries form the backbone of a
country’s economy. Any organization that is involved in large-scale produc-
tion or providing services to a lot of customers is categorized as an industry.
According to the purpose of the industry, they are classified as the primary,
secondary, and tertiary sectors. Classification based on the organisational
framework of an industry is done as organized and unorganized sectors of
industry. Categorization may also be done according to the ownership of
the firm as either public or private sector industry. Each industry has vary-
ing demands and requirements based on the nature of production or service
that they intend to provide. We will explore this phenomenon through the
domains of various industries, for example, the agriculture industry, manu-
facturing industry, food production units, healthcare, military, it sector, and
banking. We will see what the goals and functions of these industries are and
how the efficiency and output can be highly improved, along with reducing
human effort and also increasing accuracy. Then, we will move on to learn
about the blockchain technology, its mechanism, requirements, advantages,
and disadvantages. Blockchain technology is basically the practice of storing
data into blocks that are connected to each other in the form of a chain. The
distinctive feature of this technology is that once the data is entered into this
chain it is immutable, which provides a very strong system to prevent any
sort of tampering with the stored data, hence ensuring high level security.
The chains are also encrypted and decentralized which further enhance its
security. Next, we will look into what IoT is, how it works, and how it is ben-
eficial to us. IoT is the acronym for Internet of Things, wherein we basically
connect the physical devices to each other over a network enabling them to
communicate and share information among each other. Here, devices are
able to gain knowledge about their surroundings with the help of sensors.
Common examples of IoT that have been incorporated in daily life are smart
watches, smart lighting for households, surveillance cameras, etc. After
understanding the functioning and applications of these, we will further
see their combined applications of these two technologies in the industry.
Incorporating these technologies in the industry opens up a very broad per-
spective to achieve new levels of specialization. Human tasks have been eased
and accuracy and precision has spiked because of these. Profits made by com-
panies have also seen increment; hence, it has proved beneficial to industries
in a lot many ways. Further through the course of this chapter, after looking
into the non-industrial applications of these technologies in depth, exploring
various domains of implementation we will next see the applications and
 Blockchain and IoT Across Industries 3

scope of these technologies beyond industries as well. In particular, we will

be looking into how they have helped enhance life in different possible ways.
First, we will get to know what smart homes are and study the involvement
of these technologies in its creation and implementation. This advancement
has brought about a lot of ease and pace into one’s day-to-day household
tasks and also evolved one’s lifestyle. Then, we will read about how security
via surveillance has been technologically boosted with the coming of IoT
and blockchain into this sphere. The ways of monitoring have been special-
ized and the security of the data thus obtained is also highly increased due
the usage of blockchain. Life and property are now being better guarded with
the help of these. Smart solutions such as automated street lighting have also
come up which contribute toward saving energy and resources, and incor-
poration of security mechanisms such as surveillance along with the street
lights making the equipment multi-purpose and more useful. Let us begin
with introducing what an industry is and how it functions.

1.2 Insight About Industry

In today’s time, the types and scope of industries are massive. Industries
have met with a lot of varied applications and requirements and are serving
to facilitate the same. These industries provide to serve needs of mankind,
ranging from the most basic necessities to comfort and exotic offerings.
Industry can be referred to as any large-scale productive activity. It is these
industries that strengthen a nation’s economy, fulfils its needs, and provide
safety, security, etc. Most spheres around us are industries in themselves.
Some sectors of industry are depicted in Figure 1.1. The main features of
any industry are large-scale production, specialization, research and devel-
opment, mechanization, standardization, and management. We will now
look into types or classification of industries and get to know about each
one of them individually [1]. Industries can broadly be classified into the
sectors: primary, secondary, and tertiary. The primary sector comprises of
industries that are mainly involved in the extraction of raw materials, for
examples, industries extracting metals from their ore, mining, and farming.
The secondary sector is where industries perform manufacturing and
packaging of goods and commodities, examples of this sector of industries
include food processing industries, car part manufacturing, and other such
industries. The tertiary sector is also known as the service sector; industries
such as IT, defence services, judicial workforce, banking, and teaching come
under this category. Other bases of classification are either as organized and
unorganized sector industry or as public sector or private sector industry.
4 ML Approaches for Convergence of IoT and Blockchain

Manufacturing

Food
Agriculture Production

IoT in
industries

IT Healthcare

Military

Figure 1.1 Industries in focus.

