第八章 活动星系

(Chapter 25)

§8.1 活动星系与活动星系核
§8.2 引力透镜和视超光速运动
§8.3 活动星系核的理论模型
 §8.1 活动星系与活动星系核

1. Signs of activity
绝大部分星系是正常星系，但也有部分星系表
现出强烈的活动性，称为活动星系 (active
galaxies)。在观测上分为下面几种：
Radio galaxies 射电星系
Seyfert galaxies 赛弗特星系
BL Lac objects 蝎虎天体
Quasars 类星体
 (1) High overall luminosities

X-ray Optical Radio

luminosity luminosity luminosity
Milky Way 1 1 1
Radio galaxies 100-5,000 2 2,000-2×106

Seyfert galaxies 300-7×104 2 20-2×106

Quasars (3C 273) 2.5×106 250 6×106
Bright extragalactic radio sources
 Normal galaxies

Optical X-ray
Quasar PKS 1127-145
(2) Non-thermal radiation

Normal galaxies
z Black body radiation with peak
energy at optical wavelength
z Radiation mainly comes from
stars inside galaxies.
Active galaxies
z non-stellar radiation
z thermal (infrared) radiation +
non-thermal radiation, with
peak energy at far-infrared
wavelength.
 Synchrotron Radiation 同步加速辐射
Continuum radiation from high-speed charged
particles, such as electrons, as they are accelerated
in a strong magnetic field.
Radiation power ~γ2B2β2, whereβ= v/c,
γ= (1-β2)-1/2.
Beamed radiation along the particle’s motion with
half-opening angleα≈1/γ.
Power-law spectrum
(3) Unusual structure
Bright nucleus, jets and irregular appearance
(4) High, rapid variability
Variability timescale: several days to one year
→the size of the power source is smaller than 1 light
year.
(5) Strong emission lines and polarized
emission
 Statistics of Active Galaxies

Only 2% of all galaxies are active galaxies, Bright

active galaxies are more common at great distances
Most active galaxies are ellipticals.
The high luminosities of active galaxies implies a
short lifetime, so active galaxies must represent an
passing stage in the evolution of normal galaxies,
rather than form a separate class of galaxy.
2. Radio Galaxies

Active galaxies that emit most of their energy in the

radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Historical perspective
In 1960s, British radio astronomers finished
compiling the 3rd Cambridge (3C) catalog of radio
sources.
Many bright radio sources in the catalog were found
to have optical counterparts (galaxies).
They are both point-like and extended, and are
called radio galaxies.
Cygnus A with two-lobe structure
(1) Characteristics
Most active galaxies are radio galaxies.
Radio luminosities ( ~1042-1045 ergs-1 ) much
higher than those of normal galaxies ( ~1037-
1039 ergs-1 ).
Non-thermal synchrotron radiation.
Most of them are elliptical galaxies, usually
the brightest, largest ones in galaxy clusters.
Appearance
The radio images of compact
radio galaxies are comparable
or slightly smaller than their
optical images. They are also
called core-halo type. Most of M86
the radio emission comes
form the nucleus.
Some radio galaxies are much
extended, showing double
lobe structure (as long as 1
Mpc). The radio energy is
released from the radio lobes.
Centaurus A
 M87
The giant elliptical galaxy in Virgo cluster.
The first galaxy found to have jets.
The jet is about 2 kpc long and is made up of a series of
distinct “blobs”.
 Centaurus A (NGC 5128)

射电像 ：双瓣结构

光学像：尘埃带
NGC 1265: Head-Tail Radio galaxy
0313-192: The Wrong Spiral Galaxy
(2) Theoretical Model

Energy is fired out from

the nucleus in the form
of narrow, high-speed
jets of matter that travel
into the intergalactic
medium and become
extended lobes far from
the center of the galaxy.
Radio emission is
produced by high-speed
electrons in magnetic
fields through
synchrotron radiation.
Movement of radio galaxies cause different
appearance.
The system may appear to us as either a lobe
or a core–halo radio galaxy, depending on
our location with respect to the jets and lobes.
3. Seyfert Galaxies
Named after Carl Seyfert, who discovered them in
1943.
Their most important characteristics are a bright,
pointlike central nucleus and a spectrum showing
broad emission lines.

