Download the Full Version of textbook for Fast Typing at textbookfull.

com

Multivariable Advanced Calculus Kenneth L. Kuttler

https://textbookfull.com/product/multivariable-advanced-
calculus-kenneth-l-kuttler/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWNLOAD NOW

Download More textbook Instantly Today - Get Yours Now at textbookfull.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

Multivariable advanced calculus Kuttler K

https://textbookfull.com/product/multivariable-advanced-calculus-
kuttler-k/

textboxfull.com

Math 302 Lecture Notes linear algebra and multivariable

calculus Kenneth L. Kuttler

https://textbookfull.com/product/math-302-lecture-notes-linear-
algebra-and-multivariable-calculus-kenneth-l-kuttler/

textboxfull.com

One Variable Advanced Calculus Kenneth Kuttler

https://textbookfull.com/product/one-variable-advanced-calculus-
kenneth-kuttler/

textboxfull.com

Calculus of Real and Complex Variables Kenneth Kuttler

https://textbookfull.com/product/calculus-of-real-and-complex-
variables-kenneth-kuttler/

textboxfull.com
Calculus of One and Many Variables Kenneth Kuttler

https://textbookfull.com/product/calculus-of-one-and-many-variables-
kenneth-kuttler/

textboxfull.com

Engineering Math Kenneth Kuttler

https://textbookfull.com/product/engineering-math-kenneth-kuttler/

textboxfull.com

Math 302 Lecture Notes Kenneth Kuttler

https://textbookfull.com/product/math-302-lecture-notes-kenneth-
kuttler/

textboxfull.com

Multivariable calculus 8th Edition Stewart

https://textbookfull.com/product/multivariable-calculus-8th-edition-
stewart/

textboxfull.com

Multivariable Calculus with MATLAB With Applications to

Geometry and Physics Ronald L. Lipsman

https://textbookfull.com/product/multivariable-calculus-with-matlab-
with-applications-to-geometry-and-physics-ronald-l-lipsman/

textboxfull.com
Multivariable Advanced Calculus

Kenneth Kuttler

February 7, 2016
2
Contents

1 Introduction 9

2 Some Fundamental Concepts 11

2.1 Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.2 The Schroder Bernstein Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.3 Equivalence Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 lim sup And lim inf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Double Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 Basic Linear Algebra 25

3.1 Algebra in Fn , Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Subspaces Spans And Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3 Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4 Block Multiplication Of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.5 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.5.1 The Determinant Of A Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.5.2 The Determinant Of A Linear Transformation . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.6 Eigenvalues And Eigenvectors Of Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . 51
3.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.8 Inner Product And Normed Linear Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.8.1 The Inner Product In Fn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.8.2 General Inner Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.8.3 Normed Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.8.4 The p Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.8.5 Orthonormal Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.8.6 The Adjoint Of A Linear Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.8.7 Schur’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.9 Polar Decompositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

4 Sequences 73
4.1 Vector Valued Sequences And Their Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2 Sequential Compactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.3 Closed And Open Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.4 Cauchy Sequences And Completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.5 Shrinking Diameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

3
4 CONTENTS

5 Continuous Functions 87
5.1 Continuity And The Limit Of A Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.2 The Extreme Values Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.3 Connected Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.4 Uniform Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.5 Sequences And Series Of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.6 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.7 Sequences Of Polynomials, Weierstrass Approximation . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.7.1 The Tietze Extension Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.8 The Operator Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.9 Ascoli Arzela Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

6 The Derivative 123

6.1 Limits Of A Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.2 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.3 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.4 The Matrix Of The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.5 A Mean Value Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.6 Existence Of The Derivative, C 1 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.7 Higher Order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.8 C k Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.8.1 Some Standard Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.9 The Derivative And The Cartesian Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.10 Mixed Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.11 Implicit Function Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.11.1 More Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.11.2 The Case Of Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.12 Taylor’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.12.1 Second Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.13 The Method Of Lagrange Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.14 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

7 Measures And Measurable Functions 159

7.1 Compact Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.2 An Outer Measure On P (R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.3 General Outer Measures And Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.3.1 Measures And Measure Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.4 The Borel Sets, Regular Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.4.1 Definition of Regular Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.4.2 The Borel Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.4.3 Borel Sets And Regularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.5 Measures And Outer Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.5.1 Measures From Outer Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.5.2 Completion Of Measure Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.6 One Dimensional Lebesgue Stieltjes Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.7 Measurable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
7.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
CONTENTS 5

8 The Abstract Lebesgue Integral 187

8.1 Definition For Nonnegative Measurable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.1.1 Riemann Integrals For Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.1.2 The Lebesgue Integral For Nonnegative Functions . . . . . . . . 188
8.2 The Lebesgue Integral For Nonnegative Simple Functions . . . . . . . . 189
8.3 The Monotone Convergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.4 Other Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.5 Fatou’s Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.6 The Righteous Algebraic Desires Of The Lebesgue Integral . . . . . . . 192
8.7 The Lebesgue Integral, L1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.8 Approximation With Simple Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.9 The Dominated Convergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.10 Approximation With Cc (Y ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.11 The One Dimensional Lebesgue Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

9 The Lebesgue Integral For Functions Of p Variables 213

9.1 π Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
9.2 p Dimensional Lebesgue Measure And Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
9.2.1 Iterated Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
9.2.2 p Dimensional Lebesgue Measure And Integrals . . . . . . . . . . 215
9.2.3 Fubini’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
9.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9.4 Lebesgue Measure On Rp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9.5 Mollifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
9.6 The Vitali Covering Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.7 Vitali Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
9.8 Change Of Variables For Linear Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.9 Change Of Variables For C 1 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
9.10 Change Of Variables For Mappings Which Are Not One To One . . . . 248
9.11 Spherical Coordinates In p Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
9.12 Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
9.13 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

10 Degree Theory, An Introduction 265

10.1 Preliminary Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
10.2 Definitions And Elementary( Properties
) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
10.2.1 The Degree For C 2 Ω; Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
10.2.2 Definition Of The Degree For Continuous Functions . . . . . . . 274
10.3 Borsuk’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
10.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
10.5 The Product Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
10.6 Integration And The Degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
10.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

11 Integration Of Differential Forms 303

11.1 Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
11.2 Some Important Measure Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
11.2.1 Eggoroff’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
11.2.2 The Vitali Convergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
11.3 The Binet Cauchy Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
11.4 The Area Measure On A Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
11.5 Integration Of Differential Forms On Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
6 CONTENTS

11.5.1 The Derivative Of A Differential Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

11.6 Stoke’s Theorem And The Orientation Of ∂Ω . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
11.7 Green’s Theorem, An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
11.7.1 An Oriented Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
11.7.2 Green’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
11.8 The Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
11.9 Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
11.10Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

12 The Laplace And Poisson Equations 335

12.1 Balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
12.2 Poisson’s Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
12.2.1 Poisson’s Problem For A Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
12.2.2 Does It Work In Case f = 0? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
12.2.3 The Case Where f ̸= 0, Poisson’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
12.3 Properties Of Harmonic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
12.4 Laplace’s Equation For General Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
12.4.1 Properties Of Subharmonic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
12.4.2 Poisson’s Problem Again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

13 The Jordan Curve Theorem 359

14 Line Integrals 371

14.1 Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
14.1.1 Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
14.1.2 Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
14.2 The Line Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
14.3 Simple Closed Rectifiable Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
14.3.1 The Jordan Curve Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
14.3.2 Orientation And Green’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
14.4 Stoke’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
14.5 Interpretation And Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
14.5.1 The Geometric Description Of The Cross Product . . . . . . . . 402
14.5.2 The Box Product, Triple Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
14.5.3 A Proof Of The Distributive Law For The Cross Product . . . . 404
14.5.4 The Coordinate Description Of The Cross Product . . . . . . . . 405
14.5.5 The Integral Over A Two Dimensional Surface . . . . . . . . . . 405
14.6 Introduction To Complex Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
14.6.1 Basic Theorems, The Cauchy Riemann Equations . . . . . . . . 407
14.6.2 Contour Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
14.6.3 The Cauchy Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
14.6.4 The Cauchy Goursat Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
14.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

15 Hausdorff Measures 429

15.1 Definition Of Hausdorff Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
15.1.1 Properties Of Hausdorff Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
15.1.2 Hn And mn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
15.2 Technical Considerations∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
15.2.1 Steiner Symmetrization∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
15.2.2 The Isodiametric Inequality∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
∗
15.2.3 The Proper Value Of β (n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
∗
15.2.4 A Formula For α (n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
CONTENTS 7

15.3 Hausdorff Measure And Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442

Copyright ⃝
c 2007,
8 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Introduction

This book is directed to people who have a good understanding of the concepts of one
variable calculus including the notions of limit of a sequence and completeness of R. It
develops multivariable advanced calculus.
In order to do multivariable calculus correctly, you must first understand some linear
algebra. Therefore, a condensed course in linear algebra is presented first, emphasizing
those topics in linear algebra which are useful in analysis, not those topics which are
primarily dependent on row operations.
Many topics could be presented in greater generality than I have chosen to do. I have
also attempted to feature calculus, not topology although there are many interesting
topics from topology. This means I introduce the topology as it is needed rather than
using the possibly more efficient practice of placing it right at the beginning in more
generality than will be needed. I think it might make the topological concepts more
memorable by linking them in this way to other concepts.
After the chapter on the n dimensional Lebesgue integral, you can make a choice
between a very general treatment of integration of differential forms based on degree
theory in chapters 10 and 11 or you can follow an independent path through a proof
of a general version of Green’s theorem in the plane leading to a very good version of
Stoke’s theorem for a two dimensional surface by following Chapters 12 and 13. This
approach also leads naturally to contour integrals and complex analysis. I got this idea
from reading Apostol’s advanced calculus book. Finally, there is an introduction to
Hausdorff measures and the area formula in the last chapter.
I have avoided many advanced topics like the Radon Nikodym theorem, represen-
tation theorems, function spaces, and differentiation theory. It seems to me these are
topics for a more advanced course in real analysis. I chose to feature the Lebesgue
integral because I have gone through the theory of the Riemann integral for a function
of n variables and ended up thinking it was too fussy and that the extra abstraction of
the Lebesgue integral was worthwhile in order to avoid this fussiness. Also, it seemed
to me that this book should be in some sense “more advanced” than my calculus book
which does contain in an appendix all this fussy theory.