Organized industry sector is such that all its employees are assured work
throughout their employment and there terms for the same are fixed and
regular. In contrast, the unorganized sector provides flexible employment
at the discretion of the employer and there exist no regularity or guarantee
of the employment term, also such institutions may not necessarily be reg-
istered with the government. Public sector industries are those which are
owned, funded, and managed by the government and like most other gov-
ernment jobs provide benefits to its workers such as pension. Private sector
industries are owned by individual or partnerships between individuals.
The main motive of the individual running the company is to earn profit
and these are not state controlled. The terms of employment may vary from
company to company based on the interests of the owner. In India, most
of the private sector industries are known to be paying higher salaries to
its employees as compared to government industries but government jobs
are seen to offer more job security benefits while under employment and
even after it. All these are interdependent, we may say that primary sector
industries are responsible for production of raw materials, the secondary
sector process these raw materials to transform them into useful goods,
 Blockchain and IoT Across Industries 5

and the tertiary sector utilizes and makes these products available to the
consumers. Let us now focus on some industries and understand their
requirements and production mechanisms.
In this part, we will be discussing about all the various industries, their
functioning, and the importance that they hold. Let us understand the
working of a few industries.

1.2.1 Agriculture Industry

This is one of the most important sectors as it caters to resolve the hunger of
the country’s entire population. This industry is the source of livelihood to
about 58% of India’s population. Most of the agricultural plots happen to be
in the rural areas where development is far behind that in the bigger towns
and cities. In India, particularly, agriculture is very widely practiced and
it serves as the source of income to a considerably large section of India’s
working population, both men and women. Especially the residents of sub-
urbs, villages and small towns have taken to agriculture as their means of
employment and livelihood. Industrial agriculture is the practice of mono-
culture of a particular crop to be sold commercially, i.e., not only for the
purpose of one’s own usage. Cultivation of any crop requires resources such
as land, soil, water, and fertilizers along with knowledge, dedicated, con-
stant attention, and care. It is one sphere that requires physically intensive
efforts especially if there is an absence of machinery. In earlier times, when
technology was not what we know it as today, agriculture was practiced with
the help of animals to facilitate various tasks. In present times, with the ever
increasing size of the population the demand for food crops is also going
up, the scope of agricultural produce is local, national as well as interna-
tional as there is a massive trade prevalent between various countries over
the exchange of these commodities, which, in turn, adds to the economy of
the country. The crop needs constant care and treatment from the time the
seeds are sown up until its harvest. The produce from this industry serves as
raw material for certain other industries therefore the need to ensure good
product quality is further heightened as it will directly impact the other sec-
tors as well. Incorporation of advanced technologies has benefitted this sec-
tor extensively, which we shall look into later in the course of this chapter.

1.2.2 Manufacturing Industry

Manufacturing industry is a broad term used to refer to any industry that is
involved in the task of production of any particular commodity. Considering
the example of a car manufacturing company, there exist various stages of
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6 ML Approaches for Convergence of IoT and Blockchain

manufacturing and assembling different components. Precision remains

a key necessity to ensure proper product quality as even if a single part
deviates from its correct dimensions, the end result would be faulty lead-
ing to wastage of resources, money, and time. The other key requirement
is to ensure maximum utilization of available machinery to increase pro-
duction and thus profit. The quality of a raw material chosen also plays a
major role in determining the finished product and hence needs to be kept
under check. Keeping track of quantities of each part that is produced and
sent down the assembly line is a cumbersome yet essential task. Record of
date of production and assembly of parts need be kept as in case a fault
in equipment is seen later, it will be necessary to trace down the articles
that went through it as there may be risk of faulty products having been
produced. Also, to provide good after sales care to the users and to ensure
timely renewal or maintenance is carried out as per requirement. Lastly,
demand of any particular product should be kept under consideration so as
to increase or decrease the quantity to maintain the demand supply chain.