亮核 星系
NGC 4151的逐
次深度曝光像
NGC 1566
Almost all Seyfert galaxies are spirals. About 1% of
all bright spiral galaxies are Seyfert galaxies.
The luminosities of their nuclei are about ~1043-1045
ergs-1, of the same order as all the rest of the galaxy.

NGC 5728的地面和空间观测
Comparison: Seyfert Galaxies and Star Burst
Galaxies

Seyfert galaxy Starburst Galaxy M94

NGC 7742
On the basis of spectrum,
Seyfert galaxies are
classified as type I or II.
In a type I spectrum, the
allowed lines are broad
(corresponding to a
velocity of 104 kms-1 ),
and much broader than
the forbidden lines.

赛弗特星系与正常
星系发射线的比较
In type II, all allowed and forbidden lines are similar
and narrower (≤103 kms-1) .

Seyfert II
Seyfert I
The reason for this difference is thought to be that the
allowed lines are formed in denser gas near the
nucleus (broad line region), and the forbidden lines in
more diffuse gas further out (narrow line region).
In type II Seyfert galaxies the denser gas is missing or
obscured.
Brightness varies on timescale of months
→ compact nucleus

3C 84的射电变化
The activity of some Seyfert galaxies may result from
galaxy interactions.

马卡良315
4. BL Lac Objects, Blazars

原型：蝎虎座BL （1929
年发现）。恒星状，有
暗弱包层。
Non-thermal continuum with very weak or no
emission lines.
Most energy emitted inγ-ray, strong radio,
infrared radiation.
Usually elliptical galaxies.

3C 279
Rapid and violent variability within days to
months.
5. Quasars, QSOs

Optically appear almost

as point sources.
Quasars – quasi-stellar
radio sources
QSOs – quasi-stellar
objects.
The first quasar 3C273 with very strong,
wide, unknown emission lines
In 1963 Maarten Schmidt interpreted the
optical emission lines of 3C273 as
hydrogen Balmer lines redshifted by
16%. Maarten Schmidt

HST+VLA
通常认为这种红移是由宇宙膨
胀的多普勒效应引起。
类星体3C 273的红移表明它
的退行速度达到4.4×104
kms-1 →距离~660 Mpc，光
度5×1012 L⊙.
目前观测到的类星体最大红移
达到 ~6-7。
因此类星体是人们观测到的最
遥远、最年老、也是辐射功率
最大的河外天体。
High-z Quasars Discovered in Sloan Digital Sky Survey

Z = 5.00 Z = 4.90 Z = 4.75

大部分连续辐射位于红外波段。
光变时标为几天-几周，最短至几小时。

类星体PKS 0528+134的γ射线辐射变化
有些类星体有喷流，射电源通常有双瓣结构。

3C 273长达30 kpc的喷流 2300-189的射电喷流和双瓣

The Most Distant X-Ray Jet from Quasar
GB1508+5714
Hubble空间望远镜发现类星体位于星系团中，
并观测到了类星体周围的雾状结构，它们是来
自宿主星系中的恒星辐射。
因此类星体实际上是活动星系核。与类星体相
比，它们的宿主星系十分黯淡。
 QUASAR ABSORPTION LINES
In addition to their own strongly redshifted spectra, many
quasars also show additional “forest” of absorption lines starting
at the wavelength of the quasar’s own Lyman-alpha emission
line and extending to shorter wavelengths.
These lines are interpreted as Lyman-alpha absorption features
produced by gas clouds in foreground structures (galaxies,
clusters, and so on) along the line of sight.