9
10 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2

Some Fundamental Concepts

2.1 Set Theory

2.1.1 Basic Definitions
A set is a collection of things called elements of the set. For example, the set of integers,
the collection of signed whole numbers such as 1,2,-4, etc. This set whose existence will
be assumed is denoted by Z. Other sets could be the set of people in a family or
the set of donuts in a display case at the store. Sometimes parentheses, { } specify
a set by listing the things which are in the set between the parentheses. For example
the set of integers between -1 and 2, including these numbers could be denoted as
{−1, 0, 1, 2}. The notation signifying x is an element of a set S, is written as x ∈ S.
Thus, 1 ∈ {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3}. Here are some axioms about sets. Axioms are statements
which are accepted, not proved.

1. Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements.

2. To every set, A, and to every condition S (x) there corresponds a set, B, whose
elements are exactly those elements x of A for which S (x) holds.

3. For every collection of sets there exists a set that contains all the elements that
belong to at least one set of the given collection.

4. The Cartesian product of a nonempty family of nonempty sets is nonempty.

5. If A is a set there exists a set, P (A) such that P (A) is the set of all subsets of A.
This is called the power set.

These axioms are referred to as the axiom of extension, axiom of specification, axiom
of unions, axiom of choice, and axiom of powers respectively.
It seems fairly clear you should want to believe in the axiom of extension. It is
merely saying, for example, that {1, 2, 3} = {2, 3, 1} since these two sets have the same
elements in them. Similarly, it would seem you should be able to specify a new set from
a given set using some “condition” which can be used as a test to determine whether
the element in question is in the set. For example, the set of all integers which are
multiples of 2. This set could be specified as follows.

{x ∈ Z : x = 2y for some y ∈ Z} .

In this notation, the colon is read as “such that” and in this case the condition is being
a multiple of 2.

11
12 CHAPTER 2. SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Another example of political interest, could be the set of all judges who are not
judicial activists. I think you can see this last is not a very precise condition since
there is no way to determine to everyone’s satisfaction whether a given judge is an
activist. Also, just because something is grammatically correct does not mean
it makes any sense. For example consider the following nonsense.

S = {x ∈ set of dogs : it is colder in the mountains than in the winter} .

So what is a condition?
We will leave these sorts of considerations and assume our conditions make sense.
The axiom of unions states that for any collection of sets, there is a set consisting of all
the elements in each of the sets in the collection. Of course this is also open to further
consideration. What is a collection? Maybe it would be better to say “set of sets” or,
given a set whose elements are sets there exists a set whose elements consist of exactly
those things which are elements of at least one of these sets. If S is such a set whose
elements are sets,
∪ {A : A ∈ S} or ∪ S
signify this union.
Something is in the Cartesian product of a set or “family” of sets if it consists of
a single thing taken from each set in the family. Thus (1, 2, 3) ∈ {1, 4, .2} × {1, 2, 7} ×
{4, 3, 7, 9} because it consists of exactly one element from each of the sets which are
separated by ×. Also, this is the notation for the Cartesian product of finitely many
sets. If S is a set whose elements are sets,
∏
A
A∈S

signifies the Cartesian product.

The Cartesian product is the set of choice functions, a choice function being a func-
tion which selects exactly one element of each set of S. You may think the axiom of
choice, stating that the Cartesian product of a nonempty family of nonempty sets is
nonempty, is innocuous but there was a time when many mathematicians were ready
to throw it out because it implies things which are very hard to believe, things which
never happen without the axiom of choice.
A is a subset of B, written A ⊆ B, if every element of A is also an element of B.
This can also be written as B ⊇ A. A is a proper subset of B, written A ⊂ B or B ⊃ A
if A is a subset of B but A is not equal to B, A ̸= B. A ∩ B denotes the intersection of
the two sets A and B and it means the set of elements of A which are also elements of
B. The axiom of specification shows this is a set. The empty set is the set which has
no elements in it, denoted as ∅. A ∪ B denotes the union of the two sets A and B and
it means the set of all elements which are in either of the sets. It is a set because of the
axiom of unions.
The complement of a set, (the set of things which are not in the given set ) must be
taken with respect to a given set called the universal set which is a set which contains
the one whose complement is being taken. Thus, the complement of A, denoted as AC
( or more precisely as X \ A) is a set obtained from using the axiom of specification to
write
AC ≡ {x ∈ X : x ∈ / A}
The symbol ∈ / means: “is not an element of”. Note the axiom of specification takes
place relative to a given set. Without this universal set it makes no sense to use the
axiom of specification to obtain the complement.
Words such as “all” or “there exists” are called quantifiers and they must be under-
stood relative to some given set. For example, the set of all integers larger than 3. Or
2.1. SET THEORY 13

there exists an integer larger than 7. Such statements have to do with a given set, in
this case the integers. Failure to have a reference set when quantifiers are used turns
out to be illogical even though such usage may be grammatically correct. Quantifiers
are used often enough that there are symbols for them. The symbol ∀ is read as “for
all” or “for every” and the symbol ∃ is read as “there exists”. Thus ∀∀∃∃ could mean
for every upside down A there exists a backwards E.
DeMorgan’s laws are very useful in mathematics. Let S be a set of sets each of
which is contained in some universal set, U . Then
{ } C
∪ AC : A ∈ S = (∩ {A : A ∈ S})

and
{ } C
∩ AC : A ∈ S = (∪ {A : A ∈ S}) .
These laws follow directly from the definitions. Also following directly from the defini-
tions are:
Let S be a set of sets then

B ∪ ∪ {A : A ∈ S} = ∪ {B ∪ A : A ∈ S} .

and: Let S be a set of sets show

B ∩ ∪ {A : A ∈ S} = ∪ {B ∩ A : A ∈ S} .

Unfortunately, there is no single universal set which can be used for all sets. Here is
why: Suppose there were. Call it S. Then you could consider A the set of all elements
of S which are not elements of themselves, this from the axiom of specification. If A
is an element of itself, then it fails to qualify for inclusion in A. Therefore, it must not
be an element of itself. However, if this is so, it qualifies for inclusion in A so it is an
element of itself and so this can’t be true either. Thus the most basic of conditions you
could imagine, that of being an element of, is meaningless and so allowing such a set
causes the whole theory to be meaningless. The solution is to not allow a universal set.
As mentioned by Halmos in Naive set theory, “Nothing contains everything”. Always
beware of statements involving quantifiers wherever they occur, even this one. This little
observation described above is due to Bertrand Russell and is called Russell’s paradox.

2.1.2 The Schroder Bernstein Theorem

It is very important to be able to compare the size of sets in a rational way. The most
useful theorem in this context is the Schroder Bernstein theorem which is the main
result to be presented in this section. The Cartesian product is discussed above. The
next definition reviews this and defines the concept of a function.

Definition 2.1.1 Let X and Y be sets.

X × Y ≡ {(x, y) : x ∈ X and y ∈ Y }

A relation is defined to be a subset of X × Y . A function, f, also called a mapping, is a

relation which has the property that if (x, y) and (x, y1 ) are both elements of the f , then
y = y1 . The domain of f is defined as

D (f ) ≡ {x : (x, y) ∈ f } ,

written as f : D (f ) → Y .
14 CHAPTER 2. SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

It is probably safe to say that most people do not think of functions as a type of
relation which is a subset of the Cartesian product of two sets. A function is like a
machine which takes inputs, x and makes them into a unique output, f (x). Of course,
that is what the above definition says with more precision. An ordered pair, (x, y)
which is an element of the function or mapping has an input, x and a unique output,
y,denoted as f (x) while the name of the function is f . “mapping” is often a noun
meaning function. However, it also is a verb as in “f is mapping A to B ”. That which
a function is thought of as doing is also referred to using the word “maps” as in: f maps
X to Y . However, a set of functions may be called a set of maps so this word might
also be used as the plural of a noun. There is no help for it. You just have to suffer
with this nonsense.
The following theorem which is interesting for its own sake will be used to prove the
Schroder Bernstein theorem.

Theorem 2.1.2 Let f : X → Y and g : Y → X be two functions. Then there

exist sets A, B, C, D, such that

A ∪ B = X, C ∪ D = Y, A ∩ B = ∅, C ∩ D = ∅,

f (A) = C, g (D) = B.

The following picture illustrates the conclusion of this theorem.

X Y
f
A - C = f (A)

g
B = g(D)  D

Proof: Consider the empty set, ∅ ⊆ X. If y ∈ Y \ f (∅), then g (y) ∈ / ∅ because ∅

has no elements. Also, if A, B, C, and D are as described above, A also would have this
same property that the empty set has. However, A is probably larger. Therefore, say
A0 ⊆ X satisfies P if whenever y ∈ Y \ f (A0 ) , g (y) ∈
/ A0 .

A ≡ {A0 ⊆ X : A0 satisfies P}.

Let A = ∪A. If y ∈ Y \ f (A), then for each A0 ∈ A, y ∈ Y \ f (A0 ) and so g (y) ∈

/ A0 .
Since g (y) ∈
/ A0 for all A0 ∈ A, it follows g (y) ∈
/ A. Hence A satisfies P and is the
largest subset of X which does so. Now define

C ≡ f (A) , D ≡ Y \ C, B ≡ X \ A.

It only remains to verify that g (D) = B.

Suppose x ∈ B = X \ A. Then A ∪ {x} does not satisfy P and so there exists
y ∈ Y \ f (A ∪ {x}) ⊆ D such that g (y) ∈ A ∪ {x} . But y ∈ / f (A) and so since A
satisfies P, it follows g (y) ∈
/ A. Hence g (y) = x and so x ∈ g (D) and This proves the
theorem. 