1.2.3 Food Production Industry

The major difficulty for this industry is the perishable nature of food items.
Storage and processing need to be carried out at suitable temperature so
as to keep the commodity intact. The accuracy of the date of manufacture
and date of expiry that are mentioned on the packaging needs to be main-
tained. Like any other manufacturing, a proper record needs to be main-
tained as to which product is processed with which equipment and at what
time so that in case a fault is found in any equipment, the products requir-
ing a review can be tracked. Since food items are meant for consumption
by the customers, certain standards pertaining to the quality and handling
of these commodities need to be kept under consideration. It is also rec-
ommended that a complete record of where the raw material was obtained
from, how was has been transported, processed, packed, and delivered
should be kept and should also be made available to any customer who
may want to know the same. The ingredients must also be mentioned cor-
rectly as a considerable chunk of population beholds allergies; therefore,
the correct composition of the product should be mentioned. Another
key factor is to maintain hygienic conditions at all levels of handling food
stuff, any contamination to edible products may make the consumer ill,
which would, in turn, invoke legal response against the manufacturing unit
depending upon the severity of harm caused. This industry also needs to
keep a close watch at the demand and supply chain because of the perish-
able nature; some items may not have a very long shelf life.
 Blockchain and IoT Across Industries 7

1.2.4 Healthcare Industry

This industry has become one of India’s biggest sectors in term of both
economy as well as employment. It is also a primary determinant factor for
the GDP of a country. This is one such critical industry that encompasses
great responsibility and attention. Even the minute details sometimes
end up putting a patient’s life at stake. Specialization and accuracy form
its foundation. In any condition ranging from minor discomfort, fever to
emergencies such as a fracture or heart attack are all taken care of by this
sector. The composition of the services it provides covers prevention, diag-
nosis, treatment, and medical rehabilitation. Herein, it is essential to keep
accurate and updated records of the available drugs as in case a patient
requires its administration it must be available and should be well within
its shelf life. Hospitals need to maintain proper records of the patient who
have been treated and store case history along with the treatment provided
to any individual. For patients suffering from a chronic disease, case his-
tory must be available in case the patient is brought in emergency. This
industry also performs surgeries and transplants in keeping with proce-
dures to cure or lengthen the life span of the patients. In this process, cer-
tain highly specialized surgeries are sometimes conducted which require
sophisticated equipment and knowledge.

1.2.5 Military
This industry comes under the tertiary sector as it is a form a service to a
nation and its citizens. The Indian Armed Force is under the Government
of India and is managed by the Ministry of Defence (MoD). India pos-
sesses the world’s second largest military after China. The military service
in India serves in three three wings each for a different landform. The three
arms are the Army, the Air Force, and the Navy. The Army is the ground
force that battles any threat that prevails in their country on land. The Air
force is the unit that takes charge of all the aerial operations and security.
The naval force maintains the safety of the waters that come under the
jurisdiction of the country. All these forces have officers that are allotted
various ranks and positions according to their specialization; the highest
rank is that of the chief who also holds the responsibility of making all
the crucial decisions. Each officer has to qualify for the National Defence
Academy (NDA) where they undergo rigorous training and are toughened
to withstand extreme conditions. This indeed is one of the most disci-
plined industries of all. This industry’s peculiar feature is the intelligence
service, who serves to keep a close watch on the activities in and around
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[Contents]

