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11
APPUNTI
LECTURE NOTES
Mariano Giaquinta
Scuola Normale Superiore
Piazza dei Cavalieri, 7
56126 Pisa, Italy
Luca Martinazzi
Rutgers University
110 Frelinghuysen Road
Piscataway NJ 08854-8019, USA
An Introduction to the Regularity Theory for Elliptic Systems, Harmonic Maps

and Minimal Graphs
Mariano Giaquinta
and Luca Martinazzi
An Introduction
to the Regularity Theory
for Elliptic Systems,
Harmonic Maps
and Minimal Graphs

c 2012 Scuola Normale Superiore Pisa
Seconda edizione
Prima edizione: 2005
ISBN 978-88-7642-442-7
ISBN 978-88-7642-443-4 (eBook)
Contents
Preface to the first edition xi
Preface to the second edition xiii
1 Harmonic functions 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The variational method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Non-existence of minimizers of variational
integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Non-finiteness of the Dirichlet integral . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Some properties of harmonic functions . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Existence in general bounded domains . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.1 Solvability of the Dirichlet problem on balls: Pois-
son’s formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.2 Perron’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.3 Poincaré’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2 Direct methods 17
2.1 Lower semicontinuity in classes
of Lipschitz functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Existence of minimizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.1 Minimizers in Lipk (Ω) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.2 A priori gradient estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.3 Constructing barriers: the distance function . . . . 23
2.3 Non-existence of minimizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.1 An example of Bernstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.2 Sharpness of the mean curvature condition . . . . 27
2.4 Area of graphs with zero mean curvature . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5 The relaxed area functional in BV . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5.1 BV minimizers for the area functional . . . . . . . 33
vi Contents
3 Hilbert space methods 37

3.1 The Dirichlet principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 Sobolev spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2.1 Strong and weak derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2.2 Poincaré inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.3 Rellich’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.4 The chain rule in Sobolev spaces . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2.5 The Sobolev embedding theorem . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.2.6 The Sobolev-Poincaré inequality . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3 Elliptic equations: existence of weak solutions . . . . . . . 49
3.3.1 Dirichlet boundary condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.2 Neumann boundary condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4 Elliptic systems: existence of weak solutions . . . . . . . . 53
3.4.1 The Legendre and Legendre-Hadamard ellipticity
conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.4.2 Boundary value problems for very strongly elliptic
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.3 Strongly elliptic systems: Gårding’s inequality . . 55
4 L2 -regularity: the Caccioppoli inequality 61

4.1 The simplest case: harmonic functions . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2 Caccioppoli’s inequality for elliptic systems . . . . . . . . 63
4.3 The difference quotient method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3.1 Interior L2 -estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3.2 Boundary regularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.4 The hole-filling technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5 Schauder estimates 75
5.1 The spaces of Morrey and Campanato . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.1.1 A characterization of Hölder continuous functions . 78
5.2 Constant coefficients: two basic estimates . . . . . . . . . 80
5.2.1 A generalization of Liouville’s theorem . . . . . . . 82
5.3 A lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.4 Schauder estimates for systems in divergence form . . . . 83
5.4.1 Constant coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.4.2 Continuous coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.4.3 Hölder continuous coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.4.4 Summary and generalizations . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.4.5 Boundary regularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.5 Schauder estimates for systems in non-divergence form . . 92
5.5.1 Solving the Dirichlet problem . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Contents vii
6 Some real analysis 97

6.1 Distribution function and interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.1.1 The distribution function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.1.2 Riesz-Thorin’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.1.3 Marcinkiewicz’s interpolation theorem . . . . . . . 101
6.2 Maximal function and Calderòn-Zygmund . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2.1 The maximal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2.2 Calderon-Zygmund decomposition argument . . . 107
6.3 BM O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.3.1 John-Nirenberg lemma I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.3.2 John-Nirenberg lemma II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.3.3 Interpolation between Lp and BM O . . . . . . . . 120
6.3.4 Sharp function and interpolation Lp − BM O . . . 121
6.4 The Hardy space H1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.4.1 The duality between H1 and BM O . . . . . . . . 128
6.5 Reverse Hölder inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.5.1 Gehring’s lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.5.2 Reverse Hölder inequalities with increasing support 132
7 Lp -theory 137
7.1 Lp -estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.1.1 Constant coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.1.2 Variable coefficients: divergence and non-divergence
case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.1.3 The cases p = 1 and p = ∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.1.4 Wente’s result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.2 Singular integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.2.1 The cancellation property and the Cauchy principal
value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.2.2 Hölder-Korn-Lichtenstein-Giraud theorem . . . . . 149
7.2.3 L2 -theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.2.4 Calderón-Zygmund theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.3 Fractional integrals and Sobolev inequalities . . . . . . . . 161
8 The regularity problem in the scalar case 167

8.1 xistence of minimizers by direct methods . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.2 Regularity of critical points of variational integrals . . . . 171
8.3 De Giorgi’s theorem: essentially the original proof . . . . 174
8.4 Moser’s technique and Harnack’s inequality . . . . . . . . 186
8.5 Still another proof of De Giorgi’s theorem . . . . . . . . . 191
8.6 The weak Harnack inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.7 Non-differentiable variational integrals . . . . . . . . . . . 199
viii Contents
9 Partial regularity in the vector-valued case 205

9.1 Counterexamples to everywhere regularity . . . . . . . . . 205
9.1.1 De Giorgi’s counterexample . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
9.1.2 Giusti and Miranda’s counterexample . . . . . . . 206
9.1.3 The minimal cone of Lawson and Osserman . . . . 206
9.2 Partial regularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.2.1 Partial regularity of minimizers . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.2.2 Partial regularity of solutions to quasilinear elliptic
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
9.2.3 Partial regularity of solutions to quasilinear elliptic
systems with quadratic right-hand side . . . . . . . 214
9.2.4 Partial regularity of minimizers of non-differentiable
quadratic functionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
9.2.5 The Hausdorff dimension of the singular set . . . . 226
10 Harmonic maps 229

10.1 Basic material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
10.1.1 The variational equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
10.1.2 The monotonicity formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
10.2 Giaquinta and Giusti’s regularity results . . . . . . . . . . 233
10.2.1 The main regularity result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
10.2.2 The dimension reduction argument . . . . . . . . . 234
10.3 Schoen and Uhlenbeck’s regularity results . . . . . . . . . 241
10.3.1 The main regularity result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.3.2 The dimension reduction argument . . . . . . . . . 249
10.3.3 The stratification of the singular set . . . . . . . . 258
10.4 Regularity of 2-dimensional weakly harmonic maps . . . . 264
10.4.1 Hélein’s proof when the target manifold is S n . . . 265
10.4.2 Rivière’s proof for arbitrary target manifolds . . . 267
10.4.3 Irregularity of weakly harmonic maps in dimension
3 and higher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
10.5 Regularity of stationary harmonic maps . . . . . . . . . . . 279
10.6 The Hodge-Morrey decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
10.6.1 Decomposition of differential forms . . . . . . . . . 288
10.6.2 Decomposition of vector fields . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
11 A survey of minimal graphs 293

11.1 Geometry of the submanifolds of Rn+m . . . . . . . . . . 293
11.1.1 Riemannian structure and Levi-Civita connection . 293
11.1.2 The gradient, divergence and Laplacian operators . 295
11.1.3 Second fundamental form and mean curvature . . 297
11.1.4 The area and its first variation . . . . . . . . . . . 299
11.1.5 Area-decreasing maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
11.2 Minimal graphs in codimension 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
11.2.1 Convexity of the area; uniqueness and stability . . 306
Contents ix
11.2.2 The problem of Plateau: existence of minimal gra-

phs with prescribed boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
11.2.3 A priori estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
11.2.4 Regularity of Lipschitz continuous minimal
graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
11.2.5 The a priori gradient estimate of Bombieri, De Giorgi
and Miranda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
11.2.6 Regularity of BV minimizers of the area functional 321
11.3 Regularity in arbitrary codimension . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
11.3.1 Blow-ups, blow-downs and minimal cones . . . . . 325
11.3.2 Bernstein-type theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
11.3.3 Regularity of area-decreasing minimal graphs . . . 339
11.3.4 Regularity and Bernstein theorems for Lipschitz min-
imal graphs in dimension 2 and 3 . . . . . . . . . . 340
11.4 Geometry of Varifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
11.4.1 Rectifiable subsets of Rn+m . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
11.4.2 Rectifiable varifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
11.4.3 First variation of a rectifiable varifold . . . . . . . 346
11.4.4 The monotonicity formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
11.4.5 The regularity theorem of Allard . . . . . . . . . . 349
11.4.6 Abstract varifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
11.4.7 Image and first variation of an abstract varifold . . 352
11.4.8 Allard’s compactness theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Bibliography 355
Index 363
Preface to the first edition
Initially thought as lecture notes of a course given by the first author

at the Scuola Normale Superiore in the academic year 2003-2004, this
volume grew into the present form thanks to the constant enthusiasm of
the second author.
Our aim here is to illustrate some of the relevant ideas in the theory of
regularity of linear and nonlinear elliptic systems, looking in particular at
the context and the specific situation in which they generate. Therefore
this is not a reference volume: we always refrain from generalizations and
extensions. For reasons of space we did not treat regularity questions in
the linear and nonlinear Hodge theory, in Stokes and Navier-Stokes theory
of fluids, in linear and nonlinear elasticity; other topics that should be
treated, we are sure, were not treated because of our limited knowledge.
Finally, we avoided to discuss more recent and technical contributions,
in particular, we never entered regularity questions related to variational
integrals or systems with general growth p.
In preparing this volume we particularly took advantage from the ref-
erences [6] [37] [39] [52], from a series of unpublished notes by Giuseppe
Modica, whom we want to thank particularly, from [98] and from the
papers [109] [110] [111].
We would like to thank also Valentino Tosatti and Davide Vittone,
who attended the course, made comments and remarks and read part of
the manuscript.
Part of the work was carried out while the second author was a gradu-
ate student at Stanford, supported by a Stanford Graduate Fellowship.
Preface to the second edition
This second edition is a deeply revised version of the first edition, in which
several typos were corrected, details to the proofs, exercises and examples
were added, and new material was covered. In particular we added the
recent results of T. Rivière [88] on the regularity of critical points of
conformally invariant functionals in dimension 2 (especially 2-dimensional
harmonic maps), and the partial regularity of stationary harmonic maps
following the new approach of T. Rivière and M. Struwe [90], which avoids
the use of the moving-frame technique of F. Hélein. This gave us the
motivation to briefly discuss the limiting case p = 1 of the Lp -estimates
for the Laplacian, introducing the Hardy space H1 and presenting the
celebrated results of Wente [112] and of Coifman-Lions-Meyer-Semmes
[22].
Part of the work was completed while the second author was visiting
the Centro di Ricerca Matematica Ennio De Giorgi in Pisa, whose warm
hospitality is gratefully acknowledged.
Chapter 1
Harmonic functions
We begin by illustrating some aspects of the classical model problem in

the theory of elliptic regularity: the Dirichlet problem for the Laplace
operator.
1.1 Introduction
From now on Ω will be a bounded, connected and open subset of Rn .
Definition 1.1 Given a function u ∈ C 2 (Ω) we say that u is
– harmonic if Δu = 0
– subharmonic if Δu ≥ 0
– superharmonic if Δu ≤ 0,
where
n
∂
Δu(x) := Dα2 u(x), Dα :=
α=1
∂xα
is the Laplacian operator.
Exercise 1.2 Prove that if f ∈ C 2 (R) is convex and u ∈ C 2 (Ω) is harmonic,

then f ◦ u is subharmonic.
Throughout this chapter we shall study some important properties of

harmonic functions and we shall be concerned with the problem of the
existence of harmonic functions with prescribed boundary value, namely
with the solution of the following Dirichlet problem:

Δu = 0 in Ω
(1.1)
u=g on ∂Ω
in C 2 (Ω) ∩ C 0 (Ω), for a given function g ∈ C 0 (∂Ω).