Theorem 2.1.3 (Schroder Bernstein) If f : X → Y and g : Y → X are one to

one, then there exists h : X → Y which is one to one and onto.
2.1. SET THEORY 15

Proof: Let A, B, C, D be the sets of Theorem2.1.2 and define

{
f (x) if x ∈ A
h (x) ≡
g −1 (x) if x ∈ B

Then h is the desired one to one and onto mapping.

Recall that the Cartesian product may be considered as the collection of choice
functions.

Definition 2.1.4 Let I be a set and let Xi be a set for each i ∈ I. f is a choice
function written as ∏
f∈ Xi
i∈I

if f (i) ∈ Xi for each i ∈ I.

The axiom of choice says that if Xi ̸= ∅ for each i ∈ I, for I a set, then
∏
Xi ̸= ∅.
i∈I

Sometimes the two functions, f and g are onto but not one to one. It turns out that
with the axiom of choice, a similar conclusion to the above may be obtained.

Corollary 2.1.5 If f : X → Y is onto and g : Y → X is onto, then there exists

h : X → Y which is one to one and onto.

Proof: For each y ∈ Y , f −1∏(y) ≡ {x ∈ X : f (x) = y} = ̸ ∅. Therefore, by the axiom

of choice, there exists f0−1 ∈ y∈Y f −1 (y) which is the same as saying that for each
y ∈ Y , f0−1 (y) ∈ f −1 (y). Similarly, there exists g0−1 (x) ∈ g −1 (x) for all x ∈ X. Then
f0−1 is one to one because if f0−1 (y1 ) = f0−1 (y2 ), then
( ) ( )
y1 = f f0−1 (y1 ) = f f0−1 (y2 ) = y2 .

Similarly g0−1 is one to one. Therefore, by the Schroder Bernstein theorem, there exists
h : X → Y which is one to one and onto.

Definition 2.1.6 A set S, is finite if there exists a natural number n and a

map θ which maps {1, · · · , n} one to one and onto S. S is infinite if it is not finite.
A set S, is called countable if there exists a map θ mapping N one to one and onto
S.(When θ maps a set A to a set B, this will be written as θ : A → B in the future.)
Here N ≡ {1, 2, · · · }, the natural numbers. S is at most countable if there exists a map
θ : N → S which is onto.

The property of being at most countable is often referred to as being countable

because the question of interest is normally whether one can list all elements of the set,
designating a first, second, third etc. in such a way as to give each element of the set a
natural number. The possibility that a single element of the set may be counted more
than once is often not important.

Theorem 2.1.7 If X and Y are both at most countable, then X × Y is also at

most countable. If either X or Y is countable, then X × Y is also countable.

Proof: It is given that there exists a mapping η : N → X which is onto. Define

η (i) ≡ xi and consider X as the set {x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · }. Similarly, consider Y as the set
16 CHAPTER 2. SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

{y1 , y2 , y3 , · · · }. It follows the elements of X×Y are included in the following rectangular
array.

(x1 , y1 ) (x1 , y2 ) (x1 , y3 ) ··· ← Those which have x1 in first slot.

(x2 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 ) (x2 , y3 ) ··· ← Those which have x2 in first slot.
(x3 , y1 ) (x3 , y2 ) (x3 , y3 ) ··· ← Those which have x3 in first slot. .
.. .. .. ..
. . . .

Follow a path through this array as follows.

(x1 , y1 ) → (x1 , y2 ) (x1 , y3 ) →

↙ ↗
(x2 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 )
↓ ↗
(x3 , y1 )

Thus the first element of X × Y is (x1 , y1 ), the second element of X × Y is (x1 , y2 ), the
third element of X × Y is (x2 , y1 ) etc. This assigns a number from N to each element
of X × Y. Thus X × Y is at most countable.
It remains to show the last claim. Suppose without loss of generality that X is
countable. Then there exists α : N → X which is one to one and onto. Let β : X×Y → N
be defined by β ((x, y)) ≡ α−1 (x). Thus β is onto N. By the first part there exists a
function from N onto X × Y . Therefore, by Corollary 2.1.5, there exists a one to one
and onto mapping from X × Y to N. This proves the theorem. 

Theorem 2.1.8 If X and Y are at most countable, then X ∪ Y is at most

countable. If either X or Y are countable, then X ∪ Y is countable.

Proof: As in the preceding theorem,

X = {x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · }

and
Y = {y1 , y2 , y3 , · · · } .
Consider the following array consisting of X ∪ Y and path through it.

x1 → x2 x3 →
↙ ↗
y1 → y2

Thus the first element of X ∪ Y is x1 , the second is x2 the third is y1 the fourth is y2
etc.
Consider the second claim. By the first part, there is a map from N onto X × Y .
Suppose without loss of generality that X is countable and α : N → X is one to one and
onto. Then define β (y) ≡ 1, for all y ∈ Y ,and β (x) ≡ α−1 (x). Thus, β maps X × Y
onto N and this shows there exist two onto maps, one mapping X ∪ Y onto N and the
other mapping N onto X ∪ Y . Then Corollary 2.1.5 yields the conclusion. This proves
the theorem. 

2.1.3 Equivalence Relations

There are many ways to compare elements of a set other than to say two elements are
equal or the same. For example, in the set of people let two people be equivalent if they
2.2. LIM SUP AND LIM INF 17

have the same weight. This would not be saying they were the same person, just that
they weighed the same. Often such relations involve considering one characteristic of
the elements of a set and then saying the two elements are equivalent if they are the
same as far as the given characteristic is concerned.

Definition 2.1.9 Let S be a set. ∼ is an equivalence relation on S if it satisfies

the following axioms.

1. x ∼ x for all x ∈ S. (Reflexive)

2. If x ∼ y then y ∼ x. (Symmetric)

3. If x ∼ y and y ∼ z, then x ∼ z. (Transitive)

Definition 2.1.10 [x] denotes the set of all elements of S which are equivalent
to x and [x] is called the equivalence class determined by x or just the equivalence class
of x.

With the above definition one can prove the following simple theorem.

Theorem 2.1.11 Let ∼ be an equivalence class defined on a set, S and let H

denote the set of equivalence classes. Then if [x] and [y] are two of these equivalence
classes, either x ∼ y and [x] = [y] or it is not true that x ∼ y and [x] ∩ [y] = ∅.

2.2 lim sup And lim inf

It is assumed in all that is done that R is complete. There are two ways to describe
completeness of R. One is to say that every bounded set has a least upper bound and a
greatest lower bound. The other is to say that every Cauchy sequence converges. These
two equivalent notions of completeness will be taken as given.
The symbol, F will mean either R or C. The symbol [−∞, ∞] will mean all real
numbers along with +∞ and −∞ which are points which we pretend are at the right
and left ends of the real line respectively. The inclusion of these make believe points
makes the statement of certain theorems less trouble.

Definition 2.2.1 For A ⊆ [−∞, ∞] , A ̸= ∅ sup A is defined as the least upper

bound in case A is bounded above by a real number and equals ∞ if A is not bounded
above. Similarly inf A is defined to equal the greatest lower bound in case A is bounded
below by a real number and equals −∞ in case A is not bounded below.

Lemma 2.2.2 If {An } is an increasing sequence in [−∞, ∞], then

sup {An } = lim An .
n→∞

Similarly, if {An } is decreasing, then

inf {An } = lim An .

n→∞

Proof: Let sup ({An : n ∈ N}) = r. In the first case, suppose r < ∞. Then letting
ε > 0 be given, there exists n such that An ∈ (r − ε, r]. Since {An } is increasing, it
follows if m > n, then r − ε < An ≤ Am ≤ r and so limn→∞ An = r as claimed. In
the case where r = ∞, then if a is a real number, there exists n such that An > a.
Since {Ak } is increasing, it follows that if m > n, Am > a. But this is what is meant
by limn→∞ An = ∞. The other case is that r = −∞. But in this case, An = −∞ for all
18 CHAPTER 2. SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

n and so limn→∞ An = −∞. The case where An is decreasing is entirely similar. This
proves the lemma. 
n
Sometimes the limit of a sequence does not exist. For example, if an = (−1) , then
limn→∞ an does not exist. This is because the terms of the sequence are a distance
of 1 apart. Therefore there can’t exist a single number such that all the terms of the
sequence are ultimately within 1/4 of that number. The nice thing about lim sup and
lim inf is that they always exist. First here is a simple lemma and definition.

Definition 2.2.3 Denote by [−∞, ∞] the real line along with symbols ∞ and
−∞. It is understood that ∞ is larger than every real number and −∞ is smaller
than every real number. Then if {An } is an increasing sequence of points of [−∞, ∞] ,
limn→∞ An equals ∞ if the only upper bound of the set {An } is ∞. If {An } is bounded
above by a real number, then limn→∞ An is defined in the usual way and equals the
least upper bound of {An }. If {An } is a decreasing sequence of points of [−∞, ∞] ,
limn→∞ An equals −∞ if the only lower bound of the sequence {An } is −∞. If {An } is
bounded below by a real number, then limn→∞ An is defined in the usual way and equals
the greatest lower bound of {An }. More simply, if {An } is increasing,

lim An = sup {An }

n→∞

and if {An } is decreasing then

lim An = inf {An } .

n→∞

Lemma 2.2.4 Let {an } be a sequence of real numbers and let Un ≡ sup {ak : k ≥ n} .
Then {Un } is a decreasing sequence. Also if Ln ≡ inf {ak : k ≥ n} , then {Ln } is an
increasing sequence. Therefore, limn→∞ Ln and limn→∞ Un both exist.

Proof: Let Wn be an upper bound for {ak : k ≥ n} . Then since these sets are
getting smaller, it follows that for m < n, Wm is an upper bound for {ak : k ≥ n} . In
particular if Wm = Um , then Um is an upper bound for {ak : k ≥ n} and so Um is at
least as large as Un , the least upper bound for {ak : k ≥ n} . The claim that {Ln } is
decreasing is similar. This proves the lemma. 
From the lemma, the following definition makes sense.