Camaxtli, a deity, 313 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 313;
myth of, 313–14

Cannibalism, ceremonial, 215

Ce itzcuintli, festival of, 277

Cereal-gods, 12

Chalchihuitl, a precious stone, 26

Chalchihuitlicue, a water-goddess, 52, 256 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 257–9;
myths of, 259–60;
festivals of, 260;
priesthood of, 260;
nature and status, 260–2

Chalchiutotolin, the turkey, 111 (note)

Chantico, a goddess, 180, 280 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 280–1;
myths of, 281–2;
festival of, 282;
temple and priesthood of, 282;
nature and status of, 282–3

Chicaunaztli (“Rain-rattle”), 189

Chichimecs, a Nahua tribe of the steppes, 4, 9

Chicomecoatl, a maize-goddess, 153, 164–5;

aspect and insignia, 170;
myths of, 170–1;
festivals of, 171–2;
priesthood of, 172–3;
temples of, 173;
nature and status of, 173–4

Chicomecoatl iteopan (“Temple of Chicomecoatl”), 173

Chicunaui itzcuintli, the festival of, 282

Cinteotl, a maize-god, 162, 163, 164;
aspect and insignia of, 174;
myths of, 175–6;
festivals of, 176–7;
temples of, 177;
priesthood of, 177–8;
nature and status of, 179

Cipactli, the earth-monster, 13

Ciuacoatl, a goddess. Aspect and insignia, 179–80;

myths of, 180–2;
temples of, 182;
nature and status of, 182–3

Ciuapipiltin. See Ciuateteô

Ciuateteô, deified dead women, 168, 176, 388 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 353–5;
myths of, 355;
nature and status, 355–8

Ciuatlampa, Region of the West, 60

Coatlicue, a goddess, colossal figure of, 14;

as a primitive fetish, 16, 73 ff., 154;
in general, 183 ff.;
aspect and insignia, 183;
statues of, 183–5;
myth of, 185;
festival of, 185–6;
nature and status of, 186–7

Codex Borgia group, place of origin of, 6

Codex Chimalpopocâ. See Annals of Quauhtitlan

Codices, or native paintings, 5–7;

Interpretative, 8;
place of origin, 6;
illustrations in, 65 (note);
bibliography of, 380–3

Cosmogony, 36–64

Coxcox, fallacy of myth concerning, 53–4

Coyolxauhqui, a goddess, 74, 77, 78, [385]79, 185, 324;
aspect and insignia, 324;
myths of, 324;
nature and status, 324

Creation myths, 36–64;

common basis of, 51–2

Creative gods, 12, 36–7, 146 ff.

Cuesteca, Huaxtec priests of goddess Tlazolteotl, 166, 167

[Contents]

Day-gods, 362–3

Deer, the two-headed, 181

Deluge, myths of the, 52 ff.

[Contents]

Earth, gods of the, 153 ff.;

their relations to one another, 154–6

Earth, the, as a monster, 13

Earth-mother, the, 13–14;

equated with the earth-dragon, 14;
Tonacaciuatl as, 151

Ecatonatiuh (“Wind-sun”), a period in Mexican cosmogony, 38

Elements of growth, deification of the, 13

Etzalqualitztli, the festival of, 249–51

[Contents]

Festivals. See Tonalamatl

“Fetish” origin of certain Mexican deities, 16 ff.

Fire-gods, 268 ff.

Flaying of victims after sacrifice, 162

[Contents]

Glossary of Mexican words, 382–3

Gods of Mexico, classified, 12;

fall of the, 55–7;
regional, 59;
method of treatment of, in this work, 65;
of rain and moisture, 234 ff.;
of fire, 268 ff.;
of octli or pulque, 285 ff.;
as represented by the heavenly bodies, 300 ff.;
of death, 327 ff.;
of the days, 362–3;
of the weeks, 363;
of creation, 146 ff.;
the greater gods, 65 ff.;
of the earth and growth, 153 ff.;
variants of the, 336 ff.;
the minor, 344 ff.