2 Harmonic functions
1.2 The variational method

The problem of finding a harmonic function with prescribed boundary
value g ∈ C 0 (∂Ω) is tied, though not equivalent (see section 1.2.2), to the
following one: find a minimizer u for the functional D

1
D(u) = |Du|2 dx (1.2)
2 Ω
in the class
A = {u ∈ C 2 (Ω) ∩ C 0 (Ω) : u = g on ∂Ω}.
The functional D is called Dirichlet integral.

In fact, formally, if a minimizer u exists, then the first variation of the
Dirichlet integral vanishes:

d
D(u + tϕ) =0
dt t=0
for all smooth compactly supported functions ϕ in Ω; an integration by

parts then yields

d
0= D(u + tϕ)
dt
t=0
= ∇u · ∇ϕdx
Ω

=− Δuϕdx, ∀ϕ ∈ C0∞ (Ω),
Ω
and by the arbitrariness of ϕ we conclude Δu = 0, which is the Euler-

Lagrange equation for the Dirichlet integral: minimizers of the Dirichlet
integral are harmonic.
This was stated as an equivalence by Dirichlet and used by Riemann
in his geometric theory of functions.
Dirichlet’s principle: A minimizer u of the Dirichlet integral in Ω with
prescribed boundary value g always exists, is unique and is a harmonic
function; it solves
Δu = 0 in Ω
(1.3)
u=g on ∂Ω.
Conversely, any solution of (1.3) is a minimizer of the Dirichlet integral
in the class of functions with boundary value g.
Dirichlet saw no need to prove this principle; however, as we shall see,
in general Dirichlet’s principle does not hold and, in the circumstances in
which it holds, it is not trivial.
1.2 The variational method 3
−1 − n1 1
n 1
−1
Figure 1.1: The function un as defined in (1.4)
1.2.1 Non-existence of minimizers of variational

integrals
The following examples, the first being a classical example of Weierstrass,
show that minimizers to a variational integral need not exist.
1. Consider the functional
1
F(u) = (xu̇)2 dx
−1
defined on the class of Lipschitz functions
A = {u ∈ Lip([−1, 1]) : u(−1) = −1, u(1) = 1}.
The following sequence of functions in A

⎧
⎨ −1 for x ∈ [−1, − n1 ]
un (x) := 1 for x ∈ [ n1 , 1] (1.4)
⎩
nx for x ∈ [− n1 , n1 ]
shows that inf A F = 0, but evidently F cannot attain the value 0 on A.

2. Consider 1
1
F(u) = (1 + u̇2 ) 4 dx,
0
defined on
A = {u ∈ Lip([0, 1]) : u(0) = 1, u(1) = 0}.
The sequence of functions

1 − nx for x ∈ [0, n1 ]
u(x) =
0 for x ∈ [ n1 , 1]
shows that inf A F = 1. On the other hand, if F(u) = 1, then u is constant,

thus cannot belong to A.
3. Consider the area functional defined on the unit ball B1 ⊂ R2

F(u) = 1 + |Du|2 dx,
B1
defined on
A = {u ∈ Lip(B1 ) : u = 0 on ∂B1 , u(0) = 1}.
As F(u) ≥ π for every u ∈ A, the sequence of functions

1 − n|x| for |x| ∈ [0, n1 ]
u(x) =
0 for |x| ∈ [ n1 , 1]
shows that inf A F = π. On the other hand if F(u) = π for some u ∈ A,

then u is constant, thus cannot belong to A.
1.2.2 Non-finiteness of the Dirichlet integral

We have seen that a minimizer of the Dirichlet integral is a harmonic
function. In some sense the converse is not true: we exhibit a harmonic
function with infinite Dirichlet integral.
The Laplacian in polar coordinates on R2 is
∂2 1 ∂ 1 ∂2
Δ= 2
+ + 2 2,
∂r r ∂r r ∂θ
and it is easily seen that rn cos nθ and rn sin nθ are harmonic functions.
Now define on the unit ball B1 ⊂ R2
∞
a0 n
u(r, θ) = + r (an cos nθ + bn sin nθ).
2 n=1
Provided
∞

(|an | + |bn |) < ∞,
n=1
the series converges uniformly, while its derivatives converge uniformly on

compact subsets of the ball, so that u belongs to C ∞ (B1 ) ∩ C 0 (B 1 ) and
is harmonic.
The Dirichlet integral of u is
∞
1 2π 1
1 π
D(u) = dθ (|∂r u|2 + |∂θ u|2
)rdr = n(a2n + b2n ).
2 0 0 r2 2 n=1
1.3 Some properties of harmonic functions 5
Thus, if we choose an = 0 for all n ≥ 0, bn = 0 for all n ≥ 1, with the

exception of bn! = n−2 , we obtain
∞

u(r, θ) = rn! n−2 sin(n!θ),
n=1
and we conclude that u ∈ C ∞ (B1 ) ∩ C 0 (B 1 ), it is harmonic, yet

∞
π −4
D(u) = n n! = ∞.
2 n=1
In fact, every function v ∈ C ∞ (B1 )∩C 0 (B 1 ) that agrees with the function
u defined above on ∂B1 has infinite Dirichlet integral.
1.3 Some properties of harmonic functions

Proposition 1.3 (Weak maximum principle) If u ∈ C 2 (Ω) ∩ C 0 (Ω)
is subharmonic, then
sup u = max u;
Ω ∂Ω
If u is superharmonic, then
inf u = min u.
Ω ∂Ω
Proof. We prove the proposition for u subharmonic, since for a superhar-

monic u it is enough to consider −u. Suppose first that Δu > 0 in Ω. Were
x0 ∈ Ω such that u(x0 ) = maxΩ u, we would have uxi xi (x0 ) ≤ 0 for every
1 ≤ i ≤ n. Summing over i we would obtain Δu(x0 ) ≤ 0, contradiction.
For the general case Δu ≥ 0 consider the function v(x) = u(x) + ε|x|2 .
Then Δv > 0 and, by what we have just proved, supΩ v = max∂Ω v. On the
other hand, as ε → 0, we have supΩ v → supΩ u and max∂Ω v → max∂Ω u.

Exercise 1.4 Similarly, prove the following generalization of Proposition 1.3:

let u ∈ C 2 (Ω) ∩ C 0 (Ω) satisfy

n
n
Aαβ Dαβ u + bα Dα u ≥ 0,
α,β=1 α=1
n
where Aαβ , bα ∈ C 0 (Ω) and Aαβ is elliptic: α,β=1 Aαβ ξα ξβ ≥ λ|ξ|2 , for some
λ > 0 and every ξ ∈ Rn . Then
sup u = max u.
Ω ∂Ω
Remark 1.5 The continuity of the coefficients in Exercise 1.4 is neces-

sary. Indeed Nadirashvili gave a counterexample to the maximum prin-
ciple with Aαβ elliptic and bounded, but discontinuous, see [82].
Proposition 1.6 (Comparison principle) Let u, v ∈ C 2 (Ω) ∩ C 0 (Ω)

be such that u is subharmonic, v is superharmonic and u ≤ v on ∂Ω.
Then u ≤ v in Ω.
Proof. Since u − v is subharmonic with u − v ≤ 0 on ∂Ω, from the weak

maximum principle, Proposition 1.3, we get u − v ≤ 0 in Ω.
Clearly
u ≤ v + max |u − v| on ∂Ω,
∂Ω
consequently:
Corollary 1.7 (Maximum estimate) Let u and v be two harmonic

functions in Ω. Then
sup |u − v| ≤ max |u − v|.

Ω ∂Ω
Corollary 1.8 (Uniqueness) Two harmonic functions on Ω that agree

on ∂Ω are equal.
Proposition 1.9 (Mean value inequalities) Suppose that u ∈ C 2 (Ω)

is subharmonic. Then for every ball Br (x) Ω

u(x) ≤ u(y)dHn−1 (y), 1 (1.5)
∂Br (x)

u(x) ≤ u(y)dy. (1.6)
Br (x)
If u is superharmonic, the reverse inequalities hold; consequently for u

harmonic equalities are true.
1 By 1
–A f (x)dx we denote the average of f on A i.e., |A| A f (x)dx. Similarly
1
–A f dHn−1 = Hn−1 (A) A
f dHn−1 .
Proof. Let u be subharmonic. From the divergence theorem, for each

ρ ∈ (0, r] we have

0≤ Δu(y)dy
Bρ (x)

∂u
= (y)dHn−1 (y)
∂Bρ (x) ∂ν

∂u
= (x + ρy)ρn−1 dHn−1 (y)
∂B1 (0) ∂ρ
(1.7)
d
= ρn−1 u(x + ρy)dHn−1 (y)
dρ ∂B1 (0)

d 1
= ρn−1 u(y)dHn−1 (y)
dρ ρn−1 ∂Bρ (x)

d
= nωn ρn−1 u(y)dHn−1 (y),
dρ ∂Bρ (x)
where ωn := |B1 |. This implies that the last integral is non-decreasing
and, since
lim u(y)dHn−1 (y) = u(x),
ρ→0 ∂Bρ (x)
(1.5) follows. We leave the rest of the proof for the reader.
Corollary 1.10 (Strong maximum principle) If u ∈ C 2 (Ω) ∩ C 0 (Ω)

is subharmonic (resp. superharmonic), then it cannot attain its maximum
(resp. minimum) in Ω unless it is constant.
Proof. Assume u is subharmonic and let x0 ∈ Ω be such that u(x0 ) =
supΩ u. Then the set
S := {x ∈ Ω : u(x) = u(x0 )}
is closed because u is continuous and is open thanks to (1.6). Since Ω is
connected we have S = Ω.
Remark 1.11 If u is harmonic, the mean value inequality is also a direct

consequence of the representation formula (1.11) below.
Exercise 1.12 Prove that if u ∈ C 2 (Ω) satisfies one of the mean value proper-
ties, then it is correspondigly harmonic, subharmonic or superharmonic.
Exercise 1.13 Prove that if u ∈ C 0 (Ω) satisfies the mean value equality

u(x) = u(y)dy, ∀Br (x) ⊂ Ω
Br (x)
∞
then u ∈ C (Ω) and it is harmonic.
[Hint: Regularize u with a family ϕε = ρε (|x|) of mollifiers with radial simmetry

and use the mean value property to prove that u ∗ ρε = u in any Ω0 Ω for ε
small enough.]
Proposition 1.14 Consider a sequence of harmonic functions uj that

converge locally uniformly in Ω to a function u ∈ C 0 (Ω). Then u is
harmonic.
Proof. The mean value property is stable under uniform convergence, thus
holds true for u, which is therefore harmonic thanks to Exercise 1.13.
Remark 1.15 Being harmonic is preserved under the weaker hypothesis

of weak Lp convergence, 1 ≤ p < ∞, or even of the convergence is the sense
of distributions. This follows at once from the so-called Weyl’s lemma.
Lemma 1.16 (Weyl) A function u ∈ L1loc (Ω) is harmonic if and only if

uΔϕdx = 0, ∀ϕ ∈ Cc∞ (Ω).
Ω
Proof. Consider a family of radial mollifiers ρε , i.e. ρε (x) = ε1n ρ(ε−1 x),
where ρ ∈ C ∞ (Rn ) is radially symmetric, supp(ρ) ⊂ B1 and B1 ρ(x)dx =
1. Define uε = u ∗ ρε . Then, from the standard properties of convolution
we find

uε Δϕdx = u(Δϕ ∗ ρε )dx
Ω
Ω
= uΔ(ϕ ∗ ρε )dx
Ω
= 0, for every ϕ ∈ Cc∞ (Ωε ),
where
Ωε := {x ∈ Ω : dist(x, ∂Ω) > ε}.
1
In particular Δuε = 0 on Ωε . Now fix R > 0 and let 0 < ε ≤ 2 R. We
have by Fubini’s theorem

1 |x − y|
|uε (y)|dy ≤ n
ρ |u(x)|dxdy
Ωε ε Ω ε
Ωε (1.8)
≤ |u(x)|dx.
Ω
Here we may assume that u ∈ L1 (Ω), since being harmonic is a local

property. By the mean value property applied with balls of radius R2 and
(1.8), we obtain that the uε are uniformly bounded in ΩR/2 . They are also
locally equicontinuous in ΩR because for x0 ∈ ΩR and x1 , x2 ∈ B R (x0 ),