Definition 2.2.5 Let {an } be any sequence of points of [−∞, ∞]

lim sup an ≡ lim sup {ak : k ≥ n}

n→∞ n→∞

lim inf an ≡ lim inf {ak : k ≥ n} .

n→∞ n→∞

Theorem 2.2.6 Suppose {an } is a sequence of real numbers and that

lim sup an
n→∞

and
lim inf an
n→∞

are both real numbers. Then limn→∞ an exists if and only if

lim inf an = lim sup an

n→∞ n→∞

and in this case,

lim an = lim inf an = lim sup an .
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
2.2. LIM SUP AND LIM INF 19

Proof: First note that

sup {ak : k ≥ n} ≥ inf {ak : k ≥ n}

and so from Theorem 4.1.7,

lim sup an ≡ lim sup {ak : k ≥ n}

n→∞ n→∞

≥ lim inf {ak : k ≥ n}

n→∞
≡ lim inf an .
n→∞

Suppose first that limn→∞ an exists and is a real number. Then by Theorem 4.4.3 {an }
is a Cauchy sequence. Therefore, if ε > 0 is given, there exists N such that if m, n ≥ N,
then
|an − am | < ε/3.
From the definition of sup {ak : k ≥ N } , there exists n1 ≥ N such that

sup {ak : k ≥ N } ≤ an1 + ε/3.

Similarly, there exists n2 ≥ N such that

inf {ak : k ≥ N } ≥ an2 − ε/3.

It follows that
2ε
sup {ak : k ≥ N } − inf {ak : k ≥ N } ≤ |an1 − an2 | + < ε.
3
∞ ∞
Since the sequence, {sup {ak : k ≥ N }}N =1 is decreasing and {inf {ak : k ≥ N }}N =1 is
increasing, it follows from Theorem 4.1.7

0 ≤ lim sup {ak : k ≥ N } − lim inf {ak : k ≥ N } ≤ ε

N →∞ N →∞

Since ε is arbitrary, this shows

lim sup {ak : k ≥ N } = lim inf {ak : k ≥ N } (2.1)

N →∞ N →∞

Next suppose 2.1. Then

lim (sup {ak : k ≥ N } − inf {ak : k ≥ N }) = 0

N →∞

Since sup {ak : k ≥ N } ≥ inf {ak : k ≥ N } it follows that for every ε > 0, there exists
N such that
sup {ak : k ≥ N } − inf {ak : k ≥ N } < ε
Thus if m, n > N, then
|am − an | < ε
which means {an } is a Cauchy sequence. Since R is complete, it follows that limn→∞ an ≡
a exists. By the squeezing theorem, it follows

a = lim inf an = lim sup an

n→∞ n→∞

and This proves the theorem. 

With the above theorem, here is how to define the limit of a sequence of points in
[−∞, ∞].
20 CHAPTER 2. SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Definition 2.2.7 Let {an } be a sequence of points of [−∞, ∞] . Then limn→∞ an

exists exactly when
lim inf an = lim sup an
n→∞ n→∞

and in this case

lim an ≡ lim inf an = lim sup an .
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

The significance of lim sup and lim inf, in addition to what was just discussed, is
contained in the following theorem which follows quickly from the definition.

Theorem 2.2.8 Suppose {an } is a sequence of points of [−∞, ∞] . Let

λ = lim sup an .
n→∞

Then if b > λ, it follows there exists N such that whenever n ≥ N,

an ≤ b.

If c < λ, then an > c for infinitely many values of n. Let

γ = lim inf an .
n→∞

Then if d < γ, it follows there exists N such that whenever n ≥ N,

an ≥ d.

If e > γ, it follows an < e for infinitely many values of n.

The proof of this theorem is left as an exercise for you. It follows directly from the
definition and it is the sort of thing you must do yourself. Here is one other simple
proposition.

Proposition 2.2.9 Let limn→∞ an = a > 0. Then

lim sup an bn = a lim sup bn .
n→∞ n→∞

Proof: This follows from the definition. Let λn = sup {ak bk : k ≥ n} . For all n
large enough, an > a − ε where ε is small enough that a − ε > 0. Therefore,

λn ≥ sup {bk : k ≥ n} (a − ε)

for all n large enough. Then

lim sup an bn = lim λn ≡ lim sup an bn

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
≥ lim (sup {bk : k ≥ n} (a − ε))
n→∞
= (a − ε) lim sup bn
n→∞

Similar reasoning shows

lim sup an bn ≤ (a + ε) lim sup bn

n→∞ n→∞

Now since ε > 0 is arbitrary, the conclusion follows.

2.3. DOUBLE SERIES 21

2.3 Double Series

Sometimes it is required to consider double series which are of the form

 
∞ ∑
∑ ∞ ∞
∑ ∞
∑
ajk ≡  ajk  .
k=m j=m k=m j=m

In other words, first sum on j yielding something which depends on k and then sum
these. The major consideration for these double series is the question of when

∞ ∑
∑ ∞ ∞ ∑
∑ ∞
ajk = ajk .
k=m j=m j=m k=m

In other words, when does it make no difference which subscript is summed over first?
In the case of finite sums there is no issue here. You can always write

∑
M ∑
N ∑
N ∑
M
ajk = ajk
k=m j=m j=m k=m

because addition is commutative. However, there are limits involved with infinite sums
and the interchange in order of summation involves taking limits in a different order.
Therefore, it is not always true that it is permissible to interchange the two sums. A
general rule of thumb is this: If something involves changing the order in which two
limits are taken, you may not do it without agonizing over the question. In general,
limits foul up algebra and also introduce things which are counter intuitive. Here is an
example. This example is a little technical. It is placed here just to prove conclusively
there is a question which needs to be considered.

Example 2.3.1 Consider the following picture which depicts some of the ordered pairs
(m, n) where m, n are positive integers.
22 CHAPTER 2. SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

0 0 0 0 0 c 0 -c

0 0 0 0 c 0 -c 0

0 0 0 c 0 -c 0 0

0 0 c 0 -c 0 0 0

0 c 0 -c 0 0 0 0

b 0 -c 0 0 0 0 0

0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0

The numbers next to the point are the values of amn . You see ann = 0 for all n,
a21 = a, a12 = b, amn = c for (m, n) on the line y = 1 + x whenever m > 1, and
amn = −c for all (m, n) on the line y = x − 1 whenever m > 2.
∑∞ ∑∞ ∑∞
Then m=1 amn = a if n = 1, m=1 amn = b−c if n = 2 and if n > 2, m=1 amn =
0. Therefore,
∑∞ ∑ ∞
amn = a + b − c.
n=1 m=1
∑∞ ∑∞ ∑∞
Next observe that n=1 amn = b if m = 1, n=1 amn = a+c if m = 2, and n=1 amn =
0 if m > 2. Therefore,
∑∞ ∑ ∞
amn = b + a + c
m=1 n=1

and so the two sums are different. Moreover, you can see that by assigning different
values of a, b, and c, you can get an example for any two different numbers desired.
It turns out that if aij ≥ 0 for all i, j, then you can always interchange the order
of summation. This is shown next and is based on the following lemma. First, some
notation should be discussed.

Definition 2.3.2 Let f (a, b) ∈ [−∞, ∞] for a ∈ A and b ∈ B where A, B

are sets which means that f (a, b) is either a number, ∞, or −∞. The symbol, +∞
is interpreted as a point out at the end of the number line which is larger than every
real number. Of course there is no such number. That is why it is called ∞. The
symbol, −∞ is interpreted similarly. Then supa∈A f (a, b) means sup (Sb ) where Sb ≡
{f (a, b) : a ∈ A} .

Unlike limits, you can take the sup in different orders.

2.3. DOUBLE SERIES 23

Lemma 2.3.3 Let f (a, b) ∈ [−∞, ∞] for a ∈ A and b ∈ B where A, B are sets.
Then
sup sup f (a, b) = sup sup f (a, b) .
a∈A b∈B b∈B a∈A

Proof: Note that for all a, b, f (a, b) ≤ supb∈B supa∈A f (a, b) and therefore, for all
a, supb∈B f (a, b) ≤ supb∈B supa∈A f (a, b). Therefore,

sup sup f (a, b) ≤ sup sup f (a, b) .

a∈A b∈B b∈B a∈A

Repeat the same argument interchanging a and b, to get the conclusion of the lemma.

Theorem 2.3.4 Let aij ≥ 0. Then

∞ ∑
∑ ∞ ∞ ∑
∑ ∞
aij = aij .
i=1 j=1 j=1 i=1

Proof: First note there is no trouble in defining these sums because the aij are all
nonnegative. If a sum diverges, it only diverges to ∞ and so ∞ is the value of the sum.
Next note that
∑∞ ∑ ∞ ∑∞ ∑n
aij ≥ sup aij
n
j=r i=r j=r i=r

because for all j,

∞
∑ ∑
n
aij ≥ aij .
i=r i=r

Therefore,
∞ ∑
∑ ∞ ∞ ∑
∑ n ∑
m ∑
n
aij ≥ sup aij = sup lim aij
n n m→∞
j=r i=r j=r i=r j=r i=r

∑
n ∑
m ∑
n ∑
m
= sup lim aij = sup lim aij
n m→∞ n m→∞
i=r j=r i=r j=r
∑ ∞
n ∑ ∑ ∞
n ∑ ∞ ∑
∑ ∞
= sup aij = lim aij = aij
n n→∞
i=r j=r i=r j=r i=r j=r

Interchanging the i and j in the above argument proves the theorem.

24 CHAPTER 2. SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Chapter 3

Basic Linear Algebra

All the topics for calculus of one variable generalize to calculus of any number of variables
in which the functions can have values in m dimensional space and there is more than
one variable.
The notation, Cn refers to the collection of ordered lists of n complex numbers. Since
every real number is also a complex number, this simply generalizes the usual notion
of Rn , the collection of all ordered lists of n real numbers. In order to avoid worrying
about whether it is real or complex numbers which are being referred to, the symbol F
will be used. If it is not clear, always pick C.