Grain, deification of the, 14–15

Gucumatz, Quiche name of Quetzalcoatl, q.v.

[Contents]
H

Heavens, supporters of the, 60;

the Aztec, 61

Historia de los Mexicanos por sus Pinturas, 48–51

Homeyoca, abode of the creators, 62

Hurakan, Quiche name of Tezcatlipocâ, 138–9

[Contents]

Ilamatecutli, a goddess, 229;

aspect and insignia, 229–30;
myths of, 230;
festivals of, 230–2;
nature and status of, 232–3

Interpretative Codices, 8

Itzlacoliuhqui-ixquimilli, a deity, 337

Itzpapalotl, a goddess, 223;

aspect and insignia, 223–5;
myths of, 225–6;
nature and status of, 277–8

Itztli, 336–7

Ixcuiname, a group of goddesses, 159–60

Ixnextli, a goddess, 190

Ixtlilton, a deity, 349 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 350–1;
nature and status, 351–2

Izcalli, the festival of, 275

Iztac Mixcoatl, a deity, 312 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 312–13
[Contents]

Kukulkan, Maya name of Quetzalcoatl, 133 ff.

[Contents]

Lords of the Night, 364

[Contents]

Macuiltochtli, an octli-god, 297;

aspect and insignia, 298;
nature and status of, 298

Macuilxochitl-Xochipilli, a deity, 178, 196;

aspect and insignia, 196–7, 198–9;
statues of, 197–8, 199–200;
myth of, 200–1;
festival of, 201–2;
nature and status of, 202–3

Matlalcuêyê, a goddess, 191, 265;

aspect and insignia, 265–6;
nature and status, 266

Mayauel, a goddess, 175, 294 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 295–6;
myths of, 296–7;
nature and status of, 297

Medicine, Patecatl, the god of, 292 ff.

Metztli, the Moon-god, 308 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 308–9;
 myths of, 309;
nature and status of,309–10

Mexican races, history of, 2–4;

subject to the Aztecâ, 3–4

Mexican religion, type of, 1–2;

[386]
antiquity of, 4–5;
literature of, 5–8;
origins of, 8–10;
opposing forces in, 9, 10;
at the period of the Conquest, 9–10;
evidences of primitive influences in, 10 ff.;
animism in, 16;
cultural elements in, 122

Mictecaciuatl, 331 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 331–2;
nature and status, 332

Mictlampa, Region of the Dead, 60, 63–4

Mictlantecutli, god of the dead, 63, 64, 327 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 327–30; myths of, 330–1;
nature and status of, 331

Minor deities, 344 ff.

Mixcoatl, 181, 310 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 310–11;
statuary and paintings, 311–12;
festivals of, 315–16;
temples, 316–17;
nature and status of, 317–19

Monachism in Mexico, 9, 10

Moon, creation of, 40 ff.

Moon-god, 308 ff.

Motecuhzoma II, wears Xipe’s dress, 207

Mother-sheaf, the, 174

[Contents]

Nagualism, 18

Nahuatl language, 2

Nahua, the, 2–3;

of Anahuac separated from those of the south-west, 6

Nanahuatzin, a deity, 43

Napatecutli, a deity, 264;

nature and status, 264–5

Nauollin, the festival of, 303

Nemontemi, the, or unlucky days, 369–70

[Contents]

Obsidian, the cult of, 27 ff. See also Tezcatlipocâ

Ochpaniztli, the festival of, 161–5, 172

Octli, or pulque (drink), the gods of, 286 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 285;
general allusions to, 286;
festivals of, 287;
nature and status of, 287–8

Omacatl, 352–3

Opochtli, a deity, 266;

aspect and insignia of, 266;
nature and status of, 266–7

Original gods of Mexico, the, 12

[Contents]
P

Panquetzalitztli, the festival of, 70–3

Patecatl, the god of medicine, 292 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 292–3;
myths of, 293;
nature and status, 294

Paynal, a deity, 339–40

Pedro de Rios, interpreter of Mexican codices, 8

“Pied Piper,” Xipe as, 209, 210

Piltzintecutli, the Sun-god, 190

Popol Vuh, the sacred book of the Quiches, 135 ff.