2
still by the mean-value property,

2n
|uε (x1 ) − uε (x2 )| ≤ |uε (x)|dx
ωn Rn B R (x1 )ΔB R (x2 )
2 2
2n
≤ n
sup |uε | · meas B R (x2 )ΔB R (x1 ) ,
ωn R BR (x0 ) 2 2
where

B R (x1 )ΔB R (x2 ) := B R (x1 )\B R (x2 ) ∪ B R (x2 )\B R (x1 ) .
2 2 2 2 2 2
By Ascoli-Arzelà’s theorem (Theorem 2.3 below), we can extract a se-

quence uεk which converges uniformly in ΩR to a continuous function v
as k → ∞ and εk → 0, which is harmonic thanks to Exercise 1.13. But
u = v almost everywhere in ΩR by the properties of convolutions, hence
u is harmonic in ΩR . Letting R → 0 we conclude.
Proposition 1.17 Given u ∈ C 0 (Ω), the following facts are equivalent:

(i) For every ball BR (x) Ω we have

u(x) ≤ u(y)dHn−1 (y);
∂BR (x)
(ii) for every ball BR (x) Ω we have

u(x) ≤ u(y)dy;
BR (x)
(iii) for every x ∈ Ω, R0 > 0, there exist R ∈ (0, R0 ) such that BR (x)
Ω and
u(x) ≤ u(y)dy; (1.9)
BR (x)
(iv) for each h ∈ C 0 (Ω) harmonic in Ω Ω with u ≤ h on ∂Ω , we have

u ≤ h in Ω ;
(v) Ω
u(x)Δϕ(x)dx ≥ 0, ∀ϕ ∈ Cc∞ (Ω), ϕ ≥ 0.
Proof. Clearly (i) implies (ii) and (ii) implies (iii).
(iii)⇒(iv): Since h satisfies the mean value property the function w :=
u − h satisfies

w(x) ≤ w(y)dy for all balls BR (x) ⊂ Ω s.t. (1.9) holds.
BR (x)
Then
sup w = max

w ≤ 0,
Ω ∂Ω
the first identity following exactly as in the proof of Corollary 1.10.

(iv)⇒(i): Let BR (x) Ω, and choose h harmonic in BR (x) and h = u in
Ω\BR (x). This can be done by Proposition 1.24 below. Then

u(x) ≤ h(x) = hdHn−1 = udHn−1 .
∂BR (x) ∂BR (x)
The equivalence of (v) to (ii) can be proved by mollifying u, compare

Exercise 1.13.
Often a continuous function satisfying one of the conditions in Pro-
position 1.17 is called subharmonic.
Exercise 1.18 Use Proposition 1.17 to prove the following:

1. A finite linear combination of harmonic functions is harmonic.
2. A positive finite linear combination of subharmonic (resp. superharmonic)
functions is a subharmonic (resp. superharmonic) function.
3. The supremum (resp. infimum) of a finite number of subharmonic (resp.
superharmonic) functions is a subharmonic (resp. superharmonic) func-
tion.
Theorem 1.19 (Harnack inequality) Given a non-negative harmonic

function u ∈ C 2 (Ω), for every ball B3r (x0 ) Ω we have
sup u ≤ 3n inf u.
Br (x0 ) Br (x0 )
Proof. By the mean value property, Proposition 1.9, and from u ≥ 0 we

get that for y1 , y2 ∈ Br (x0 )

1
u(y1 ) = udx
ωn rn Br (y1 )

1
≤ udx
ωn rn B2r (x0 )

3n
= udx
ωn (3r)n B2r (x0 )

3n
≤ udx
ωn (3r)n B3r (y2 )
= 3n u(y2 ).

1.4 Existence in general bounded domains 11
Theorem 1.20 (Liouville) A bounded harmonic function u : Rn → R

is constant.
Proof. Define m = inf Rn u. Then u − m ≥ 0 and by Harnack’s inequality,

Theorem 1.19,
sup(u − m) ≤ 3n inf (u − m), ∀R > 0.

BR BR
Letting R → ∞, the term on the right tends to 0 and we conclude that

supRn u = m.
Proposition 1.21 Let u be harmonic (hence smooth by Exercise 1.13)

and bounded in BR (x0 ). For r < R we may find constants c(k, n) such
that
c(k, n)
sup |∇k u| ≤ sup |u|. (1.10)
Br (x0 ) (R − r)k BR (x0 )
Exercise 1.22 Prove Proposition 1.21.

[Hint: First prove (1.10) for k = 1 using the mean-value identity (it might be
easier to start with the case r = R/2 and then use a covering or a scaling argu-
ment). Then notice that each derivative of u is harmonic and use an inductive
procedure.]
Proposition 1.23 Let (uk ) be an equibounded sequence of harmonic func-

tions in Ω, i.e. assume that supΩ |uk | ≤ c for a constant c independent
of k. Then up to extracting a subsequence uk → u in Cloc (Ω) for every ,
where u is a harmonic function on Ω.
Proof. This follows easily from Proposition 1.21 and the Ascoli-Arzelà
theorem (Theorem 2.3 below), with a simple covering argument.
1.4 Existence in general bounded domains

Before dealing with the existence of harmonic functions is general domains
we state a classical representation formula providing us with the solution
of the Dirichlet problem (1.1) on a ball.
1.4.1 Solvability of the Dirichlet problem on balls:

Poisson’s formula
Proposition 1.24 (H.A. Schwarz or S.D. Poisson) Let a ∈ Rn , r >
0 and g ∈ C 0 (∂Br (a)) be given and define the function u by
⎧ 2
⎪ r − |x − a|2 g(y)
⎨ dHn−1 (y) x ∈ Br (a)
u(x) := nω n r ∂Br (a) |x − y|n
⎪
⎩
g(x) x ∈ ∂Br (a).
(1.11)
Then u ∈ C ∞ (Br (a)) ∩ C 0 (Br (a)) and solves the Dirichlet problem

Δu = 0 in Br (a)
u=g on ∂Br (a)
Proof. We only sketch it. By direct computation we see that u is harmonic.

For the continuity on the boundary assume, without loss of generality, that
a = 0 and define
r 2 − |x|2
K(x, y) := , x ∈ Br (0), y ∈ ∂Br (0).
nωn r|x − y|n
One can prove that

K(x, y)dHn−1 (y) = 1, for every x ∈ Br (0).
∂Br (0)
Let x0 ∈ ∂Br (0) and for any ε > 0 choose δ such that |g(x) − g(x0 )| < ε
if x ∈ ∂Br (0) ∩ Bδ (x0 ). Then, for x ∈ Br (0) ∩ Bδ/2 (x0 ),

|u(x) − g(x0 )| ≤ K(x, y)[g(y) − g(x0 )]dHn−1 (y)
∂Br (0)

≤ K(x, y)|g(y) − g(x0 )|dHn−1 (y)
∂Br (0)∩Bδ (x0 )

+ K(x, y)|g(y) − g(x0 )|dHn−1 (y)
∂Br (0)\Bδ (x0 )
(r2 − |x|2 )rn−2

≤ ε+ δ n 2 sup |g|.
2 ∂Br (0)
Hence |u(x) − g(x0 )| → 0 as x → x0 .

1.4.2 Perron’s method

We now present a method for solving the Dirichlet problem (1.1).
Given an open bounded domain Ω ⊂ Rn and g ∈ C 0 (∂Ω) define
S− := {u ∈ C 2 (Ω) ∩ C 0 (Ω) : Δu ≥ 0 in Ω, u ≤ g on ∂Ω};
S+ := {u ∈ C 2 (Ω) ∩ C 0 (Ω) : Δu ≤ 0 in Ω, u ≥ g on ∂Ω}.
These sets are non-empty, since g is bounded and constant functions are
harmonic: u ≡ supΩ g and v ≡ inf Ω g belong to S+ and S− respectively.
We also observe that, by the comparison principle, v ≤ u for each v ∈ S−
and u ∈ S+ . We define
u∗ (x) = sup u(x), u∗ (x) = inf u(x).
u∈S− u∈S+
and shall
1. prove that both u∗ and u∗ are harmonic;
2. find conditions on Ω in order to have u∗ , u∗ ∈ C 0 (Ω) and u∗ = u∗ =
g on ∂Ω.
This is referred to as Perron’s method.
Step 1. It is enough to prove that u∗ is harmonic in a generic ball B ⊂ Ω.
Fix x0 ∈ B. By the definition of u∗ we may find a sequence vj ∈ S− such
that vj (x0 ) → u∗ (x0 ). Define
vj := max(v1 , . . . , vj ) ∈ S− ,
vj := PB vj ,
where PB vj is obtained by (1.11) as the harmonic extention of vj on B
matching vj on ∂B. Observe that by definition (vj ) is an increasing se-
quence and, by the maximum principle, (vj ) is increasing as well. Since
the sequence (vj ) is equibounded and increasing it converges locally uni-
formly in B to a harmonic function h thanks to Proposition 1.23.
Observe that h ≤ u∗ and h(x0 ) = u∗ (x0 ). We claim that h = u∗ in B.
If h(z) < u∗ (z) for some z ∈ B, choose w ∈ S− such that w(z) > h(z)
and define wj = max{vj , w}. Also define wj and wj as done before with
vj and vj . Again we have that wj → h̃ for some harmonic function h̃.
From the definition it is easy to prove that vj ≤ wj , thus h ≤ h̃ and
h(x0 ) = h̃(x0 ). By the strong maximum principle, this implies h = h̃ on
all of B. This is a contradiction because
h̃(z) = lim wj (z) ≥ w(z) > h(z) = h̃(z).
This proves that h = u∗ and then u∗ is harmonic in B, hence in all of
Ω since B was arbitrary. Clearly the same proof applies to u∗ .
Step 2. The functions u∗ and u∗ need not achieve the boundary data g,
and in general they don’t.
Definition 1.25 A point x0 ∈ ∂Ω is called regular if for every g ∈

C 0 (∂Ω) and every ε > 0 there exist v ∈ S− and w ∈ S + such that
g(x0 ) − v(x0 ) ≤ ε and w(x0 ) − g(x0 ) ≤ ε.
Exercise 1.26 The Dirichlet problem (1.1) has solution for every g ∈ C 0 (∂Ω)
if and only if each point of ∂Ω is regular.
[Hint: Use Perron’s method and prove that u∗ ∈ C 0 (Ω) and u∗ = g on ∂Ω.]
Definition 1.27 Given x0 ∈ ∂Ω, an upper barrier at x0 is a superhar-

monic function b ∈ C 2 (Ω) ∩ C 0 (Ω) such that b(x0 ) = 0 and b > 0 on
Ω\{x0 }. We say that b is a lower barrier if −b is an upper barrier.
Proposition 1.28 Suppose that x0 ∈ Ω admits upper and lower barriers.