Lyman-Alpha Forest in the spectrum of quasar QSO 1422 + 2309

 活动星系主要特征的比较

射电星系 赛弗特星系 蝎虎天体 类星体

光学形状 椭圆 旋涡 不明 类星
射电形状 喷流与双瓣 核区有弱辐射 核区有弱辐射 喷流与双瓣
连续谱 非热辐射 + 热辐射
发射线 宽 宽与窄 无（弱） 宽与窄
谱线红移量 0.01-0.3 0.003-0.06 0.05-0.4 0.2->4
吸收线来源 恒星 无 无（？） 前景气体云
 §8.2 引力透镜和视超光速运动
1. Gravitational Lensing 引力透镜

双类星体AC114具有完全相同的谱与红移
它们实际上是同一类星体的引力透镜表现。
引力透镜——引力场源对位于其后的背景天体（如类星
体）发出的电磁辐射所产生的会聚或多重成像效应。
the deflection and focusing of light from a background
object by the gravity of some foreground body
 4GM
α=
bc 2

α (θ − β )
=
Ds Dds
Dds
→ β =θ − α ( Ddθ )
Ds
Observational Features of Gravitational Lensing

The lensing tends to amplify the light of the quasar,

making it easier to observe.
There is a time delay, ranging from several days to
several years, between different images.
Microlensing — lensing by individual stars in the
foreground galaxy — can cause large fluctuations in
a quasar’s brightness.
When the distant object, the
lens galaxy and the Earth are
perfectly aligned, the lens
galaxy formed a perfect ring-like
image known as an Einstein
Ring. Otherwise, the lens
galaxy forms multiple images of
the distant object.
星系团中由引力透镜引起的弧形图案
Einstein十字：引力透镜引起的四重像
Time Delay in Lensing Images of Quasar RX
J0911.4+0511

Differences in the variation

in each separate image can
be used to tell important
information about the
workings of gravity and the
expansion of the universe.
通过研究星系团对背景类星体或星系产生的引力透镜
现象，可以得到星系团内的（暗）物质分布和宇宙大
尺度结构的信息。

星系团CL0024及背景星系 星系团CL0024中的物质分布
的引力透镜多重像
Abell 1835 IR1916, The Farthest Known Galaxy
with a Redshift of 10
2. 视超光速运动 (Superluminal Motion)
天体的抛射物似乎以超光速运动的现象

如对类星体3C279的观测
发现，它的喷流中的团块
运动速度接近达到光速的
4倍。
视超光速现象并不表明天体的运动速度是超光速的，
而是由观测几何效应引起。当运动速度为v＝βc的天
体抛射物的运动方向与观测者的视线方向夹角为φ，
其视横向速度为

β c sin φ
v⊥ = Observer
1 − β cos φ
 §8.3 活动星系核的理论模型

1. 活动星系核的统一模型
活动星系的特征
z 高光度
z 非热连续辐射
z 快速光变 Æ 辐射源大小 < 1 pc
z 特殊形态（亮核、喷流）
z 宽发射线 Æ辐射源内气体高速运动

Energy source – accreting supermassive black holes

Implications from X-ray binaries
Black hole accretion Æ jets
理论模型
星系的活动性源于星系的核心区域（活动星系核）超
大质量（106-1010 M⊙）的黑洞，黑洞的物质吸积提供
了活动星系的能源。
2GM
RS = 2 = 10－4 pc (M/109M⊙)
c
L = ηM& c 2 → M& ~1 M⊙ yr-1(L/6×1045 ergs-1)(η/0.1)-1

黑洞吸积的物质来自由于星系核心附近的恒星碰撞和
星系间碰撞而剥离出的气体。
RX J1242-11
 Why Supermassive Black Holes?