Pueblo Indians, religion of the, 11

Pulque-gods. See Octli-gods

[Contents]

Quail, the, Xipe as, 220

Quaitl eloa, the festival of, 246

Quaxolotl, a goddess, 283 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 283–4;
nature and status of, 284

Quecholli, the festival of, 193

Quetzalcoatl, a deity. His religion, 10, 24 ff.;

amalgamation of his cult with the solar cult, 21–2;
his aspect and insignia, 117–21;
wall-paintings of, 122;
statuary of, 121–2;
myths of, 123–36;
festivals of, 136;
priesthood of, 136–7;
 temples of, 137;
nature and status of, 137–44;
etymology of name, 144–5;
his costumes sent to Cortéz, 119;
as the planet Venus, 122, 129;
Central American myths regarding him, 133 ff.;
as the trade wind, 138 ff.;
Toltec and Huaxtec connections of, 139–40;
criticism of the later elements of his myth, 141 ff.;
connection with the fountain of youth myth, 141;
development of his conception, 142 ff.

[Contents]

Rain-cult of Mexico, 11–15, 18, 23

Rain, different varieties of, 15

Rain, gods of, 234 ff.

Religion. See Mexican religion

Religious idea, homogeneous nature of, in Mexico, 33–4

[Contents]

Sacrifice, human, 19–20, 193

Sahagun, Bernardino, his Historia General, 7;

his method, 8

Seler, Professor Eduard, on place of origin of Mexican codices, 6 [387]

Skins, wearing of human. See Xipe, passim

Sky-father, Tonacatecutli as, 151

Spanish writers on Mexican religion, 7–8

Spinden, Dr. J. H., on place of origin of Mexican codices, 6

Stellar and planetary gods, 300 ff.

Sun and moon, creation myths of, 42 ff.

Sun, the, not at first regarded as an agency of growth, 13

Sun-god, 300 ff.

Suns as world ages. See Cosmogony

[Contents]

Tamoanchan, the paradise of the west, 175

Tecciztecatl, a moon-god, 43

Tecuilhuitontli, the festival of, 262

Temalacatl, or stone of combat, 214

Teotleco, the festival of, 102–3

Teoyaomiqui, a goddess, 184

Tepeyollotl, an earth-god, 332 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 332–3;
myths of, 333–4;
nature and status of, 334–5

Tepoxtecatl, an octli-god, 291 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 291;
temple, 291;
nature and status, 291–2

Teteo innan, a goddess, 153

Tezcatlipocâ, a deity. As obsidian, 29–31; 110 ff.;

as a turkey, 111 (note);
aspect and insignia, 91–7;
festivals of, 97–103;
myths of, 103–10;
nature and status, 110–11;
 red and black forms of, 96 ff.;
as Xipe, 205

Tezcatzoncatl, a deity, 289 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 289–90;
myth of, 290;
nature and status, 290

Tititl, festivals of, 230

Tlacacozcaquauhtli, the vulture god, 188

Tlacaxipeuliztli, the festival of, 212–17

Tlachitonatiuh (“Earth-sun”), a period in Mexican cosmogony

Tlachtli, the Mexican game of, 176

Tlaloc, the Rain-god. Prayer to, 12;

his pluvial character, 15;
elements of his cult, 23–4;
mention of, 189, 191;
aspect and insignia of, 236–41;
statuary and vases, 241–2;
myths of, 242–6;
festivals of, 246;
temples of, 252–3;
priesthood, 254;
prayers to, 254;
nature and status, 254–6