Then x0 is a regular point.
Proof. Define M = max∂Ω |g| and, for each ε > 0, choose δ > 0 such
that for x ∈ Ω with |x − x0 | < δ we have |g(x) − g(x0 )| < ε. Let b be an
upper barrier and choose k > 0 such that kb(x) ≥ 2M if |x − x0 | ≥ δ (by
compactness inf Ω\Bδ (x0 ) b > 0). Then define
w(x) := g(x0 ) + ε + kb(x);
v(x) := g(x0 ) − ε − kb(x)

and observe that w ∈ S+ and v ∈ S− . Moreover w(x0 ) − g(x0 ) = ε and
g(x0 ) − v(x0 ) = ε.
In the following proposition we see that, under suitable hypotheses on
the geometry of Ω, the existence of barriers, and therefore of a solution
to the Dirichlet problem, is guaranteed.
Proposition 1.29 Suppose that for each x0 ∈ ∂Ω there exists a ball

BR (y) in the complement of Ω such that B R (y) ∩ Ω = {x0 } (see Fig-
ure 1.2). Then every point of ∂Ω is regular, hence the Dirichlet problem
(1.1) is solvable on Ω for arbitrary continuous boundary data.
Proof. For any x0 ∈ ∂Ω and a ball BR (y) as in the statement of the
proposition, consider the upper barrier b(x) := R2−n − |x − y|2−n for
n > 2 and b(x) := log |x−y|
R for n = 2, and the lower barrier −b(x). One
can easily verify that Δb = 0 in Rn \ {y}.
Exercise 1.30 The hypotesis of Proposition 1.29 is called exterior sphere con-
dition. Show that convex domains and C 2 domains satisfy the exterior sphere
condition.
Remark 1.31 The Perron method is non-constructive because it doesn’t

provide any way to find approximate solutions.
BR (y)
x0
Ω
Figure 1.2: The exterior sphere condition.
1.4.3 Poincaré’s method

We now present a different method of solving the Dirichlet problem (1.1).
Cover Ω with a sequence ∞ Bi of balls, i.e. choose balls Bi ⊂ Ω, i =
1, 2, 3, . . . such that Ω = i=1 Bi . Now define the sequence of integers
ik = 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , 1, . . . , n, . . .
Given g ∈ C 0 (Ω), define the sequence (uk ) by u1 := g and for k > 1

uk−1 (x) for x ∈ Ω \ Bik
uk (x) :=
Pik uk−1 (x) for x ∈ Bik ,

where Pik uk−1 is the harmonic extention on Bik of uk−1 ∂Bi , given by
k
(1.11).
Proposition 1.32 If each point of ∂Ω is regular, then uk converges to

the solution u of the Dirichlet problem (1.1).
Proof. Suppose first g ∈ C 0 (Ω) subharmonic, meaning that it satisfies
the properties of Proposition 1.17. We can inductively prove that uk is
subharmonic and
g = u1 ≤ u2 ≤ . . . uk ≤ . . . ≤ sup g.
Ω
Suppose indeed that uk is subharmonic (this is true for k = 1 by assump-

tion). Then by the comparison principle uk+1 ≥ uk , and it is not difficult
to prove that uk+1 satisfies for instance (iii) or (iv) of Proposition 1.17,
hence is subharmonic.
Since, for each i, uk is harmonic in Bi for infinitely many k, increasing
and uniformly bounded with respect to k, by Proposition 1.23 we see that
its limit u is a harmonic functions in each ball Bi , hence in Ω. Using
barriers it is not difficult to show that u = g on the boundary.
Now suppose that g, not necessarily subharmonic, belongs to C 2 (Rn )

λ
and Δg ≥ −λ. Then g0 (x) = g(x) + 2n |x|2 is subharmonic and we may
solve the Dirichlet problem with boundary data g0 . We may also solve the
λ
Dirichlet problem with data 2n |x|2 (that is subharmonic) and by linearity
we may solve the Dirichlet problem with data g.
Finally, suppose g ∈ C 0 (Ω), which we can think of as continuosly
extended to Rn , and regularize it by convolution. For each convoluted
function gε ∈ C ∞ (Ω) we find a harmonic map uε with uε = gε → g
uniformly on ∂Ω. Then by the maximum principle, for any sequence
εk → 0 we have that (uεk ) is a Cauchy sequence in C 0 (Ω), hence it
uniformly converges to a harmonic function u which equals g on ∂Ω.
Remark 1.33 The method of Poincaré decreases the Dirichlet integral:
D(g) ≥ D(u2 ) ≥ . . . ≥ D(uk ) ≥ . . . ≥ D(u).
Consequently if g has a W 1,2 extension i.e., an extension with finite Di-

richlet integral, then the harmonic extension u lies in W 1,2 (Ω) (for the
definition of W 1,2 (Ω) see Section 3.2 below).
On the other hand one can also have
D(g) = D(uk ) = ∞ for every k = 1, 2, . . . ,
compare section 1.2.2.
Remark 1.34 By Riemann’s mapping theorem one can show that, if

Ω ⊂ R2 is the interior of a closed Jordan curve Γ, then all boundary points
of Ω are regular. Lebesgue has instead exhibited a Jordan domain Ω in
R3 (i.e. the interior of a homeomorphic image of S 2 ) where the problem
Δu = 0 in Ω, u = g on ∂Ω cannot be solved for every g ∈ C 0 (∂Ω).
Chapter 2
Direct methods
In this chapter we shall study the existence of minimizers of variational

integrals F defined on some space of functions A, say

F(u) := F (Du)dx, u ∈ A, (2.1)
Ω
using the so-called direct method. This consists in introducing a possibly

larger class A ⊃ A together with a topology that makes F lower semicon-
tinuous and every (or at least one) minimizing sequence {uj } compact in
A, i.e. such that, modulo passing to a subsequence, uj → u. Then u is a
minimizer in A, since
F(u) ≤ lim inf F(uj ) = inf F(u).

j→∞ u∈A
Observe that the two conditions are in competition, since with a stronger
topology it is easier to have semicontinuity, but more difficult to have
compactness.
Examples of integrals of the form (2.1) are the following,1
1. F(u) := Ω
|Du|2 dx
2. F(u) := Ω
1 + |Du|2 dx
2
3. F(u) := Ω
e|Du| dx
4. F(u) := |Du|2 log(1 + |Du|2 )dx
Ω
n−1 2 k

5. F(u) := Ω i=1 |Di u| + |Dn u| dx, k≥1
1
6. F(u) := Ω
(1 + |Du|k ) k dx, k ≥ 1.
1 These integrals are well defined on the space of Lipschitz functions A = Lip(Ω)
because, thanks to Rademacher’s theorem, every Lipschitz function is differentiable

almost everywhere and belongs to W 1,∞ (Ω). On the other hand, working with other
spaces, such as Sobolev spaces, is often more suitable.
18 Direct methods
It turns out that in all these cases F is a convex function. This is a

key property in the study of lower semicontinuity, and we shall assume it
throughout this chapter.
2.1 Lower semicontinuity in classes

of Lipschitz functions
By convexity of F we have for u, v ∈ Lip(Ω)
F (Dv(x)) ≥ F (Du(x)) + Fpα (Du(x))(Dα v(x) − Dα u(x)), a.e. x ∈ Ω,
where Fpα denotes the partial derivative of F (p) = F (p1 , . . . , pn ) with

respect to the variable pα , and here and in the following we use the con-
vention of summing over repeated indexes. Consider a sequence {uj }; for
each uj we have

F (Du)dx ≤ F (Duj )dx − Fpα (Du)(Dα uj − Dα u)dx. (2.2)
Ω Ω Ω
If we assume that Fpα is continuous, then Fpα (Du(x)) ∈ L∞ (Ω). There-

fore if Duj weakly converges to Du in L1 (Ω), the last integral vanishes
and F(u) ≤ lim inf F(uj ), thus we have
Proposition 2.1 A functional F : Lip(Ω) → R of the form

F(u) = F (Du)dx
Ω
with F convex and Fp continuous is lower semicontinuous with respect to

the weak-W 1,1 convergence.
Define the space
Lipk (Ω) = {u ∈ Lip(Ω) : |u|1 ≤ k},
where |u|1 is the Lipschitz seminorm:
|u(x) − u(y)|
|u|1 := sup .
x,y∈Ω |x − y|
x=y
Then we have
Proposition 2.2 If F is convex and Fp continuous, then F is lower semi-