Definition 3.0.5 Define

Fn ≡ {(x1 , · · · , xn ) : xj ∈ F for j = 1, · · · , n} .

(x1 , · · · , xn ) = (y1 , · · · , yn ) if and only if for all j = 1, · · · , n, xj = yj . When

(x1 , · · · , xn ) ∈ Fn ,

it is conventional to denote (x1 , · · · , xn ) by the single bold face letter, x. The numbers,
xj are called the coordinates. The set

{(0, · · · , 0, t, 0, · · · , 0) : t ∈ F}

for t in the ith slot is called the ith coordinate axis. The point 0 ≡ (0, · · · , 0) is called
the origin.

Thus (1, 2, 4i) ∈ F3 and (2, 1, 4i) ∈ F3 but (1, 2, 4i) ̸= (2, 1, 4i) because, even though
the same numbers are involved, they don’t match up. In particular, the first entries are
not equal.
The geometric significance of Rn for n ≤ 3 has been encountered already in calculus
or in precalculus. Here is a short review. First consider the case when n = 1. Then
from the definition, R1 = R. Recall that R is identified with the points of a line. Look
at the number line again. Observe that this amounts to identifying a point on this line
with a real number. In other words a real number determines where you are on this line.
Now suppose n = 2 and consider two lines which intersect each other at right angles as
shown in the following picture.

25
26 CHAPTER 3. BASIC LINEAR ALGEBRA

6 · (2, 6)

(−8, 3) · 3
2

−8

Notice how you can identify a point shown in the plane with the ordered pair, (2, 6) .
You go to the right a distance of 2 and then up a distance of 6. Similarly, you can identify
another point in the plane with the ordered pair (−8, 3) . Go to the left a distance of 8
and then up a distance of 3. The reason you go to the left is that there is a − sign on the
eight. From this reasoning, every ordered pair determines a unique point in the plane.
Conversely, taking a point in the plane, you could draw two lines through the point,
one vertical and the other horizontal and determine unique points, x1 on the horizontal
line in the above picture and x2 on the vertical line in the above picture, such that
the point of interest is identified with the ordered pair, (x1 , x2 ) . In short, points in the
plane can be identified with ordered pairs similar to the way that points on the real
line are identified with real numbers. Now suppose n = 3. As just explained, the first
two coordinates determine a point in a plane. Letting the third component determine
how far up or down you go, depending on whether this number is positive or negative,
this determines a point in space. Thus, (1, 4, −5) would mean to determine the point
in the plane that goes with (1, 4) and then to go below this plane a distance of 5 to
obtain a unique point in space. You see that the ordered triples correspond to points in
space just as the ordered pairs correspond to points in a plane and single real numbers
correspond to points on a line.
You can’t stop here and say that you are only interested in n ≤ 3. What if you were
interested in the motion of two objects? You would need three coordinates to describe
where the first object is and you would need another three coordinates to describe
where the other object is located. Therefore, you would need to be considering R6 . If
the two objects moved around, you would need a time coordinate as well. As another
example, consider a hot object which is cooling and suppose you want the temperature
of this object. How many coordinates would be needed? You would need one for the
temperature, three for the position of the point in the object and one more for the
time. Thus you would need to be considering R5 . Many other examples can be given.
Sometimes n is very large. This is often the case in applications to business when they
are trying to maximize profit subject to constraints. It also occurs in numerical analysis
when people try to solve hard problems on a computer.
There are other ways to identify points in space with three numbers but the one
presented is the most basic. In this case, the coordinates are known as Cartesian
coordinates after Descartes1 who invented this idea in the first half of the seventeenth
century. I will often not bother to draw a distinction between the point in n dimensional
space and its Cartesian coordinates.
The geometric significance of Cn for n > 1 is not available because each copy of C
corresponds to the plane or R2 .

1 René Descartes 1596-1650 is often credited with inventing analytic geometry although it seems

the ideas were actually known much earlier. He was interested in many different subjects, physiology,
chemistry, and physics being some of them. He also wrote a large book in which he tried to explain
the book of Genesis scientifically. Descartes ended up dying in Sweden.
3.1. ALGEBRA IN FN , VECTOR SPACES 27

3.1 Algebra in Fn , Vector Spaces

There are two algebraic operations done with elements of Fn . One is addition and the
other is multiplication by numbers, called scalars. In the case of Cn the scalars are
complex numbers while in the case of Rn the only allowed scalars are real numbers.
Thus, the scalars always come from F in either case.

Definition 3.1.1 If x ∈ Fn and a ∈ F, also called a scalar, then ax ∈ Fn is

defined by
ax = a (x1 , · · · , xn ) ≡ (ax1 , · · · , axn ) . (3.1)
This is known as scalar multiplication. If x, y ∈ F then x + y ∈ F and is defined by
n n

x + y = (x1 , · · · , xn ) + (y1 , · · · , yn )
≡ (x1 + y1 , · · · , xn + yn ) (3.2)

the points in Fn are also referred to as vectors.

With this definition, the algebraic properties satisfy the conclusions of the following
theorem. These conclusions are called the vector space axioms. Any time you have a
set and a field of scalars satisfying the axioms of the following theorem, it is called a
vector space.

Theorem 3.1.2 For v, w ∈ Fn and α, β scalars, (real numbers), the following

hold.
v + w = w + v, (3.3)
the commutative law of addition,

(v + w) + z = v+ (w + z) , (3.4)

the associative law for addition,

v + 0 = v, (3.5)
the existence of an additive identity,

v+ (−v) = 0, (3.6)

the existence of an additive inverse, Also

α (v + w) = αv+αw, (3.7)

(α + β) v =αv+βv, (3.8)
α (βv) = αβ (v) , (3.9)
1v = v. (3.10)
In the above 0 = (0, · · · , 0).

You should verify these properties all hold. For example, consider 3.7

α (v + w) = α (v1 + w1 , · · · , vn + wn )
= (α (v1 + w1 ) , · · · , α (vn + wn ))
= (αv1 + αw1 , · · · , αvn + αwn )
= (αv1 , · · · , αvn ) + (αw1 , · · · , αwn )
= αv + αw.

As usual subtraction is defined as x − y ≡ x+ (−y) .

28 CHAPTER 3. BASIC LINEAR ALGEBRA

3.2 Subspaces Spans And Bases

The concept of linear combination is fundamental in all of linear algebra.

Definition 3.2.1 Let {x1 , · · · , xp } be vectors in a vector space, Y having the

field of scalars F. A linear combination is any expression of the form
∑
p
ci xi
i=1

where the ci are scalars. The set of all linear combinations of these vectors is called
span (x1 , · · · , xn ) . If V ⊆ Y, then V is called a subspace if whenever α, β are scalars
and u and v are vectors of V, it follows αu + βv ∈ V . That is, it is “closed under
the algebraic operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication” and is therefore, a
vector space. A linear combination of vectors is said to be trivial if all the scalars in
the linear combination equal zero. A set of vectors is said to be linearly independent if
the only linear combination of these vectors which equals the zero vector is the trivial
linear combination. Thus {x1 , · · · , xn } is called linearly independent if whenever
∑
p
ck xk = 0
k=1

it follows that all the scalars, ck equal zero. A set of vectors, {x1 , · · · , xp } , is called
linearly dependent if it is not linearly independent. Thus the set of vectors ∑p is linearly
dependent if there exist scalars, ci , i = 1, · · · , n, not all zero such that k=1 ck xk = 0.

Lemma 3.2.2 A set of vectors {x1 , · · · , xp } is linearly independent if and only if

none of the vectors can be obtained as a linear combination of the others.

Proof: Suppose first that {x1 , · · · , xp } is linearly independent. If

∑
xk = cj xj ,
j̸=k

then ∑
0 = 1xk + (−cj ) xj ,
j̸=k

a nontrivial linear combination, contrary to assumption. This shows that if the set is
linearly independent, then none of the vectors is a linear combination of the others.
Now suppose no vector is a linear combination of the others. Is {x1 , · · · , xp } linearly
independent? If it is not, there exist scalars, ci , not all zero such that
∑
p
ci xi = 0.
i=1

Say ck ̸= 0. Then you can solve for xk as

∑
xk = (−cj ) /ck xj
j̸=k

contrary to assumption. This proves the lemma. 

The following is called the exchange theorem.

Theorem 3.2.3 Let {x1 , · · · , xr } be a linearly independent set of vectors such

that each xi is in the span {y1 , · · · , ys } . Then r ≤ s.
3.2. SUBSPACES SPANS AND BASES 29

Proof: Define span {y1 , · · · , ys } ≡ V, it follows there exist scalars, c1 , · · · , cs such

that
∑s
x1 = ci yi . (3.11)
i=1

Not all of these scalars can equal zero because if this were the case, it would follow
that x1∑= 0 and so {x1 , · · · , xr } would not be linearly independent. Indeed, if x1 = 0,
r
1x1 + i=2 0xi = x1 = 0 and so there would exist a nontrivial linear combination of
the vectors {x1 , · · · , xr } which equals zero.
Say ck ̸= 0. Then solve (3.11) for yk and obtain
 
s-1 vectors here
z }| {
yk ∈ span x1 , y1 , · · · , yk−1 , yk+1 , · · · , ys  .

