3.

4-OSI Reference Model

• OSI Reference Model - internationally standardised
network architecture.
• OSI = Open Systems Interconnection: deals with open
systems, i.e. systems open for communications with
other systems.
• Specified in ISO 7498.
• Model has 7 layers.
 7-Layer OSI Model
Layer 7 Application Layer • Layers 1-4 relate to
communications technology.
Layer 6 Presentation Layer
• Layers 5-7 relate to user
Layer 5 Session Layer applications.
Layer 4 Transport Layer

Layer 3 Network Layer

Layer 2 Data Link Layer

Layer 1 Physical Layer

Communications subnet boundary

 Layer 1: Physical Layer
• Transmits bits from one computer to another
• Regulates the transmission of a stream of bits over a physical
medium.
• Defines how the cable is attached to the network adapter and
what transmission technique is used to send data over the cable.
• The definition of 0 and 1, e.g. how many volts represents a 1, and how
long a bit lasts?
• Whether the channel is simplex or duplex?
• How many pins a connector has, and what the function of each pin is?
Design Issues in Physical Layer :
•The physical layer is basically concerned with transmitting
raw bits over a communication channel.

•Mainly the design issues here deal with electrical,

mechanical, timing interfaces, and the physical transmission
medium, which lies below the physical layer.

•Design issue has to do with making sure that when 1 bit send
from one side, it is received 1 bit by other side also not as a 0
bit.
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
• Packages raw bits from the Physical layer into frames
(logical, structured packets for data).
• Provides reliable transmission of frames
• It waits for an acknowledgment from the receiving
computer.
• Retransmits frames for which acknowledgement not
received
The data link layer is divided into two sub-layers :

1.Logical Link Control Sub-layer (LLC) –

Provides the logic for the data link , Thus it controls the synchronization , flow control ,
and error checking functions of the data link layer. Functions are –
1. (i) Error Recovery.
2. (ii) It performs the flow control operations.
3. (iii) User addressing.

2.Media Access Control Sub-layer (MAC) –

It is the second sub-layer of data-link layer. It controls the flow and multiplexing for
transmission medium. Transmission of data packets is controlled by this layer. This
layer is responsible for sending the data over the network interface card.
Functions are –
(i) To perform the control of access to media.
(ii) It performs the unique addressing to stations directly connected to LAN.
(iii) Detection of errors.
Design issues with data link layer are :

1.Services provided to the network layer –

The data link layer act as a service interface to the network layer. The principle service is
transferring data from network layer on sending machine to the network layer on destination
machine. This transfer also takes place via DLL (Dynamic Link Library).

2.Frame synchronization –
The source machine sends data in the form of blocks called frames to the destination machine.
The starting and ending of each frame should be identified so that the frame can be recognized
by the destination machine

3.Flow control –
Flow control is done to prevent the flow of data frame at the receiver end. The source machine
must not send data frames at a rate faster than the capacity of destination machine to accept
them.

4.Error control –
Error control is done to prevent duplication of frames. The errors introduced during transmission
from source to destination machines must be detected and corrected at the destination machine.
 Layer 3: Network Layer
• Manages addressing/routing of data within the subnet
• Addresses messages and translates logical addresses and names
into physical addresses.
• Determines the route from the source to the destination computer
• Manages traffic problems, such as switching, routing, and
controlling the congestion of data packets.
• Routing can be:
• Based on static tables
• determined at start of each session
• Individually determined for each packet, reflecting the current network
load.
•Functions of Network Layer

•Addressing
Maintains the address at the frame header of both source and destination and performs
addressing to detect various devices in network.

•Packeting
This is performed by Internet Protocol. The network layer converts the packets from its
upper layer.

•Routing
It is the most important functionality. The network layer chooses the most relevant and
best path for the data transmission from source to destination.