continuous with respect to the uniform convergence of sequences with equi-
bounded Lipschitz seminorm.
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upon return, go thou; the way is nigh, and thy ships are by the sea; but all
the other Greeks will abide till they have taken Troy. Yea, and if these also
will go, then we two, I and Sthenelus, will abide and fight till we make an
end of the city, for it was the gods that sent us hither."
Then Nestor spake: "Thou art brave in war, son of Tydeus, and excellent
in council above thy fellows. But now let us take our meal; and let sentinels
watch along the trench. And do thou, son of Atreus, make a feast for thy
chiefs, as is meet. And him who counsels thee most wisely thou must
follow. Sorely do we need wise counsel, seeing that the enemy have so
many fires near our ships. Verily this night will save our army or destroy."
So King Agamemnon called the chiefs to a feast; and when the feast
was ended Nestor rose up and spake: "Evil was the day, O King, when thou
didst send and take the damsel Briseis from the tent of Achilles. Let us
therefore take thought how we may best appease him with noble gifts and
pleasant words."
Then said King Agamemnon: "These are true words that thou hast
spoken, old man. Truly I did as a fool that day, and I deny it not. For he that
is loved of Zeus is of more worth than whole armies of men; and verily
Zeus loveth this man, seeing that he putteth the Greeks to flight that he may
do him honour. But even as I wronged him in my folly, so will I make
amends, and give a recompense beyond all telling. And now I will declare
before you all the gifts that I will give: a huge treasure of gold and bronze,
and twelve stout horses, that have won prizes in the race by fleetness of
foot. And seven women will I give him, skilled in excellent handiwork,
fairer than all women. These will I give him, and with them the damsel
Briseis, even as I took her from him. And if the gods shall grant us to
destroy the great city of Priam, then let him come when we divide the spoil,
and choose for himself twenty women of Troy, the fairest there be after
Helen. And if he come again to the land of Greece, then shall he be my son,
and he shall choose in marriage which one of my daughters he will. Yea,
and I will give with her seven fair cities, with pasture-lands and vineyards,
wherein dwell men that have many flocks and herds, who will honour him
with gifts even as men honour a god, and will fulfil his commands. All this
will I give him, if so be that he will cease from his anger."
To him Nestor made answer: "No man may think lightly of the gifts that
thou givest to great Achilles. Come, therefore, let us choose men, that they
may go with all speed to his tent. Let Phœnix, who is beloved of Zeus, lead
the way; and let Ajax the Greater and Ulysses go with him, and two heralds
also."
Phœ'-nix.
So the heralds went by the shore of the sea; and, as they went, they
made prayer to the god that shakes the earth that they might turn the heart
of Achilles. And when they came to the ships of the Myrmidons, they found
the King taking his pleasure with a harp. There he sat, delighting his soul
with music, and sang the deeds of heroes of old time. And Patroclus sat
opposite him in silence, waiting till he should cease from his singing. Then
the two chiefs came forward, Ulysses leading the way, and stood before the
face of Achilles; and Achilles leapt up in much amaze, holding the harp in
his hand. And Patroclus rose also from his seat when he saw the twain.
Then said Achilles, fleet of foot, "Welcome ye are, and right dear to me, for
all my anger."
So spake Achilles, and led them forward; and he bade them sit on seats
that were covered with coverlets of purple. Then said he to Patroclus,
"Bring forth the biggest bowl, and mix for each man a cup, for I have not
dearer friends than these that are come beneath my roof this day.
And the chiefs stretched forth their hands to the meat that lay ready
before them. And when they had done with the desire for food and drink,
Ajax nodded to Phœnix that he should speak; but Ulysses perceived it, and
was beforehand with him, and filled a cup with wine, and pledged Achilles,
and spake: "Hail, Achilles! No lack have we had of feasting before in the
tent of King Agamemnon and now in thine; but it is not of feasting that we
think this day; for we behold sore destruction close at hand, and are afraid.
Verily, we are in doubt whether or no we may save our ships, unless thou
wilt gird on thy might again. For indeed this day the men of Troy and their
allies come near to the ships to burn them with fire. And Zeus shows them
favourable signs. As for Hector, he rages furiously, trusting in Zeus, and
vows that he will burn the ships with fire, and make havoc of the Greeks
while they are dazed with the smoke of the burning. Sorely do I fear in my
heart lest the god fulfil his threats, and doom us to perish here in Troy, far
from the plains of Argos. Up, therefore, if thou art minded even now to save
the Greeks! Delay not, lest thou repent hereafter, for there is no remedy for
that which is done. Cease from thy anger. Verily, Agamemnon offereth thee
worldly gifts, a huge treasure of gold and bronze, and twelve stout horses
that have won much wealth for Agamemnon by fleetness of foot, and seven
women, skilful in handiwork, and fairer than all their kind; and Briseis
herself he will restore to thee, even as he took her from thee. All these
things will he give; and if we take the great city of Priam, twenty daughters
of Troy, fairest of women, after Helen. And when we shall go back to
Greece, thou shalt have his daughter to wife, her whom thou shalt choose,
and with her seven cities, lying all of them near to the sea, a land of
vineyards and cornfields, whose folk shall pay thee tribute and honour. But
if thou yet hate from thy heart Agamemnon and his gifts, then I pray thee
have pity upon the Greeks, who will honour thee even as men honour a god.
Hector, too, thou mayest slay, for he will come near thee in his madness, for
he deems that there is not a man of all the Greeks that can stand against
him."
To him Achilles, fleet of foot, made answer: "Son of Laertes, plain shall
be my speech; for I would not have you sit before me, seeking to coax me,
one man this way and another another. Why must the Greeks make war
against the sons of Troy? Why did the sons of Atreus gather this host
together, and lead them to this land? Was it not for fair-haired Helen's sake?
Tell me, then, do the sons of Atreus alone of all men love their wives? Nay,
but whosoever is good and sound of heart loveth his wife and cherisheth
her, even as I loved mine, though I won her by my spear. He took her from
me, and deceived me; let him not make trial of me again, for I know him
well, and he shall not prevail with me. Let him take counsel now with thee,
Ulysses, and with the other princes of the host, how he may keep from the
ships the devouring fire. Many things hath he done without my help,
building a wall and digging a ditch about it, both wide and deep, and setting
stakes in the ditch; yet for all this can he not keep Hector from the ships.
And yet, when I fought in the host of the Greeks, this Hector dared not set
his army in array far from the walls, but scarce came to the Scæan gates and
the fig tree. Once did he await me there to do battle, man against man, and
scarce escaped my spear. But now, seeing that I have no mind to fight with
him, I will do sacrifice to-morrow to Zeus and all the gods, and I will store
my ships and launch them on the sea. Yea, to-morrow, right early in the
morning, thou shalt see them, if thou wilt, sailing along the Hellespont, and
my men toiling eagerly at the oar; and if the god that shaketh the earth
grants me a fair journey, on the third morning shall I come to the fair land
of Phthia. There is all the wealth that I left behind me when I came to Troy;
and hence I shall carry with me yet more of gold and bronze and iron, and
fair women slaves, my portion of the spoil. King Agamemnon shall not
deceive me again with lying speech. And as for his gifts, I scorn them;
though he give me tenfold, yea, twentyfold, all that he now hath promised.
Yea, verily, though he give me gifts as the sand of the sea for multitude, he
shall not persuade me, till he shall have endured bitterness of soul like
mine. And his daughter I will not wed—no, not though she be as fair as
golden Aphrodite, and match Athene of the flashing eyes in skill of
handiwork. Let him choose him from among the Greeks some kinglier son-
in-law than I, and for me, if the gods bring me safe to my home, Peleus
shall choose a wife. For all the wealth that was stored in the city of Troy, in
the days of peace, before the Greeks came thither, and all the treasure that is
laid up in the temple of Apollo the Archer that is in the city of Delphi—all
this I count as nothing in comparison with life. For a man may take cattle
and sheep for spoil, and he may buy treasure and horses; but the life of a
man, when it hath once passed from out his lips, he may not win back by
spoiling or by buying. And to me my mother, even Thetis, the goddess of
the silver foot, hath unfolded my doom. A double doom it is. If I abide in
this land and fight against the city of Troy, then shall I return no more to my
native country, but my name shall live for ever; but if I go back to my
home, then my fame shall be taken from me, but I shall live long and see
not the grave. Therefore I go, and verily I counsel you all to go, for Troy ye
never shall take as ye desire, seeing that Zeus, who seeth all things before,
holdeth over it his hand, and her sons are a valiant folk. And now go your
way; carry back this answer to the princes of the Greeks. But let the old
man Phœnix abide with me in my tent to-night, that he may sail in my ship
on the morrow. Verily he shall sail, if he will; but I will not take him by
force."
Phthi'-a. Pe'-leus.
Thus spake Achilles. And the chiefs sat still and held their peace,
marvelling at his speech, so vehement was he. But at the last the old man
Phœnix made answer. With many tears he spake, for he was sore afraid lest
the ships of the Greeks should perish: "If indeed thou art minded to depart,
and carest not to save the ships from devouring fire, how can I endure to be
left alone by thee? For the old man Peleus made me thy teacher, both of
words and of deeds. With no man but me wouldst thou go unto the feast, or
take thy meat in the hall; but I set thee upon my knees, and cut the savoury
morsel for thee from the dish, and put the wine-cup to thy lips. Many a
tunic hast thou stained for me, sputtering forth the wine upon it. Much have
I suffered, and much toiled for thee; for child of mine own I had not, and
thou wast to me as a son, Achilles, to cherish me in my need."
Then Achilles nodded to Patroclus, that he should spread a couch for the
old man Phœnix, that so the other twain might depart without delay. Then
said Ajax, the son of Telamon: "Let us depart, Ulysses. I trow that we shall
accomplish naught this day. Let us, therefore, take back the tidings, evil
though they be, to them that wait for us."
Then said Achilles: "My heart swells with wrath, when I remember how
the son of Atreus shamed me before all the people, as though I was some
stranger nothing worth. Go and take my message. I will not arise to the
battle till Hector shall come as he slays the Greeks even to the tents of the
Myrmidons, and shall encircle their ships with fire. But when he shall come
to my tent and to my ships, then I ween shall he be stayed, for all that he is
eager for battle."
Then Ajax and Ulysses departed, and told the message of Achilles to
King Agamemnon.
CHAPTER XI
THE ADVENTURE OF ULYSSES AND DIOMED
The other chiefs of the Greeks slept that night; but King Agamemnon
slept not; sore troubled was he in heart. For when he looked towards Troy,
and saw the many fires, and heard the sound of flute and pipe and the
murmur of men, he was astonished; and when he looked towards the ships
he groaned, and tore his hair, thinking what evil might come to the people.
Then it seemed good to him to seek counsel from Nestor. So he arose, and
drew his coat about his breast, and bound the sandals on his feet, and
wrapped a tawny lion's hide about him, and took a spear in his hand.
To Menelaus also came no sleep that night. So he arose, and wrapped a

leopard's skin about him, and put on his head a cap of bronze, and took a
spear in his hand, and went to seek his brother.
He found him arming by his ship, and said; "Why armest thou? Wilt
thou send some one to spy out the doings of the Trojans? I fear much that
no man will undertake the task to go alone, for it is a daring deed."
To him replied King Agamemnon: "We have need of good counsel, my

brother, that we may save the people. Truly the mind of Zeus is changed;
for never hath a man wrought such destruction in one day as did Hector on
the Greeks. Run thou to Ajax and Idomeneus, and call them to the council,
and I will go to Nestor."
So the chiefs were gathered to the council. First of all they went to the
company of them that watched the camp. These they found not sleeping but
awake. As dogs that hear the sound of some wild beast in the wood, so did
the watch look towards the plain, thinking to hear the sound of the feet of
the Trojans.
Gladly did old Nestor see them, and spake, saying, "Such be your
watch, my children, lest we become a prey to our enemies."
Then he hasted to cross the trench, and with him went the other princes.
In an open spaces that was clear of dead, they sat down, even where Hector
had turned back from slaying the Greeks.
And Nestor rose and said: "Is there now a man who will go among the
sons of Troy, and see what they are minded to do? Great honour will he
win, and gifts."
Then Diomed said, "I am ready to go, but I would fain have some one
with me. To have a companion gives comfort and courage, and, indeed, two
wits are better than one to take counsel and to foresee."
And many were willing to go with Diomed. But Agamemnon said,

"Choose the best man, O Diomed, and regard not the birth or rank of any."
And Diomed answered: "If I may choose, whom should I choose rather than
the wise Ulysses? Brave is he, and prudent, and Athene loves him well."
But Ulysses said: "Praise me not overmuch, nor blame me. Only let us
go, for the night is far spent."
So these two armed themselves. Diomed took a two-edged sword and a

shield, and a helmet without a crest, and Ulysses a bow and a quiver and a
sword, and a helmet of hide with the white teeth of a wild boar about it.
Then both prayed to Athene that she would help them, and after that they
went through the darkness like two lions, trampling over dead bodies and
arms and blood.
But Hector, meanwhile, was thinking on the same things, for he called
the chiefs to a council and said: "Who now will go and spy among the
Greeks, and see what they purpose to do on the morrow, and whether they
are keeping watch through the night? A goodly reward shall he have, even a
chariot and horses, the best that there are in the camp of the Greeks."
Then stood up a certain Dolon. Ill-favoured was he, but a swift runner.
He said:—
Do'-lon.
"I will go, Hector; but come, lift up thy sceptre, and swear to me that
thou wilt give me the chariot and the horses of Achilles."
So Hector sware to him. And Dolon took his bow, and a helmet of gray
wolf-skin, and a sharp spear, and went his way in haste. But Ulysses saw
him, and said:—
"Here cometh a man, Diomed, but whether he be a spy or a spoiler of

the dead I know not. Let him pass by a space that we may take him. If he
outrun us, press him with thy spear towards the ships; only let him not turn
back to the city."
So they lay down among the dead, a little out of the way, and Dolon
passed by them unknowing; but when he had gone a little space they ran
upon him. For a while he stood hearkening to their steps, for he thought that
Hector had sent comrades to call him back. But when they were a spear's
throw from him, or less, he knew them for foes and fled. And as two dogs
follow a fawn or a hare, so they ran, pursuing Dolon. And when he had
well-nigh reached the trench, for they kept him from turning back to the
city, Diomed rushed forward and cried:—
"Stay, or I will slay thee with my spear."
And he threw the spear, but made it pass over his shoulder, so that it
stood in the ground before him. Then Dolon stood trembling and pale, and
with teeth chattering with fear. And the two heroes, breathing hard, came up
and laid hands on him. And he said, weeping:—
"Hold me for ransom; much gold and bronze and iron will my father
give, if he hear that I am a prisoner at the ships."
Then said the wise Ulysses: "Tell us truly, why wast thou coming hither
through the darkness? To spoil the dead, or, at Hector's bidding, to spy out
our affairs at the ships, or on some errand of thine own?"
And Dolon answered, "Hector persuaded me, promising to give me the