Define {z1 , · · · , zs−1 } by

{z1 , · · · , zs−1 } ≡ {y1 , · · · , yk−1 , yk+1 , · · · , ys }

Therefore, span {x1 , z1 , · · · , zs−1 } = V because if v ∈ V, there exist constants c1 , · · · , cs

such that
∑
s−1
v= ci zi + cs yk .
i=1

Now replace the yk in the above with a linear combination of the vectors, {x1 , z1 , · · · , zs−1 }
to obtain v ∈ span {x1 , z1 , · · · , zs−1 } . The vector yk , in the list {y1 , · · · , ys } , has now
been replaced with the vector x1 and the resulting modified list of vectors has the same
span as the original list of vectors, {y1 , · · · , ys } .
Now suppose that r > s and that span {x1 , · · · , xl , z1 , · · · , zp } = V where the
vectors, z1 , · · · , zp are each taken from the set, {y1 , · · · , ys } and l + p = s. This
has now been done for l = 1 above. Then since r > s, it follows that l ≤ s < r
and so l + 1 ≤ r. Therefore, xl+1 is a vector not in the list, {x1 , · · · , xl } and since
span {x1 , · · · , xl , z1 , · · · , zp } = V there exist scalars, ci and dj such that

∑
l ∑
p
xl+1 = ci xi + dj zj . (3.12)
i=1 j=1

Now not all the dj can equal zero because if this were so, it would follow that {x1 , · · · , xr }
would be a linearly dependent set because one of the vectors would equal a linear com-
bination of the others. Therefore, (3.12) can be solved for one of the zi , say zk , in terms
of xl+1 and the other zi and just as in the above argument, replace that zi with xl+1
to obtain  
p-1 vectors here
z }| {
span x1 , · · · xl , xl+1 , z1 , · · · zk−1 , zk+1 , · · · , zp  = V.

Continue this way, eventually obtaining

span (x1 , · · · , xs ) = V.

But then xr ∈ span {x1 , · · · , xs } contrary to the assumption that {x1 , · · · , xr } is linearly
independent. Therefore, r ≤ s as claimed.
Here is another proof in case you didn’t like the above proof.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
hamlet near Big Bethel, where some rebel cavalry were discovered
and put to flight by a few shells from our artillery. There were newly
made camps and other evidences of the recent occupation of the
place by rebel infantry. For the first time, the Thirty-third boys
discovered a batch of the rebel literature, which has furnished so
much amusement for northern readers during the progress of the
war. Little groups were collected to listen to the reading of various
documents, including several tender missives, the writers of which
had evidently followed Voltaire’s advice for writing love letters, “to
begin without knowing what you have to say, and end without
knowing what you have written.”
On the same day Gen. Hooker proceeded with his command to
Big Bethel, the enemy decamping when he made his appearance.
After remaining over night at Watt’s Creek, sleeping on their arms, in
the forest, the troops of Smith’s division returned and encamped
about two miles north of Newport News. A severe rain-storm set in
after dark, and the men of the Thirty-third awoke in the morning, to
find everything afloat. There was water enough within the
encampment to have easily floated a canoe, which of course
occasioned a general clearing out on the part of the regiment.
Several severe cases of sickness arose from this heavy freshet,
and a Division Hospital was established at Newport News, under
charge of the Thirty-third surgeon. A new and more elevated site,
and nearer the James, was immediately occupied.
 Rebel Gunboat Teaser.

The men were allowed to bathe daily in the river. One afternoon,
while so employed, the small rebel Gunboat Teaser, afterwards
captured and found to be commanded by a younger brother of
General Davidson, ran down to within a mile and a half, and
commenced throwing shells at the bathers. The sudden appearance
of these unwelcome visitors in their midst produced a general
“skedaddle,” and the men came running into camp as fast as their
legs would carry them. Some made their appearance in a perfectly
denuded state; others more fortunate had managed to secure a shirt,
while two or three came in with simply cap and stockings on. This
affair created great merriment, and furnished a fruitful theme of
conversation for weeks afterwards. The firing of the Teaser produced
no effect beyond the severe scare administered to the men.
Soon after the return of the regiment from Watt’s Creek, two
Companies proceeded again in that direction to ascertain where the
enemy’s picket lines extended. They saw a few of the confederates,
who fled on their approach. The Thirty-third assisted in building a log
redoubt near the encampment, which was named Fort Wright, in
honor of Joseph Wright, Esq., of Waterloo, K. Y. Scattered up and
down the James River for miles, were to be seen the remains of
elegant country seats and farm, houses, destroyed by the rebel
General Magruder at the time Hampton was burned. The country on
every side presented a scene of ruin and desolation, conveying to
the mind a vivid impression of the wanton devastation of war.
After the lapse of a few days the Thirty-third was sent, with the
other regiments of Gen. Davidson’s brigade, for the third time, to
Watt’s Creek, and after dispersing the rebel pickets, returned without
loss.
 CHAPTER VII.
Continued Arrival of Troops.—Advance of the Army of the Peninsula.—Arrival of
the Regiment at Young’s Mills.—An Aged Contraband.—Lee’s Mills.—The
Various Companies of the Thirty-third ordered to the Front.—Caisson struck
by a rebel Ball.—Continued Firing of the Enemy.—Falling back of the
National Forces.—Heavy Rain Storm.—The Beef Brigade.—Enemy’s
Fortifications.—Troublesome Insects.—Night Skirmishing.—Celerity of the
Paymaster’s Movements.—Evacuation of Yorktown.—Early information of
the fact brought to Col. Corning by Contrabands.—The Rebel Works taken
possession of.

Troops continued to arrive in large numbers from Washington, and

on the 4th of April, the entire army commenced moving in the
direction of Yorktown, appearing the next day in front of the enemy’s
lines. During the afternoon of the 4th the Thirty-third reached
Young’s Mills, which the enemy had left in the morning.
Their position here had been a very strong one; in addition to the
natural defences of the place, they had thrown up heavy earthworks,
constructed seven rifle pits, and placed four batteries in position.
Their quarters, which were taken possession of by our men,
consisted of wooden huts, snugly and compactly built. An aged
contraband was found running the grist-mill, from which the place
took its name. The next day the march was resumed through a
heavily timbered region, and over roads very much impaired by
recent rains; the division arriving in front of Lee’s Mills at noon.
Skirmishing and artillery firing immediately commenced, and was
kept up with but little intermission for several days. In accordance
with instructions from Gen. Davidson, Col. Taylor sent, on Saturday,
Co. B., to do picket duty on the left. The men advanced to within 150
yards of the enemy, who were found to have three large forts in
addition to other fortifications. They remained out all night, keeping
up a running fire most of the time, and having three of their number
wounded. Co. A relieved them on the following morning. Cos. D, E,
F, G, H, I, and K, were likewise posted as pickets, and to C was
assigned the duty of supporting sections of Wheeler’s and Cowan’s
batteries.
While so employed, one of the enemy’s cannon balls, which were
falling in every direction, struck a caisson and exploded several of
the shells in rapid succession. At this juncture, an artilleryman,
running up, dashed a bucket of water over the remainder, thereby
preventing their explosion, to the great relief of the cannoniers, as
well as of the supporting party. The artillery firing of the rebels, which
was kept up at intervals along the whole line, killed but few of our
men, though occasioning some uneasiness by its terrible execution
among the forest trees. Saplings were snapped asunder like pipe
stems, while huge limbs severed from the tall oaks were falling in
every direction. Many trees of large growth were completely
perforated with solid shot, or shattered by shell.
During this time Capts. Cole and Guion, with a Volunteer force,
made an important reconnoissance beyond our picket lines,
advancing very near to the rebel works, from which they were fired
upon.
In order to avoid the artillery and picket firing, it was decided to
have the forces of Gen. Smith fall back for a short distance, where
they would threaten the enemy full as much, and at the same time
be less exposed. After the removal of the batteries the various
Companies of the Thirty-third withdrew to the distance of a mile,
being the last to leave the front, where they had retained their
respective positions under the hottest of the enemy’s fire, for a
period of fifty-four hours, and lost in wounded Lieut. Gale, Co. G, and
several privates.
Exhausted from the want of sleep and sufficient rations, the men
sank down on the moist ground that night, with no protection from
the falling rain, save that afforded by a few boughs and leaves.
Officers and privates were alike drenched through to the skin, long
before the dawn of day. They remained here some three or four
days.
 Owing to the condition of the roads, it was found impossible to
bring up the supply trains. Two hundred and fifty men were
accordingly detailed to proceed back and obtain rations. After
several hours’ absence they returned, each one bearing upon his
fixed bayonet a goodly piece of meat, and obeying the facetious
orders of the Lieut. Colonel to “shoulder beef, present beef,” etc. Six
barrels of meat were thus brought into camp. The men were not so
exhausted but that they indulged in a hearty laugh over this
circumstance, and the detail was ever afterwards known as the “Beef
Brigade.”
On the 11th of April, the Brigade moved one mile and a half nearer
Yorktown, encamping directly in front of the enemy’s fortifications,
which consisted, in addition to numerous other earthworks, of a
chain of forts, extending across the Peninsula to James River. The
time was employed here in building corduroy roads, “slashing”
timber, etc. An innumerable army of insects, known under the
general appellation of wood-ticks, were very annoying. They would
burrow in the flesh of both man and beast, and, regardless of the
consequences, “pinch” and pull away with all the tenacity of the
horse leech. One of the officers amused himself in making a large
collection of these troublesome creatures, which he has brought
home with him.
On the day that Gen. Smith made the unsuccessful attempt to
cross the Warwick River with the Vermont troops, Davidson’s
Brigade moved a mile and a half further to the right, where it
remained until the evacuation of and advance upon Yorktown. While
here, frequent reconnoissances were made by the Regiment. Parties
detailed from the various commands were employed every night in
constructing rifle-pits and other earthworks.
On the evening prior to the evacuation, a portion of the Thirty-third
assisted in the completion of a large mortar-bed, and mounting of
two heavy mortars, which completely commanded the enemy’s
works directly opposite. Had they remained, these two powerful
engines of war would have made fearful havoc among the rebels.
This night-work was attended with more or less firing on the part of
the enemy, which, however, produced but little effect, in addition to
the frequent turning out of the Regiments. The Thirty-third was
ordered under arms three times during one night, when a heavy
storm was prevailing.
The Paymaster again made his appearance here, and emptied his
money bags in a remarkably short space of time. Perhaps a remark
he made to one of the officers had some connection with his celerity
of movement: “Well, isn’t this a mighty exposed condition.” It was
indeed an exposed condition, the enemy constantly tossing shells
into our camp by way of amusement, and to “stir us up,” as they
expressed it.
Troops had now arrived, to the number of a hundred and twenty-
five thousand, and the siege was being conducted successfully, both
on the right and left. All the necessary preparations for the storming
of the rebel stronghold were nearly completed, when, on the morning
of Sunday, the 4th of May, the game, much to the chagrin and
mortification of our Generals, was discovered to have flown.
The intelligence was first brought to the left wing of the army by
two contrabands. The fugitives bringing the news came to the officer
of the picket line, the Lieut. Colonel of the Thirty-third, before
daylight, and stated that on the Thursday evening previous the
artillery had been removed; on Friday the wagon-trains and a portion
of the troops, and that that night “they had all been leaving.” They
were immediately conveyed to General Hancock’s quarters.
Men of straw were posted as sentinels on the ramparts, and
“Quaker Guns” had supplanted the formidable artillery, which for
weeks had rained down its iron hail on the besiegers.
Not long after, the various Regiments commenced crossing, and
by noon the entire Division was over. At the same time other portions
of the army were crossing at various points on the right, and General
Stoneman, with his cavalry and flying artillery, was started in pursuit
of the enemy. General Hooker followed at supporting distance, with
his Division. Generals Sumner, Heintzelman and Keys’ corps, to
which Smith’s Division belonged, were also pushed forward.
 CHAPTER VIII.
BATTLE OF WILLIAMSBURG,
FOUGHT MONDAY, MAY 5.