Tlalocan, the paradise of Tlaloc, 15, 61–2

Tlaloquê, the servants of Tlaloc, 15, 242–6

Tlalxicco, interior of the earth, 59

Tlamacasque, a priest, 187, 188

Tlapcopa, Region of the East, 5–9

Tlatauhqui Cinteotl (“Temple of Red Maize”), 177

Tlauizcalpantecutli, 319 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 319–22;
nature and status, 322–4

Tlaxochimaco, the festival of, 69–70

Tlazolteotl, a goddess, 156 ff.;
aspect and insignia, 156–9;
myths of, 159;
sacrifice to, by shooting with arrows, 159–60;
hymn to, 160–1;
festivals of, 161–5;
ritual of, 165–6;
temple of, 166;
priesthood of, 166;
nature and status of, 166–9

Tlillan calmecac, temple of Ciuacoatl, 182

Tloque nahuaque, the creative spirit, 148

Toci, a goddess, 152

Toctitlan (“Place of our Grandmother”), temple of Tlazolteotl, 165, 166

Tollan, city of, 10

Toltec civilization, the, 10

Tomiauhtecutli, a deity, 299;

aspect and insignia, 299;
nature and status, 299

Tonacaciuatl, a creative goddess, 147 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 147–8;
myth of, 148–50;
nature and status, 150–2

Tonacatecutli, a creative deity, 146 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 146–7;
myths, 148–50;
nature and status, 150–2

Tonalamatl, the, a book of fate and fortune. See Appendix, 359 ff.;
nature of, 359–60;
day-signs of, 360–1;
in tabular form, 361–2;
day-gods of, 362–3;
gods of the “weeks,” 363;
“Lords of the Night,” or Acompañados, in, 364;
lords of the day-hours in, 365;
festivals included in the, 366;
recapitulation of information regarding the, 366;
solar calendar and the, 367;
 names of the years, 368;
the calendar-round, 368–9;
the nemontemi, 369–70;
Venus period and the, 370;
bibliography of the, 373

Tonatiuh, the Sun-god, 300 ff.;

aspect and insignia of, 300–2;
wall-paintings [388]of, 302;
myths of, 302–3;
festivals of, 303;
nature and status, 303–5

Totec tlamacasque, the high-priest of Uitzilopochtli, 81

Totemism, 17–18

Totochtin, an octli-god, 298;

aspect and insignia, 298–9;
nature and status, 299

Totoltecatl, an octli-god, 297;

aspect and insignia, 297

Toxcatl festival, 97 ff.

Tozozontli festival, 248–9

Trade wind, Quetzalcoatl as the, 138 ff.

Tree of the East, 58;

of the North, 58;
of the South, 59;
of the West, 58

Tzitzimimê, demons of the air, 324 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 325;
myths of, 325;
nature and status, 325–6

[Contents]

Uei tecuilhuitl, festival of, 221

Uei Tozoztli, festival of, 171

Uitzilopochtli, a deity, 16, 17, 66 ff.;

aspect and insignia of, 66–9;
festivals of, 69–73, 73–80;
hymns to, 80–81;
priesthood of, 81;
temple of, 81–3;
nature and status of, 83–91;
etymology of the name, 83–5

Uitzlampa, region of the earth, 60

Uixtociuatl, 262 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 262;
festivals, 262–3;
nature and status, 263

Universe, Mexican conception of the, 57 ff.

[Contents]

Variants of the great gods, 336 ff.

Venus period, the, 370

Votan, the Central American name of Quetzalcoatl, 133 ff.

[Contents]

“Week” gods, 363

Witches, Mexican, 168–9, 355–8

World, regions of the, 57 ff.