horses and chariot of Achilles, and he bade me go and spy out what ye
purposed to do on the morrow, and whether ye were keeping watch in the
night."
And Ulysses smiled and said: "Surely it was a great reward that thy soul
desired. But tell me, where is Hector, and where are the watches of the sons
of Troy?"
Then Dolon answered: "Hector holds council with the chiefs. As for the
army, there are no watches set, save only where be the Trojans themselves.
As for the allies, they sleep secure, and trust to the Trojans to watch for
them, seeing that they have not wives or children near."
Then Ulysses asked, "Do they sleep, then, among the Trojans, or apart?"
"Next to the sea," said Dolon, "but if ye wish to enter the camp, lo!
apart from all are some newcomers, Thracians, with Rhesus, their king.
Never have I seen horses so fair and tall as his. Whiter are they than snow,
and swifter than the winds. But do ye now send me to the ships, or, if ye
will, bind me and leave me here."
Thra'-ci-ans. Rhe'-sus.
But Diomed said: "Think not to escape, Dolon, though thy news is
good; for then wouldst thou come again to spy out our camp or to fight. But
if I slay thee, thou wilt trouble the Greeks no more."
So he slew him, and took from him his arms, hanging them on a
tamarisk tree, and made a mark with reeds and tamarisk boughs, that they
might know the place as they came back. So they went on across the plain
and came to where the men of Thrace lay sleeping, and by each man were
his arms in fair array, and his horses; but in the midst lay King Rhesus, with
his horses tethered to the chariot-rail. Then Diomed began to slay. As a lion
rushes on a flock, so rushed he on the men of Thrace. Twelve he slew, and
as he slew them Ulysses dragged them out of the way, that there might be a
clear road for the horses, lest they should start back, fearing the dead
bodies, for they were not used to war. And the thirteenth was King Rhesus
himself, who panted in his sleep, for an evil dream was on him. And
meanwhile Ulysses drove the horses out of the encampment, smiting them
with his bow, for he had not thought to take the whip out of the chariot.
Then he whistled, making a sign to Diomed that he should come, for
Diomed lingered, doubting whether he might not slay yet more. But Athene
whispered in his ear:—
"Think of thy return, lest some god rouse the Trojans against thee."
Indeed, Apollo was even then rousing them. And the Trojans flocked
together with tumult and shouting. But Diomed and Ulysses meanwhile had
mounted the horses, and were riding to the ships. Glad were their comrades
to see them safe returned, and praised them much for all that they had done.
CHAPTER XII
THE WOUNDING OF THE CHIEFS
When the next day dawned, King Agamemnon called the Greeks to
battle. And on the other side Hector set in order the men of Troy. As a
baleful star now shineth from the clouds, and now is hidden, so Hector now
shone among the foremost ranks, and now ordered the rearward.
Then the men of Troy and the Greeks leapt upon each other. As reapers
reap in a rich man's field, making the barley and the wheat fall in long
swathes, so did the Trojans and the Greeks slay one another. So long as the
day was waxing, the battle was equal, and the people fell alike on either
side; but at noon, the Greeks brake the Trojan line, and Agamemnon leapt
first into the breach. As a fire falleth on a wood, and sweepeth it away, so
Agamemnon fell upon the men of Troy, and swept them before him. Past
the Tomb of Ilus, and past the wild fig tree in the plain, they fled, and the
King followed hard upon them, shouting aloud. But when they came to the
Scæan gate they turned and stood, and the battle was renewed.
I'-lus.
Then spake Zeus to Iris, saying: "Get thee away, swift Iris, and bear this
word to Hector. So long as he shall see King Agamemnon laying waste the
ranks of men, so long let him hold back from the battle. But when the King
shall be wounded with spear or arrow, and shall leap from his chariot, then
let him advance, and I will give him strength to slay till he shall come to the
ships, and the sun shall set."
So he came, and told these words to Hector. And when Hector heard
them, he leapt from his chariot, and went up and down the ranks of Troy,
strengthening them for the fight. And the two hosts stood, and faced each
other.
Then did King Agamemnon slay the two sons of Antenor. First he slew
Iphidamas, smiting him a deadly blow upon the neck. But Coön, Antenor's
first-born son, was grieved for his brother, and standing sideways, so that
the King saw him not, he stabbed him in the middle of the arm, beneath the
elbow, and the spear pierced it through. The King started, yet ceased not
from battle, and as Coön dragged his brother by the foot out of the press,
calling upon the chiefs to help, then Agamemnon smote him with the spear,
beneath the shield, and drove him to the ground, and then smote off his
head with the sword. Thus did Agamemnon slay the two sons of Antenor.
I-phid'-a-mas. Co'-on.
For a time, while the wound was warm, the King fought as before; but
when it grew cold and stiff, great pain came upon him, and he leapt into his
chariot and bade the charioteer drive him to the ships, for he could fight no
more.
Now when Hector saw that Agamemnon, had departed from the battle,
he called aloud to the Trojans and the allies: "Come on, and play the man.
The leader of the Greeks is gone; and Zeus giveth the honour unto me."
So he stirred the spirit within them. As a hunter setteth his dogs on a

wild boar or a lion in the field, so did Hector set the men of Troy upon the
Greeks, and he himself went among the foremost, and plunged into the
battle as a storm cometh down upon the sea. Many valiant men did he slay,
till Ulysses called to Diomed: "Son of Tydeus, have we forgotten our
courage? Come hither, and stand by me; it were shame if Hector should
take our ships."
Strong Diomed made answer, "I will, indeed, abide with thee; but it will
fare ill with us if Zeus give the mastery to the men of Troy rather than to
us."
So he spake, and slew a man, and Ulysses another; and afterwards they
slew two apiece, making head against the men of Troy, and the Greeks, as
they fled from Hector, gladly took breath and turned again.
Hector was quick to see what they did, and he came upon them with a
cry, and the companies of Troy followed after him. But when Diomed saw
him, he was afraid, and said to Ulysses, "See, mighty Hector cometh against
us; let us be firm and stand against him."
And even as he spake he cast his spear, nor missed his aim. On the
helmet he smote Hector; but the spear glanced from the bronze, nor
wounded the flesh; for the helmet which Apollo had given him saved him.
But he staggered under the blow, falling on his knee, and darkness came
over his eyes. And when Diomed came after his spear, far through the
foremost ranks, to where it had lighted on the ground, then Hector,
breathing again, leapt upon his car, and drove into the midst of the host,
avoiding death.
Then Diomed, as he rushed on, with his spear in his hand, cried aloud:
"Dog, thou hast escaped from death once more; but mischief came near
thee. Apollo hath saved thee, to whom doubtless thou didst pray ere thou
came into the press of war. But some time I will slay thee, if only some god
will help."
And he turned to slay the men of Troy. But Paris, who was in hiding
behind the pillar on the Tomb of Ilus, drew his bow, and smote him with an
arrow through the ankle of the right foot. Loud he boasted of his aim.
"Only," he said, "I would that I had pierced thee in the loin; then hadst thou
troubled the sons of Troy no more."
But Diomed answered: "Small good were thy bow to thee, cowardly
archer, if thou shouldst dare to meet me face to face. And as for this graze
on my foot, I care no more than if a woman or child had smitten me. Not
such the wounds I deal."
Then Ulysses stood before him, while he drew the arrow out of his foot.
Grievous was the smart of the wound, for all his brave words. Therefore he
leapt into his chariot, and bade drive in haste to the ships; and Ulysses stood
alone, and none of the Greeks stood by him, for all were sore afraid. Then
spake he to himself:—
"What shall I do? It were much evil to fly before these many foes, and
yet worse were I to be caught and slain, for truly Zeus hath sent great fear
upon the Greeks. But why talk I thus? 'Tis only the coward that draweth
back from the war; the brave man standeth whether he smite or be smitten."
And as he spake, the Trojans came about him as men with dogs come
about a wild boar who stands at bay, gnashing his white teeth. Fiercely
Ulysses stood at bay, and slew five chiefs of fame. But one of them, before
he fell, wounded him on the side, scraping the flesh from the ribs. High
spurted the blood from the wound, and the Trojans shouted to see it. Then
Ulysses cried aloud for help; three times he cried, and Menelaus heard him,
and called to Ajax, saying:—
"O Ajax, I hear the voice of Ulysses; and he shouteth as if the men of
Troy had compassed him about, and he was left alone. Come, therefore, let
us help him, lest he come to harm, and the Greeks have a heavy loss!"
Thus he spake, and led the way, and Ajax followed him; and when they
came to Ulysses, the Trojans had beset him, even as the jackals beset a
long-horned hart among the hills, which a hunter hath wounded with an
arrow from the bow. From the hunter he flieth, while the wound is warm,
but when he groweth weak the jackals tear him. Then cometh a lion, and the
jackals flee. So fled the Trojans when Ajax came and stood beside Ulysses.
Then Menelaus took Ulysses by the hand, and led him from out the throng.
Then Ajax leapt upon the Trojans and slew many, scouring the plain,
and killing horse and man. But Paris, husband of Helen, stayed Machaon
from the fight, wounding him on the right shoulder with a three-pointed
arrow. Therefore spake Idomeneus to Nestor, "Quick, Nestor, mount thy
chariot and take Machaon with thee, and drive quickly to the ships, for the
life of a physician is as the lives of many men!"
So Nestor mounted on his chariot, and Machaon stood beside him. He

touched the horses, and they flew right willingly to the ships.
Now Achilles was standing on the stern of his ship, looking at the war,
and he saw Nestor carrying Machaon in his chariot to the ships. Then he
called to Patroclus, and Patroclus, who was in the tent, came forth. Then
said Achilles:—
"Now will the Greeks soon come praying for help, for their need is sore.
But go and see who is this whom Nestor is taking to the ships. His
shoulders are the shoulders of Machaon, but I saw not his face, so swift the
horses passed me by."
Then Patroclus ran to the tent of Nestor, and stood in the door. But when
old Nestor saw him, he went and took him by the hand, and would have had
him sit down. But Patroclus would not, saying:—
"Stay me not. I came but to see who is this that thou hast brought
wounded from the battle. And now I see that it is Machaon. Therefore I will
return; for thou knowest what manner of man is Achilles, that he is hasty
and swift to blame."
Then said Nestor: "But what careth Achilles for the Greeks? or why
doth he ask who are wounded? Hear what I say. It may be that Achilles will
not go forth to the battle. But let him send thee forth, and the Myrmidons
with thee, and let him put his arms upon thee, so that the sons of Troy be
affrighted, thinking that he is in the battle, and we shall have breathing
space."
Then Patroclus returned to Achilles.
CHAPTER XIII
THE BATTLE AT THE WALL
Now by this time the Trojans were close upon the trench. But the horses
stood on the brink, fearing to leap it, for it was broad and deep, and the
Greeks had put great stakes therein. Thus said Polydamas.
Po-lyd'-a-mas.
"Surely, Hector, this is madness that we strive to cross the trench in our
chariots, for it is broad and deep, and there are great stakes therein. Look,
too, at this: even if we should be able to cross it, how will the matter stand?
If, indeed, it be the pleasure of Zeus that the Greeks should perish utterly—
it will be well. But if they turn upon us and pursue us, driving us back from
the ships, then shall we not be able to return. Wherefore let us leave our
chariots here upon the brink, and go on foot against the wall."
So they went in five companies, and Hector led that which was bravest
and largest. And in each company they joined shield to shield, and so went
against the Greeks. And they all left their chariots by the trench, save Asius
only. But Asius drove his chariot right up to that gate which was on the left
hand in the wall. Now the gates chanced to be open, for the warders had
opened them, so that any of the Greeks that fled might enter. Now the
warders were two mighty heroes; and these, when they saw Asius and his
company coming, went without and stood in front of the gates, just as two
wild boars stand at bay against a crowd of men and dogs. And all the while
they that stood on the wall threw heavy stones, which fell, thick as the
snowflakes fall in the winter, on the men of Troy, and loud rang the helmets
and the shields. And many fell wounded to the death, nor could Asius, for
all his fury, win his way into the walls. But where, at another of the gates,
Hector led the way, there appeared a strange marvel in the skies, for an
eagle was bearing in his claws a great snake, which it had taken as a prey.
But the snake fought fiercely for its life, and writhed itself about, even till it
bit the eagle on the breast. Thereupon the eagle dropped it into the midst of
the host, and fled with a loud cry. Then Polydamas, the wise counsellor,
came near to Hector and said:—
A'-si-us.
"Now it will be well that we should not follow these Greeks to their
ships. For I take it that this marvel that we have seen is a sign to us. For as
this eagle had caught in his claws a snake, but held it not, dropping it before
he could bear it to his young, so shall it fare with us. For we shall drive the
Greeks to their ships, yet shall not subdue them, but shall return in disorder
by the way that we came, leaving full many of our comrades behind us."
But Hector frowned, and answered: "Nay, but this is ill counsel,
Polydamas. Dost thou bid me forget the command of Zeus the Thunderer,
and take heed to birds, how they fly? Little care I whether they go to the
east or to the west, to the right or to the left. Surely there is but one sign for
a brave man, that he be fighting for his fatherland. Therefore take thou
heed; for if thou holdest back from the war, or holdest back any other, lo! I
will smite thee with my spear."
Then he sprang forward, and the men of Troy followed him with a
shout. And Zeus sent down from Ida a great blast of wind, which bore the
dust of the plain straight to the ships, troubling the hearts of the Greeks.
Then the Trojans sought to drag down the battlements from the wall, and to
wrench up the posts which had been set to strengthen it. Nor did the Greeks
give way, but they joined shield to shield, and fought for the wall. And
foremost among them were Ajax the Greater and Ajax the Less. Just as the
snow falls in mid-winter, when the winds are hushed, and the mountain-
tops are covered, and the plains and the dwellings of men and the very
shores of the sea, up to the waves' edge, so thickly fell the stones which the
Greeks showered from the wall against the men of Troy, and which these
again threw upon the Greeks. And still Hector and his men availed not to
break through the gate. But at the last Zeus stirred up the heart of his own
son, Sarpedon. Holding his shield before him he went, and he shook in
either hand a spear. As goes a lion, when hunger presses him sore, against a
stall of oxen or a sheepfold, and cares not though he find men and dogs
keeping watch against him, so Sarpedon went against the wall.
And on the other hand the Greeks strengthened their ranks within the
wall, for the matter was of life or death. Long time they fought with equal
might, for neither could the Lycians break through the wall of the Greeks
and make a way to the ships, nor could the Greeks drive back the Lycians
from the wall. Even as two neighbours, standing with measures in their
hands, contend about some boundary, so the Lycians and the Greeks
contended for the battlements. And many a man was wounded with the
pitiless bronze, either smitten in the back, where he was without defence, or
smitten in front through his shield; and all the battlements were bespattered
with the blood of men.
So it was till Zeus gave the glory to Hector. He leapt within the wall,
and cried to the men of Troy, "Now follow me, and break down the wall,
and burn the ships."
So he spake, and they heard his voice, and rushed together on the wall.
Now in front of the gate there lay a great stone, broad at the base and sharp
at the top. Scarce could two men of the strongest, such as are men in these
days, move it with levers on to a wagon; but Hector lifted it easily, easily as
a shepherd carries in one hand the fleece of a sheep. Two folding doors
there were in the gates, held by bolts and a key, and at these he hurled the
great stone, planting his feet apart, that his aim might be the surer and
stronger. With a mighty crash it came against the gates. and the bolts held
not against it, and the hinges were broken, so that the folding doors flew
back. Then Hector leapt into the space, holding a spear in either hand, and
his eyes flashed as fire. And the men of Troy came after him, some
mounting the wall, and some pouring through the gates.
CHAPTER XIV
THE BATTLE AT THE SHIPS
And when Zeus had brought the Trojans near to the ships, he turned
away his eyes, and looked upon them no more, for he deemed that none of
the immortal gods would come to help either Trojan or Greek. But Poseidon
was watching the battle from the wooded height of Samothrace, whence he
could see Ida and Troy and the ships. And he pitied the Greeks, when he
saw how they fled before Hector, and purposed in his heart to help them. So
he left the height of Samothrace, and came with four strides to his palace in
the depths of the sea. There he harnessed the horses to his chariot, and rode,
passing over the waves, and the great beasts of the sea gambolled about him
as he went, knowing their king.
Po-sei'-don. Sa-mo-thrace'.
His horses he stabled in a cavern of the sea, and loosed them from the
car, and gave them immortal food to eat, and put shackles of gold about
their feet.
And all the while the men of Troy came on, following Hector, like a
storm or a great flame, for they thought to take the ships and to slay the
Greeks beside them.
But Poseidon came to the camp of the Greeks, taking upon him the
shape of Calchas the herald. First he spake to either Ajax, saying: "Hold
fast, ye men of might, so that ye save the people. For the rest of the wall I
fear not, but only for the place where Hector rages."
Cal'-chas.
And as he spake, he smote each with his staff, and filled them with
courage, and gave strength to hands and feet. Then he passed from them
even as a hawk that riseth from a cliff, chasing a bird.
And the Lesser Ajax knew him, and spake to his comrade, saying: "This
is some god that bids us fight for the ships; he was not Calchas, for I
marked the goings of his legs and his feet as he went. The gods are easily
discerned. And verily my heart within me is eager for the fight."
The Greater Ajax answered him, "Even so do my own hands yearn