•Inter-networking
It works to deliver a logical connection across multiple devices.
Network layer design issues:
1. Store and Forward packet switching:
2. Services provided to Transport Layer:
Connectionless – The routing and insertion of packets into subnet is
done individually. No added setup is required.
Connection-Oriented – Subnet must offer reliable service and all the
packets must be transmitted over a single route.
3. Implementation of Connectionless Service
4. Implementation of Connection Oriented service
It can be done in either two ways :
• Circuit Switched Connection – A dedicated physical path or a circuit is
established between the communicating nodes and then data stream is
transferred.
• Virtual Circuit Switched Connection –
 Layer 4: Transport Layer
• Manages transmission packets
• Repackages long messages when necessary into small
packets for transmission
• Reassembles packets in correct order to get the original
message.
• Handles error recognition and recovery.
• Transport layer at receiving acknowledges packet delivery.
• Resends missing packets
•Connection Control: It includes 2 types:
•Connectionless Transport Layer : Each segment is considered as an
independent packet and delivered to the transport layer at the destination
machine.
•Connection Oriented Transport Layer : Before delivering packets,
connection is made with transport layer at the destination machine.
Design Issues with Transport Layer

•Accepting data from Session layer, split it into segments and

send to the network layer

•Ensure correct delivery of data with efficiency.

•Isolate upper layers from the technological changes.

•Error control and flow control.

 Layer 5: Session Layer
• Allows two applications on different computers to
establish, use, and end a session.
• e.g. file transfer, remote login
• Establishes dialog control
• Regulates which side transmits, plus when and how
long it transmits.
• Performs token management and synchronization.
Managing Tokens –
The communicating systems in a network try to perform some critical
operations and it is Session Layer
which prevents collisions which might occur while performing these
operations which would otherwise result in a loss.
Design Issues with Session Layer :

1.Establish sessions between machines –

The establishment of session between machines is an important
service provided by session layer. This session is responsible for
creating a dialog between connected machines.
2. Enhanced Services –
Certain services such as checkpoints and manangement of tokens are
the key features of session layer and thus it becomes necessary to
keep enhancing these features during the layer’s design.
3. To help in Token management and Synchronization –
The session layer plays an important role in preventing collision of
several critical operation as well as ensuring better data transfer over
network by establishing synchronization points at specific intervals.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
• Related to representation of transmitted data
• Translates different data representations from the
Application layer into uniform standard format
• Providing services for secure efficient data
transmission
• e.g. data encryption, and data compression.
Design issues with Presentation Layer :

1.Standard way of encoding data –

The presentation layer follows a standard way to encode data
when it needs to be transmitted.
2. Maintaining the Syntax and Semantics of distributed
information –
The presentation layer manages and maintains the syntax as well
as logic and meaning of the information that is distributed.
3. Standard Encoding on the wire –
The data structures that are defined to be exchanged need to be
abstract along with the standard encoding to be used “on the
wire”.
 Layer 7: Application Layer
• Level at which applications access network services.
• Represents services that directly support software
applications for file transfers, database access, and
electronic mail etc.
Directory Services: This layer provides access for global information about various services.
Design Issues with Application Layer
There are commonly reoccurring problems that occur in the
design and implementation of Application Layer protocols and
can be addressed by patterns from several different pattern
languages:

•Pattern Language for Application-level Communication Protocols

•Service Design Patterns

•Patterns of Enterprise Application Architecture

•Pattern-Oriented Software Architecture

 Services in the OSI Model
• In OSI model, each layer provide services to layer
above, and ‘consumes’ services provided by layer
below.
• Active elements in a layer called entities.
• Entities in same layer in different machines called
peer entities.
 Layering Principles
N+1
PDU

(N+1) Entity Layer N+1 protocol (N+1) Entity

Service User Service User
Layer N Service
SDU
Access Point (SAP)
(N) Entity Layer N protocol (N) Entity
Service Provider Service Provider

N N
PDU PDU
PDU - Protocol Data Unit
SDU - Service Data Unit

• Layer N provides service to layer N+1

 Connections
• Layers can offer connection-oriented or
connectionless services.
• Connection-oriented like telephone
system.
• Connectionless like postal system.
• Each service has an associated Quality-of-
service (e.g. reliable or unreliable).
 Reliability
• Reliable services never lose/corrupt data.
• Reliable service costs more.
• Typical application for reliable service is file
transfer.
• Typical application not needing reliable service is
voice traffic.
• Not all applications need connections.