Eddington光度：稳定吸积天体的最大光度

GMmp Lσ T
=
r2 4π r 2
LEdd = 1.3×1038 (M/M⊙) ergs-1
由 Lobs ≤ LEdd , 吸积天体的质量
M ≥107 M⊙(Lobs /1045 ergs-1 )
吸积气体在黑洞周围形成吸积盘
（大小约几光天），在螺旋接近
黑洞的过程中受到加热，产生巨
大的能量。
黑洞在吸积过程中可能在黑洞的
转动轴方向形成双极喷流，喷流
在远离核区处与星系际物质相互
作用形成射电瓣。
 Basic Ingredients

An AGN consists of the following

basic ingredients
z Black hole (power source)
z Accretion disk (UV/X-ray)
z Jets (radio)
z BLR (~1lm, ~104 kms-1 )
z NLR (~10-104 ly, ~104 kms-1 )
z Molecular (dusty) torus (IR)
(~10-103 ly, feeding and
obscuration)
z Host galaxy (feeding)
深入星系核
利用Fe线研究黑洞性质
X-ray glow of iron gas
close to the event horizon
of the black hole in MCG-
6-30-15
The iron spectrum has
extremely broad "spikes,"
the bulk of the light must
emanate from very close
to the black hole.
在不同方向观测，活动星系核表现出不同的特征

α 中 心 宽发射 窄发射 喷流 射电瓣 观测天体

黑洞 线 区 线 区

~90 ° 不可 不可见 可见 可见(?) 可见(?) II型赛弗特星系

见 或窄线射电星系

中等 可见 可见 部分 可见(?) 可见(?) 类星体或I型赛弗

可见 特星系

~0° 可见 不可见 不可见 不可见 不可见 视超光速类星体

或蝎虎座BL天体

α为观测者视线与吸积盘对称轴夹角
活动星系核的统一模型
2. 星系中的超大质量黑洞观测证据

观测方法
z Stellar and gas kinematics

z Megamasers

z Reverberation mapping

高分辨率观测 → 核区大小；运动 → 核区质量

质量/空间尺度比 →黑洞？
结论：在大多数活动星系和正常星系的核心存在超大
质量黑洞。
 室女星系团中巨椭圆星系NGC 4261中的吸积盘

100 pc

60 kpc
巨椭圆星系M 87的核心区域中快速旋转的吸积盘
旋转气体，与喷流方向垂直

喷流

核
M~3×109M⊙
星系M 84核心区域的气体运动
R ~26 ly V~400 km s-1 ÆM~3×108M⊙
NGC 4258的水脉泽辐射

利用VLBI在旋涡星系
NGC 4258的核心 0.2 pc
范围内发现分子云的水脉
泽辐射。
不同云块的谱线位移表明
它们的运动遵循Kepler定
律。
由运动速度推测在中心可
能存在一个质量超过
4×107M⊙的黑洞。
Super Massive Black Holes in Galactic Nuclei
3. 活动星系的演化
类星体的大红移表明它们的距离很远，因此在宇宙早
期类星体的数目较多，而正常星系相对较少。
→星系形成初期时可能都表现为类星体。

类星体PG 0052+251
 活动星系的演化
(1) 类星体是宇宙演化早期的
天体。
(2) 在类星体、活动星系和正
常星系的核心都有证据表
明存在超大质量的黑洞。
(3) 从类星体到活动星系到正
常星系，星系的活动性逐
渐降低。
因此，一种可能的演化路 活动性降低
径是：
可供消耗的原料减少
宇宙诞生后约10亿年内，星系开始形成
→ 星系核心坍缩、相互碰撞或快速恒星形成导致中心产
生超大质量黑洞。

Iron Emission in Z~6 QSOs

 随着黑洞周围的物质逐渐耗
黑洞的快速吸积使得核心异常 尽，核心的光度逐渐减小，
明亮，远远超过星系其它部 但星系仍处于活动状态（活
分，成为类星体。 动星系），星系的热辐射开
始变得越来越重要。

A Primordial Quasar
当核心活动停止，星系成为正 星系间的相互作用可以为
常星系。星系的辐射主要来自 其中的黑洞提供新鲜 原
恒星的热辐射。 料，触发近星系的活动现
象。