about the spear, and my heart is on fire, and my feet carry me away, and I
am eager to fight with Hector, even I alone, for all his fury."
Then Poseidon went to the other chiefs, going up and down the ranks,
and urged them to stand fast against their enemies. But not the less did the
men of Troy press on, Hector leading the way.
And so loud was the cry of battle that it roused old Nestor where he sat
in his tent, tending the wounded Machaon. So he went forth from the tent,
seeking King Agamemnon. And as he went, the King met him, and with
him were Diomed and Ulysses, who also had been wounded that day. So
they held counsel together. And Agamemnon—for it troubled him sore that
the people were slain—would that they should draw down the ships into the
sea, and should flee homewards, as soon as the darkness should cover them
and the Trojans should cease from the battle.
But Ulysses would have none of such counsel, saying: "Now surely, son
of Atreus, thou art not worthy to rule over us, who have been men of war
from our youth. Wilt thou leave this city, for the taking of which we have
suffered so much? That may not be; let not any one of the Greeks hear thee
say such words. And what is this, that thou wouldst have us launch our
ships now, whilst the hosts are fighting? Surely, so doing, we should perish
together, for the Greeks would not fight any more, seeing that the ships
were being launched, and the men of Troy would slay us altogether."
Then King Agamemnon said, "Thou speakest well." And he went

through the host, bidding the men bear themselves bravely; and all the
while Poseidon put courage and strength into their hearts; and, on the other
hand, Hera lulled Zeus to sleep on the heights of Olympus, so that now the
battle went against the men of Troy.
And Ajax took a great stone—now were there many such which they
had as props for the ships—and smote Hector above the rim of his shield,
on the neck. As an oak falls, stricken by the thunder of Zeus, so he fell, and
the Greeks rushed with a great cry to drag him to them, but could not, for
all the bravest of the sons of Troy held their shields before him. Then they
carried him to the river, and poured water upon him. And after a while he
sat up, and then again his spirit left him, for the blow had been very
grievous. But when the Greeks saw that Hector had been carried out of the
battle, they pressed on the more, slaying the men of Troy, and driving them
back even out of the camp and across the trench. But when they came to
their chariots, where they had left them on the other side of the trench, there
they stood trembling and pale with fear, as men that flee in the day of battle.
And now Zeus woke from his sleep, and he looked upon the earth; and
he saw how the Greeks were driving the men of Troy before them, and
Hector lay upon the plain, and vomited blood, and his friends knelt about
him. Senseless he lay, for it was no puny hand that had dealt the blow. Very
wroth was Zeus to see such a sight, and he said to Hera: "What is this that
thou hast done, sending Hector from the battle? Rememberest thou not how
I hung thee amid the clouds with a band of gold about thy hands and an
anvil of gold on either foot? Make an end of thy deceits, or verily nothing
shall protect thee from my wrath." to
Then Hera answered: "It is Poseidon that afflicts the Trojans, and bears
up the Greeks."
Then said Zeus: "Call hither Iris and Apollo the Archer; let Iris go to
Poseidon, and bid him cease from the battle, and let Apollo strengthen
Hector, that he may go back to the battle; so shall my will be accomplished,
fulfilling the oath that I sware to Thetis of the sea that I would do honour to
her son."
Then Iris went to Poseidon, and gave him the message of Zeus. Very
wroth was the god, and said: "Thinketh he then to control me by force who
am his equal in honour? Three brethren are we, and the Fates gave the sea
to me for my dominion, and to Hades the realm of darkness, and to Zeus the
heaven; but the earth is for all. I walk not by the will of Zeus; let him
remain in his own possessions, and meddle not."
But Iris answered: "Shaker of the earth, shall I bear back so rough an
answer to Zeus? Surely thou knowest the might of the elder born?"
Then Poseidon said, "Iris, thou speakest well; this time will I yield, but
know that if he shall scorn me and the other gods and let Troy stand
untaken, and give not victory to the Greeks, there shall be endless feud
between him and me."
Meanwhile Apollo went, at the bidding of Zeus, to Hector. He found
him sitting up, for the will of Zeus had revived him. Then spake Apollo:
"Hector, why sittest thou apart from thy fellows? Hath trouble come upon
thee?"
Hector made reply in a feeble voice: "Who art thou among the gods that
speakest to me? Knowest thou not that Ajax smote me with a mighty stone
and stayed me from the battle? Verily I thought that I had gone down this
day to the dwellings of the dead."
But Apollo said: "Be of good cheer, for Zeus hath sent me, who am
Apollo of the Golden Sword, to stand by thee and to succour thee. Come
now, and bid thy people advance toward the ships, and I will go before thee,
and make the way easy for thy horses."
So Hector rose up in his might, and entered into the battle. And as men
that chase a stag or a wild goat, and lo! a lion crosseth their path, so were
the Greeks afraid when they saw Hector, the son of Priam. And one spake,
saying:—
"Surely this is a great marvel that I see with mine eyes. For we thought
that Hector had been slain by the hand of Ajax, son of Telamon, and now,
behold! he is come back to the battle. Many Greeks have fallen before him,
and many, methinks, will fall, for of a truth some god has raised him up and
helps him. But come, let all the bravest stand together. So, mighty though
he be, he shall fear to enter our array."
And all the bravest gathered together and stood in the front, but the
multitude made for the ships. But Hector came on, and Apollo before him,
and many of the Greeks fell slain before the sons of Troy. Thus the battle
turned again, and came near to the trench; and now Apollo made it easy for
the men of Troy to pass, so that they left not their chariots, as before, upon
the brink, but drave them across.
And still the men of Troy came on, and still the Greeks gave way. So
they came again, these pushing forward and these yielding ground, to the
ships. And Hector caught hold of one of them, and the battle raged about it;
for the men of Troy and the Greeks were gathered round, and none fought
with arrows or javelins from afar, but man to man, with battle-axe and
sword and great spears pointed at either end. And many a fair weapon lay
shattered on the ground, and the earth flowed with blood as with a river. But
still Hector held the stem of the ship with his hand, and called to the men of
Troy that they should bring fire, for Zeus had given them the victory that
day. Then even Ajax himself gave way, so did the spears of the Trojans
press him; for now he stood no longer upon the stern deck, but on the
rowers' bench, thrusting thence with his spear at any one who sought to set
fire to the ship. And ever he cried to the Greeks with a terrible voice:—
"O ye Greeks! now must ye bear yourselves like men. For have ye any
helpers behind? or have ye any walls to shelter you? We are here in the
plain of Troy, and the sea is close behind us, and we are far from our
country. Wherefore all our hope is in valour, and not in shrinking back from
the battle."
And still he thrust with his spear, if any of the men of Troy, at Hector's
bidding, sought to bring fire against the ships. Full twelve he wounded
where he stood.
CHAPTER XV
THE DEEDS AND DEATH OF PATROCLUS
Now Patroclus stood by Achilles, weeping bitterly. Then said Achilles:

"What ails thee, Patroclus, that thou weepest like a girl-child that runs along
by her mother's side, and would be taken up, holding her gown, and looking
at her with tearful eyes till she lift her in her arms? Hast thou heard evil
news from home? Or art thou weeping for the Greeks, because they perish
for their folly?"
Then said Patroclus: "Be not wroth with me, great Achilles, for indeed
the Greeks are in grievous straits, and all their bravest are wounded, and
still thou cherishest thy wrath. If thou goest not to the battle, fearing some
warning from the gods, let me go, and thy Myrmidons with me. And let me
put thy armour on me; so shall the Greeks have breathing-space from the
war."
So he spake, entreating, nor knew that for his own doom he entreated.
And Achilles made reply:—
"It is no warning that I heed, that I keep back from the war. These men
took from me my prize, which I won with my own hands. But let the past
be past. I said that I would not rise up till the battle should come nigh to my
own ships. But thou mayest put my armour upon thee, and lead my
Myrmidons to the fight. For in truth the men of Troy are gathered as a dark
cloud about the ships, and the Greeks have scarce standing-ground between
them and the sea. For they see not the gleam of my helmet, and Diomed is
not there with his spear; nor do I hear the voice of Agamemnon, but only
the voice of Hector, as he calls the men of Troy to the battle. Go, therefore,
Patroclus, and drive the fire from the ships. And then come thou back, nor
fight any more with the Trojans, lest thou take my glory from me. And go
not near, in the delight of battle, to the walls of Troy, lest one of the gods
meet thee to thy hurt: for the keen-archer Apollo loves the Trojans well."
But as they talked the one to the other, Ajax could hold out no longer.
For swords and javelins came thick upon him, and clattered on his helmet,
and his shoulder was weary with the great shield which he held; and he
breathed heavily and hard, and the great drops of sweat fell upon the
ground. Then at the last Hector came near and smote his spear with a great
sword, so that the head fell off. Then was Ajax sore afraid, and gave way,
and the men of Troy set torches to the ship's stem, and a great flame shot up
to the sky. And Achilles saw it, and smote his thigh and spake:—
"Haste thee, Patroclus, for I see the fire rising up from the ships. Put
thou on the armour, and I will call my people to the war."
So Patroclus put on the armour,—corselet, and shield, and helmet,—and