[Contents]

Xalaquia, a sacrificed virgin, 13–14

Xilonen, a grain-deity, 221;

aspect and insignia, 221;
festival, 221;
priesthood, 222;
nature and status, 222–3

Xipe Totec, a deity, 203;

aspect and insignia, 204–8;
masks, vases, etc., of, 206;
statues, 206–7;
elements of his insignia, 207–8;
myths, 208–12;
song of, 211;
festival of, 212–7;
temples of, 217–8;
priesthood of, 218;
nature and status of, 218–20

Xiuhtecutli, a fire-god, 268 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 268–70;
myths of, 271–3;
festivals of, 273–8;
temple of, 278;
priesthood of, 278;
nature and status of, 278

Xochicalco, pyramid of, 194

Xochilhuitl, festival of, 201–2

Xochipilli, a deity, 176, 177, 178, see Macuilxochitl-Xochipilli

Xochiquetzal, a goddess, 187 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 187–9;
pottery figures of, 189;
myths of, 189–92;
festivals of, 192–4;
temples of, 194;
nature and status, 194

Xochtecatl, mountain of, 194–195

Xocohuetzi, festival of, 273

Xolotl, a deity, 344 ff.;

aspect and insignia, 344–6;
wall-paintings of, 346;
pottery figures of, 346–7;
myths of, 347–8;
nature and status of, 348–9

[Contents]

Yacatecutli, a deity, 340 ff.

Yappan, a hermit, myth of, 191–2

Yzpuzteque, a god of the Underworld, 63

[Contents]

Zapotlantenan, a goddess, 228;

aspect and insignia, 228;
priesthood, 228–9;
nature and status, 229

[Contents]

Printed in Great Britain by Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld.,

London and Aylesbury.
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Metadata

Title: The gods of Mexico

Author: Lewis Spence (1874– Info
1955) https://viaf.org/viaf/76461360/
File generation date: 2023-08-27 19:20:54
UTC
Language: English
Original publication 1923
date:

Revision History

2023-07-23 Started.

Corrections

The following corrections have been applied to the text:

Page Source Correction Edit

distance
ix Americaine Américaine 1/0
x, 139,
373, 380 [Not in source] , 1
xi . [Deleted] 1
1, 323 connexions connections 2
Passim. connexion connection 2
21, 121,
208, 388 [Not in source] . 1
33 understanded understood 4
39 that than 1
45 Mimizcoa Mimixcoa 1
50 sun age 3
61 Tlauizcalpan-
tecutli Tlauizcalpantecutli 1
72 sacrified sacrificed 1
82 Pallisado Palisado 1
82 Pallissado Palisado 2
127 Chichemacatl Chichemecatl 1
146 torquoises turquoises 1
150, 374 . , 1
162 Axtec Aztec 1
163 Vaticanns Vaticanus 1
196 . : 1
211 Uber Über 1/0
224 Cordex Codex 1
248 firstfruits first fruits 1
255 Popocatapetl Popocatepetl 1
258 hieroplyph hieroglyph 1
262 these those 1
272 Xuihtecutli Xiuhtecutli 2
279, 306 , . 1
280 Feuergotter Feuergötter 1/0
280 Verstandniss Verständnis 2/1
280 Mittelungen Mittheilungen 2
287 [Not in source] ” 1
296 : .— 2
338 Yztlacoliuhqui Ytzlacoliuhqui 2
348 Beitrage Beiträge 1/0
361 quiauhitl quiauitl 1
361 quauhitl quauhtli 2
371 fur für 1/0
374 Anales Annales 1
374 Munon Muñon 1/0
374 a à 1/0
375 Cristophe Christophe 1
376 Desiré Désiré 1/0
376 fur. für 2/1
376 verhand. Verhand. 1
376 Galérie Galerie 1/0
378 sprach Sprach- 2
379 Keene Keane 1
380 Oriental Orientale 1
381 Mixteco-
zapoteques Mixteco-zapotèques 1 / 0
381 arte-mexicano arte mexicana 2
386 ; , 1
387 Teteô Teteo 1/0
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