After crossing Warwick Creek, Sunday, May 4th, Smith’s Division

immediately pushed forward in pursuit of the fleeing enemy. The
Thirty-third was ordered to halt near one of the rebel works, and,
owing to the forgetfulness of an Aid, did not resume the march again
until 5 o’clock P.M. Darkness coming on, and not being able to
ascertain the whereabouts of the Division, the Regiment bivouaced
for the night seven miles east of Williamsburg.
Several months before, the enemy had constructed a line of
defence across the Peninsula, about two miles back of this city,
consisting of a very extended entrenchment, called Fort Magruder,
which covered the high road from Yorktown, at a narrow and easily
defended point, and of five heavy square earthworks on the north
side, and two others on the south.
On retreating from Yorktown, the rebels left several thousand men
in these works to check our pursuit, and enable the bulk of their army
to get across the Chickahominy. Smith’s Division came up Sunday
evening, as likewise did Hooker’s, and other troops of Heintzelman’s
Corps, which was further to the left.
 BATTLE OF WILLIAMSBURG.

As our troops drew near the forts, Monday morning, a heavy

artillery fire was poured upon them, followed by musketry. The
Thirty-third overtook the Division while it was progressing.
Meanwhile General Hooker, who was advancing further to the left,
fiercely engaged the enemy, who came out on the plain to meet him,
and being pressed by overwhelming numbers, was obliged to fall
back to the support of General Peck’s Brigade. About eleven o’clock,
General Hancock, who was now temporarily commanding the Third
Brigade, with his own, was ordered further to the right of the Division,
to turn the enemy’s position. The Thirty-third, which had been
marching since daylight, Fifth Wisconsin, Forty-ninth Pennsylvania,
and Sixth and Seventh Maine, were assigned to this duty. After
proceeding about two miles to the right, and in view of York River,
they changed their course to the left, and crossed King’s Creek, on a
high dam built by the enemy to “back up” the water, and thereby
render the stream unfordable. The overflow or pond thus made,
extended nearly a mile, and in front of a portion of their
entrenchments. Situated upon the high land at the western extremity
of it, was one of the earthworks previously mentioned, strongly built,
and with deep broad moats in front. Further back, and towards the
York, were two others constructed, on a still higher rise of ground,
and surrounded with numerous rifle-pits. They were, however, now
all deserted. Just before reaching the dam, the three left Companies
of the Thirty-third—B, Capt. White, G, Capt. Hamilton, and K, Capt.
McGraw, were left, under Lieut. Col. Corning, to guard the forks of
the road. After the force crossed, they were ordered forward, and
took possession of the first fort, Major Platner being left in command
of them.
General Hancock continued to move forward, and having
advanced half a mile to the left, halted in the field, a short distance
from the enemy, and near by an abandoned redoubt. Lieut. Col.
Corning was now ordered to take Cos. A, Capt. Guion, D, Lieut.
Brown, commanding, and F, Capt. McNair, Regimental Colors and
Color Guard, occupy and hold the fort. This was quickly done, and
the beautiful banner soon waved from the battlements, where it
remained through the fierce conflict which ensued, torn and tattered
for the first time by shell and bullets. A few moments later, Colonel
Taylor proceeded with the remaining Companies of the Regiment, C,
E, H and I, to a body of woods to the right and front, and deployed
them as skirmishers.
Wheeler and Cowan’s Batteries moved forward five hundred
yards, directly in front of the redoubt and commenced shelling Fort
Magruder, in which the enemy were posted. They were supported by
the Fifth Wisconsin, whose skirmishers connected with those of the
Thirty-third on the right, and Sixth Maine and Forty-ninth
Pennsylvania on the left. From the redoubt, occupied by Cos. A, D
and F, the ground descended slightly for a few rods, and then
became a level plain, extending to Fort Magruder, and presenting but
few obstacles to the advance of infantry.
Our artillery kept up a vigorous fire until two o’clock in the
afternoon, and then ceased, in accordance, as it was understood,
with orders from General McClellan, who had arrived on the opposite
side of the creek.
A lull of several hours followed, but the heavy firing from the
direction of our left, indicated that a severe engagement was going
on there. No other troops had arrived to reinforce Hancock, and he
held his position on the enemy’s left flank all day with the small force
previously designated. Night was approaching, and the men began
to consider what further dispositions were to be made of them, when
suddenly the rebels were discovered approaching from the direction
of Williamsburg, and rapidly forming two lines of battle, which
extended entirely across the plain in front. It required but a glance to
divine their object. With overwhelming numbers they expected to
press down upon the small force and capture it entire, or drive it pell
mell into the creek. General Hancock immediately sent word to the
batteries and infantry supports to fall back quickly, which they did,
engaging the enemy as they retired. The three Companies of the
Thirty-third were ordered out of the redoubt into line of battle, but the
Color Sergeant and Guard remained to defend and keep unfurled
the banner. The Seventh Maine was likewise posted in line of battle
at the right.
On came the swarthy rebels, shouting Bull Run and Ball’s Bluff,
their lines unbroken and unchecked, while our guns and the Fifth
Wisconsin, Sixth Maine and Forty-ninth Pennsylvania, hastily
receded, forming on the left of the Thirty-third, as they fell back. The
enemy’s flying artillery also moved forward, and discharged shot and
shell in quick succession, which fell all around the redoubt. It was a
most trying situation—the foe was steadily bearing down upon us,
and no reinforcements, were they to be had, could cross the narrow
mill-dam in time to render assistance. Still the men faltered not, but
nerved themselves for the shock, determined that many of the
enemy should bite the dust before they would surrender.
As the rebels drew nearer and nearer, the men fired rapidly, but
failed to make any impression upon their lines, which swept over the
plain in most perfect order. They had now arrived within seventy
yards of the redoubt. Lieutenant Brown and many other brave
fellows had fallen mortally wounded. The cannoniers with their guns,
and members of other Regiments, were hurrying back to the dam to
escape. The right and left of the line were wavering, and it seemed
as if all was lost.
At this critical juncture, the Lieutenant Colonel, turning to Colonel
Taylor, who had just arrived from the skirmish line, remarked,
“Nothing but a charge can check them.” “A charge it shall be,” he
replied, and instantly waving his sword in the air, shouted, “Forward,
men,” “Charge bayonets,” added Lieut. Colonel Corning, and the
brave fellows, to a man, sprang forward on the double quick, and
were soon lost in the cloud of smoke which enveloped the plain.
Incited by this gallant example of three Companies charging a whole
Division, other Regiments followed. Alarmed at this sudden counter
charge, and doubtless fearing that they had underrated our force, the
enemy broke and ran in confusion. In vain the commanding officer
attempted to rally them. Sauve qui peut became the order of the day.
The Thirty-third, which was close on the front line when it broke,
halted, and discharged volley after volley upon the gray-backs, as
they scampered over the plain. The other regiments now joined
them, and for several moments a most murderous fire was poured
upon the panic stricken fugitives, who never stopped until they
reached their entrenchments. Many tumbled over on their backs and
feigned death, while others ran towards us with uplifted hands,
imploring that we would spare their lives.
More than two hundred of them lay dead and wounded on the
field, including the Lieut. Colonel and Major of the Twenty-fourth
Virginia, and a Captain on Magruder’s Staff.
It was a most daring and brilliant exploit, deciding the fortunes of
the day, and turning what was, up to this time, a defeat on the left,
into a substantial victory.
The four Companies deployed as skirmishers on the left, to
prevent a flank movement, were not idle during this time. Colonel
Taylor had posted them just beyond a small creek, nearly on a
parallel with the first position occupied by the batteries, as follows:
Co. C, Capt. Cole, right; H, Capt. Drake, centre; E, Capt. Warford,
left, and I, Capt. Root, in rear and reserve. On his departure, Capt.
Warford was placed in command of the line.
After they had been in position a short time, Lieutenant Gummer,
of Co. E, was sent with ten of Captain Cole’s men one hundred and
fifty yards in front, as a party of observation. Having made a proper
survey of the vicinity, he returned and reported to headquarters.
Firing now commenced between the skirmishers on the left, and
Captain Warford ordered Captain Root forward to strengthen the
line. Soon after, the enemy’s charging column made its appearance
from the direction of Williamsburg, and dashing into the woods,
struck the skirmish line on the right of Co. E. Brisk firing ensued, our
skirmishers falling back into the forest, and the enemy pushing on to
the open fields at the left.
Owing to the confusion resulting from the sudden turn of affairs,
Captain Root was unable to find the skirmish line, and consequently
placed in an awkward position, the enemy being all around him. His
men were not dismayed, however, but after receding two hundred
yards, halted. A small party of rebels who had broke away from the
main force, now approached, and when within a short distance were
fired upon. Taking them to be friends they cried out, “Don’t fire, you
are shooting your own men.” At this Captain R. ordered them to
advance and surrender; and they were, much to their surprise and
chagrin, made prisoners. One of the officers attempted to escape,
but the Captain made after him and compelled him to deliver up his
sword. Other prisoners were afterwards taken, and when the number
was swelled to forty, Captain R, concluding that he had his hands
full, left the woods, and marched them off to the redoubt with his
Company of twenty-seven men.
Not knowing that the wavering in the line was occasioned by the
attack of the enemy’s storming column, Captain Warford attempted
to rally it instead of ordering it to retreat. While doing so, he was
informed that some stragglers wished to give themselves up, but
seeing nothing of them, started back to a small support in the rear.
On the way, an officer approached him and said, “We are falling
back,” mistaking him for a fellow rebel. The Captain immediately
captured him. The enemy had now been routed, and numerous
stragglers ran into the woods, and were taken by the Captain’s men.
Frequent shots were exchanged, and several of Cos. E and H
wounded. He was himself repeatedly shot at, but escaped without a
scratch.
When the enemy’s column advanced into the woods, it passed
through Captain Drake’s Company (H), which was in the centre of
the skirmish line, and captured several of his men. After it had gone
by, a body of fifty stragglers returned and suddenly attacked him in
the rear. Being thus surrounded on all sides he, together with several
more of his men, were compelled to surrender. On being ordered to
give up his sword to a non-commissioned officer, he refused, but
presented it to a rebel Lieutenant, who soon after came up. He and
twenty of his men were hurried off to Williamsburg, and a few days
later taken to Richmond. After being confined there and at Salsbury,
N.C., several months, he was exchanged and rejoined the Regiment
in Maryland.
Capt. Cole’s Company took thirty-seven prisoners, who were
dispatched to headquarters, under charge of Lieut. Brett. Wm. Moran
(private), not satisfied with halting and compelling them to deliver up
their arms, made the prisoners get down on their knees and
“surrender unconditionally.” “Down on your knays, d—n you,” was
the order which he administered to every one he found. He and
others of the Company were afterwards complimented in a Special
Order for their conduct on this occasion.
Separated, and each one fighting on their “own hook,” it was
marvellous that all of these four Companies were not captured by the
enemy. But owing to the heavy rain which prevailed, and thick
underbrush concealing their strength and movements, they not only
effected their escape, but brought away nearly as many prisoners as
they numbered men. This constituted a fitting sequel to the
operations of the other portion of the Regiment.
Thus terminated the Battle of Williamsburg, in which the Thirty-
third captured alone one hundred and fifty prisoners, and won the
plaudits of the whole army for its gallant charge. During the following
night the enemy evacuated the city, and its surrounding works,
retreating back to the Chickahominy. The Thirty-third slept on their
arms, and on the following day encamped near York River.
On the evening of the 7th, Gen. McClellan rode into camp on his
favorite bay charger, and the Regiment being drawn up in line, he
addressed them as follows:

Officers and Soldiers of the Thirty-third:

“I have come to thank you in person for gallant conduct on
the field of battle on the 5th instant. I will say to you what I
have said to other Regiments engaged with you. All did well—
did all I could expect. But you did more; you behaved like
Veterans. You are Veterans—Veterans of a hundred battles
could not have done better! Those on your left fought well; but
you won the day! You were at the right point, did the right
thing, and at the right time. You shall have Williamsburg
inscribed on your Banner.”

This brief speech from the Commanding General occasioned the

wildest enthusiasm among the men, and as “Little Mac” rode away,
followed by his Staff, cheer after cheer rent the air. During the same
evening a beautiful roan horse was presented to Adj. Sutton by the
Regiment.
 CHAPTER IX.
Williamsburg.—Condition of the Roads.—Pamunkey River.—Contrabands.—
Arrival of General Franklin.

The retreat of the enemy left Williamsburg in our possession. No

place in the Old Dominion is fraught with more historic interest than
this city, it having been the first incorporated town in the State; the
Capital until 1769, and the seat of the Royal Government prior to the
revolution of 1776. It is now the Capital of James City County,
situated midway between the James and York Rivers, sixty miles
east of Richmond and sixty-eight north-west of Norfolk. Among other
public buildings is the Insane Retreat, which in years past has been
one of the most popular institutions of the kind in the country. The
College of William and Mary, founded here in the time of King
William, is, next to Harvard, the oldest literary institution in the United
States, having been projected during the year 1693. King William
gave it an endowment of twenty thousand dollars and twenty
thousand acres of land, together with a revenue of a penny a pound
on tobacco exported from Virginia and Maryland. Other endowments
were afterwards added. The College buildings, churches, and many
private dwellings were used as hospitals for the confederate
wounded.
 WILLIAMSBURG, V.

Insane Asylum. William and Mary College.

After a delay of three or four days, in order to bring up supplies,

the army resumed the march Friday May 9th, for the Chickahominy.
The Thirty-third broke camp early in the morning, and proceeding
through Williamsburg, bivouacked for the night, at “Burnt Ordinary,” a
small hamlet some fifteen miles beyond. The next day it moved on
again, encamping near New Kent Court House.
It was near this point that Gen. Stoneman had overtaken the rear
guard of the fleeing enemy, who were drawn up in line of battle with
a section of artillery to receive him. Evidences of the conflict were
seen on every hand, and many of our own and the rebel wounded
were scattered about in the neighboring farm-houses. While tarrying
here, the roar of Gen. Franklin’s artillery at West Point, seven miles
away, could be distinctly heard, and the result of the battle, which
was made known the next day, increased the buoyancy and
confidence of our troops.
Owing to the rains, passage of trains, and steady tramp of men,
the roads had now become reduced to a terrible condition. Scattered
all along the route, were gun-carriages, caissons, ambulances and
supply wagons, stuck fast in the mud or lying disabled by the road-
side. Horses and mules, either dead or dying from exhaustion, were
seen every few rods, and the ground was strewn with guns,
cartridge-boxes, knapsacks and clothing, which the fleeing enemy
had cast aside. Nearly two weeks time were occupied in reaching
the Chickahominy, between forty and fifty miles distant from
Williamsburg. Smith’s division resumed the march again on the 10th,
reaching “Cumberland Court House” the same day, and remained
there until the 13th, when it proceeded towards “Cumberland
Landing,” on the Pamunkey River.
A beautiful—and after the long and tedious march exhilarating—
sight here met the eye. Stretching far away to the left and front was a
vast plain, variegated with green pastures, and field after field of
cereals yellowing into maturity. To the right the tortuous Pamunkey
appeared, skirted with dense forests and rich pasture lands, and
bearing upon its sluggish waters Federal transports of every
description. For the first time in a twelvemonth, vessels flying the
stars and stripes were pursuing its serpentine course. No sooner had
the order been given to halt and stack arms, than the soldiers began
to scatter in every direction, some to bathe in the river, others to
enjoy a siesta under the shade trees, or indulge in a pipe of the royal
weed, that never failing solace for a soldier’s griefs.
Reports of every description concerning operations elsewhere
were served up to the troops here; one to the effect that Gen. Brooks
with his whole brigade had been captured, another that we had
made prisoners of Gen. Magruder and most of his force. The further
we advanced the more filled the air became with these

“Flying rumors gathering as they rolled.”

 Moving five miles up the river, Col. Taylor’s command encamped
in a large clover-field, on the old Custis estate, at present in the
possession of Gen. Fitzhugh Lee, of the rebel cavalry service. On
every side were magnificent fields of grain, into which the jaded
horses and lank cattle were turned loose.

Ruin of R. R. Bridge at White House, over the Pamunkey.

Here for the first time the men began to find negroes scattered
around on the plantations, whom, owing to their rapid flight, the
rebels had not driven before them. Several of these contrabands
were appropriated by the officers, and remaining with the regiment
through its various campaigns, came home with their new “Masters.”
Among this number was a comical specimen of the race, who, on
being approached as he stood huddled together with a squad of fifty
or more, and asked by Sergeant Windchip if he “would not like to see
the north,” replied, “God bless you, massa, don’t care if I do.” Then
turning to his fellow contrabands, he took a most affectionate as well
as droll adieu—the tears coursing down his ancient cheeks—broke
away from the sobbing “brothers and sisters” and “fell into line.”
Upon reaching the White House, which was merely a landing on
the river, the left wing of the Regiment was detailed for picket duty,
along with a detachment under command of the Lieut.-Col. of the
Seventy-seventh New York. The orders were to proceed as far as a
certain Court House, and connect with Gen. Brooks’ pickets on the
left. After marching some two miles and a half, on what was
supposed to be the right road, they were suddenly brought to a halt
by rebel cavalrymen, who fled rapidly on being fired at. A few
moments reconnoitring served to convince the Lieutenant-Colonel
that the picket lines did not extend in that locality. So deploying his
men in a wheat-field, he returned to head quarters to ascertain its
whereabouts. They remained here until near dark, when an Aid
came out and ordered them into camp. The laugh over this fruitless
search of eight hours after our picket line became intensified, when it
was afterwards ascertained that the force had proceeded full a mile
beyond our outer or cavalry pickets.
The band serenaded Gen. McClellan one evening, when he sent
an Aid to extend his compliments to the regiment. There was a
perfect forest of masts here; government transports constantly
arriving and departing, and on every side was seen the ceaseless
activity which marks an active campaign.
Gen. Franklin soon reached this point and assumed charge of the
6th corps, to which Gen. Smith’s Division was assigned. Prior to that
time it had been in Gen. Keyes’ corps and comprised a portion of the
left wing of the army. But this change brought the Division on the
extreme right. Monday, 19th, the Brigade moved up the river six
miles, and halted on the farm of an Æsculapian rebel, whom his
contrabands described as suddenly seized with the gout on our
approach. The boys designated this place as “Camp Onion,” owing
to the quantities of this odoriferous vegetable which were hawked
through the encampment. Saturday, May 21st, the march was
resumed, the division proceeding to within eleven miles of
Richmond.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

textbookfull.com