bound upon his shoulder the silver-studded sword, and took a mighty spear
in his hand. But the great spear of Achilles he took not, for that no man but
Achilles might wield. Then Automedon yoked the horses to the chariot,
Bayard and Piebald, and with them in the side harness, Pedasus; and the
two first were deathless steeds, but the third was mortal.
Au-tom'-e-don. Ped'-a-sus.
Meanwhile Achilles had called the Myrmidons to battle. Fifty ships had
he brought to Troy, and in each there were fifty men.
Then Achilles said: "Forget not, ye Myrmidons, the bold words that ye
spake against the men of Troy during the days of my wrath, making
complaint that I kept you from the battle against your will. Now, therefore,
ye have that which ye desired."
So the Myrmidons went to the battle in close array, helmet to helmet

and shield to shield, close as the stones with which a builder builds a wall
And in front went Patroclus, and Automedon in the chariot beside him.
Then Achilles went to his tent and took from the chest a great cup, which
Thetis his mother had given him. Now no man drank of that cup but he
only, nor did he pour out of it offerings to any of the gods except to Zeus.
This first he cleansed with sulphur, and then with water from the spring.
And after this he washed his hands, and stood in the midst of the space
before his tent, and poured out of it to Zeus, saying, "O Zeus, I send my
comrade to this battle; make him strong and bold, and give him glory, and
bring him home safe to the ships, and my people with him."
So he prayed, and Father Zeus heard him, and part he granted and part
denied.
But now Patroclus with the Myrmidons had come to where the battle
was raging about the ships, and when the men of Troy beheld him, they
thought that Achilles had forgotten his wrath and was come forth to the war.
Then the men of Troy turned to flee, and many chiefs of fame fell by the
spears of the Greeks. So the battle rolled back to the trench, and in the
trench many chariots of the Trojans were broken, but the horses of Achilles
went across it at a stride, so nimble were they and strong. And the heart of
Patroclus was set to slay Hector; but he could not overtake him, so swift
were his horses. Then did Patroclus turn his chariot, and keep back those
that fled, and rushed hither and thither, still slaying as he went.
But Sarpedon, when he saw the Lycians dismayed and scattered, called
to them that they should be of good courage, saying that he would himself
make trial of this great warrior. So he leapt down from his chariot, and
Patroclus also leapt down, and they rushed at each other as two eagles rush
together. And Sarpedon, who had a spear in either hand, with the one struck
the horse Pedasus, which was of mortal breed, on the right shoulder, and
with the other missed his aim, sending it over the left shoulder of Patroclus.
But Patroclus missed not his aim, driving his spear into Sarpedon's heart.
Then fell the great Lycian chief, as an oak, or a poplar, or a pine falls upon
the hills before the axe. But he called to Glaucus, his companion, saying:
"Now must thou show thyself a good warrior, Glaucus. First call the men of
Lycia to fight for me, and do thou fight thyself, for it would be foul shame
to thee, all thy days, if the Greeks should spoil me of my arms."
Then with a great shout the Lycians and the Trojans charged, and drove
the Greeks back a space from the body; and then again the Greeks did the
like. And so the battle raged, till no one would have known the great
Sarpedon, so covered was he with spears and blood and dust. But at the last
the Greeks drave back the men of Troy from the body, and stripped the
arms, but the body itself they harmed not. For Apollo came down at the
bidding of Zeus and carried it out of the midst of the battle, and washed it
with water, and anointed it with ambrosia, and wrapped it in garments of the
gods. And then he gave it to Sleep and Death, and these two carried it to
Lycia, his fatherland.
Then did Patroclus forget the word which Achilles had spoken to him,
that he should not go near to Troy, for he pursued the men to the city, even
to the wall. Thrice he mounted on the angle of the wall, and thrice Apollo
himself drove him back, pushing his shining shield. But the fourth time the
god said: "Go thou back, Patroclus. It is not for thee to take the city of Troy;
no, nor for Achilles, who is far better than thou art."
So Patroclus went back, fearing the wrath of the archer god. Then
Apollo stirred up the spirit of Hector, that he should go against Patroclus.
Therefore he went, with his brother Cebriones for driver of his chariot. But
when they came near, Patroclus cast a great stone which he had in his hand,
and smote Cebriones on the forehead, crushing it in, so that he fell headlong
from the chariot. And Patroclus mocked him, saying:—
Ceb-ri'-o-nes.
"How nimble is this man! how lightly he dives! What spoil he would
take of oysters, diving from a ship, even in a stormy sea! Who would have
thought that there were such skilful divers in Troy!"
Then again the battle waxed hot about the body of Cebriones, and this
too, at the last, the Greeks drew unto themselves, and spoiled it of the arms.
And this being accomplished, Patroclus rushed against the men of Troy.
Thrice he rushed, and each time he slew nine chiefs of fame. But the fourth
time Apollo stood behind him and struck him on the head and shoulders, so
that his eyes were darkened. And the helmet fell from off his head, so that
the horse-hair plumes were soiled with dust. Never before had it touched
the ground, for it was the helmet of Achilles. And also the god brake the
spear in his hand, and struck the shield from his arms, and loosed his
corselet. All amazed he stood, and then Euphorbus smote him on the back
with his spear, but slew him not. Then Patroclus sought to flee to the ranks
of his comrades. But Hector saw him, and thrust at him with his spear,
smiting him in the groin, so that he fell. And when the Greeks saw him fail,
they sent up a terrible cry. Then Hector stood over him and cried:—
"Didst thou think to spoil our city, Patroclus, and to carry away our
wives and daughters in the ships? But lo! I have slain thee, and the fowls of
the air shall eat thy flesh; nor shall the great Achilles help thee at all—
Achilles, who bade thee strip the tunic from my breast, and thou thoughtest
in thy folly to do it."
Eu-phor'-bus.
But Patroclus answered: "Thou boasteth much, Hector. Yet thou didst
not slay me, but Apollo, who took from me my arms, for had twenty such as
thou met me, I had slain them all. And mark thou this: death and fate are
close to thee by the hand of the great Achilles."
And Hector answered, but Patroclus was dead already: "Why dost thou
prophesy death to me? May be the great Achilles himself shall fall by my
hand.
Then he drew his spear from the wound, and went after Automedon, to
slay him, but the swift horses of Achilles carried him away.
THE ROUSING OF ACHILLES
Fierce was the fight about the body of Patroclus, and many heroes fell,
both on this side and on that, and first of them all Euphorbus, who first had
wounded him. For as he came near to strip the dead man of his arms,
Menelaus slew him with his spear. He slew him, but took not his arms, for
Hector came through the battle; nor did Menelaus dare to abide his coming,
but went back into the ranks of his own people. Then did Hector strip off
the arms of Patroclus, the arms which the great Achilles had given him to
wear. Then he laid hold of the body, and would have dragged it into the host
of the Trojans, but Ajax Telamon came forth, and put his broad shield
before it, as a lion stands before its cubs when the hunters meet it in the
woods, drawing down over its eyes its shaggy brows. Then Hector gave
place, but Glaucus saw him, and said:—
"Now is this a shame to thee, that thou darest not to stand against Ajax.
How wilt thou and thy countrymen save the city of Troy? For surely no
more will thy allies fight for it. Small profit have they of thee. Did not
Sarpedon fall, and didst thou not leave him to be a prey to the dogs? And
now, if thou hadst stood firm and carried off Patroclus, we might have made
exchange, and gained from the Greeks Sarpedon and his arms. But it may
not be, for thou fearest Ajax, and fleest before him."
But Hector said: "I fear him not, nor any man. Only Zeus giveth victory
now to one man and now to another. But wait thou here, and see whether I
be a coward, as thou sayest."
Now he had sent the armour of Patroclus to the city. But now he ran
after those that were carrying it, and overtook them, and put on the armour
himself (but Zeus saw him doing it, and liked it not), and came back to the
battle; and all who saw him thought that it had been the great Achilles
himself. Then they all charged together, and fiercer grew the battle and
fiercer as the day went on. For the Greeks said one to another: "Now had
the earth better yawn and swallow us up alive, than we should let the men
of Troy carry off Patroclus to their city;" and the Trojans said: "Now if we
must all fall by the body of this man, be it so, but we will not yield." But the
horses of Achilles stood apart from the battle, when they knew that
Patroclus was dead, and wept. Nor could Automedon move them with the
lash, nor with gentle words, nor with threats. They would not return to the
ships, nor would they go into the battle; but as a pillar stands on the tomb of
some dead man, so they stood, with their heads drooped to the ground, and
with big tears dropping to the earth, and their long manes trailing in the
dust.
But Father Zeus beheld them, and pitied them, and said:—
"It was not well that we gave you, immortal as ye are, to a mortal man;
for of all things that, move on earth, mortal man is the fullest of sorrow. But
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Harmonic and subharmonic function theory on the hyperbolic

An Introduction to the Regularity Theory for Elliptic Systems, Harmonic Maps

Prima edizione: 2005

Preface to the ﬁrst edition xi

Preface to the second edition xiii

3 Hilbert space methods 37

4 L2 -regularity: the Caccioppoli inequality 61

6 Some real analysis 97

8 The regularity problem in the scalar case 167

9 Partial regularity in the vector-valued case 205

10 Harmonic maps 229

11 A survey of minimal graphs 293

11.2.2 The problem of Plateau: existence of minimal gra-

Initially thought as lecture notes of a course given by the ﬁrst author

We begin by illustrating some aspects of the classical model problem in

Deﬁnition 1.1 Given a function u ∈ C 2 (Ω) we say that u is

is the Laplacian operator.

Exercise 1.2 Prove that if f ∈ C 2 (R) is convex and u ∈ C 2 (Ω) is harmonic,

Throughout this chapter we shall study some important properties of

in C 2 (Ω) ∩ C 0 (Ω), for a given function g ∈ C 0 (∂Ω).

1.2 The variational method

A = {u ∈ C 2 (Ω) ∩ C 0 (Ω) : u = g on ∂Ω}.

The functional D is called Dirichlet integral.

for all smooth compactly supported functions ϕ in Ω; an integration by

and by the arbitrariness of ϕ we conclude Δu = 0, which is the Euler-

Figure 1.1: The function un as deﬁned in (1.4)

1.2.1 Non-existence of minimizers of variational

deﬁned on the class of Lipschitz functions

A = {u ∈ Lip([−1, 1]) : u(−1) = −1, u(1) = 1}.

The following sequence of functions in A

shows that inf A F = 0, but evidently F cannot attain the value 0 on A.

A = {u ∈ Lip([0, 1]) : u(0) = 1, u(1) = 0}.

The sequence of functions

shows that inf A F = 1. On the other hand, if F(u) = 1, then u is constant,

A = {u ∈ Lip(B1 ) : u = 0 on ∂B1 , u(0) = 1}.

As F(u) ≥ π for every u ∈ A, the sequence of functions

shows that inf A F = π. On the other hand if F(u) = π for some u ∈ A,

1.2.2 Non-ﬁniteness of the Dirichlet integral

the series converges uniformly, while its derivatives converge uniformly on

Thus, if we choose an = 0 for all n ≥ 0, bn = 0 for all n ≥ 1, with the

and we conclude that u ∈ C ∞ (B1 ) ∩ C 0 (B 1 ), it is harmonic, yet

1.3 Some properties of harmonic functions

Proof. We prove the proposition for u subharmonic, since for a superhar-

Exercise 1.4 Similarly, prove the following generalization of Proposition 1.3:

Remark 1.5 The continuity of the coeﬃcients in Exercise 1.4 is neces-

Proposition 1.6 (Comparison principle) Let u, v ∈ C 2 (Ω) ∩ C 0 (Ω)

Proof. Since u − v is subharmonic with u − v ≤ 0 on ∂Ω, from the weak

Corollary 1.7 (Maximum estimate) Let u and v be two harmonic

sup |u − v| ≤ max |u − v|.

Corollary 1.8 (Uniqueness) Two harmonic functions on Ω that agree