Computer:- computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as an input from the user and processes it under the control of a set of instructions (called program), produces a result (output), and saves it for future use. Functionalities of a Computer If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five functions — Step 1 - Takes data as input. Step 2 — Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required. Step 3 — Processes the data and converts it into useful information. Step 4 — Generates the output. ‘Step 5 — Controls all the above four steps. eer Tarts er Characteristics of Computers High Speed + Computer is a very fast device. «It is capable of performing calculation of very large’amount of data. » The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond. + It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend many months to perform the same task. Accuracy « In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate, * The calculations are 100% error free. + Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct. Storage Capability «Memory is a very important characteristic of computers. + A.computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.«It can store large amount of data. + It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc. Diligence + Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration. * It can work continuously without any error and boredom. + It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy. Versatility * Acomputer is a very versatile machine. + Acomputer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done. * This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields. + At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing a card game. Reliability * Acomputer is a reliable machine * Modern electronic components have long lives. * Computers are designed to make maintenance easy. Automation * Computer is an automatic machine. «Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the program and instruction can control the program execution without human interaction. Reduction in Paper Work and Cost + The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work and results in speeding up the process, + As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced. + Though the initial investment for installing 2 computer is high, it substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.Application of Computers Business A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which has made it an integrated part in all business organizations Computer is used in business organizations for — Payroll calculations Budgeting «Sales analysis + Financial forecasting + Managing employee database + Maintenance of stocks, etc. Banking Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers. Banks provide the following facilities — Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records. + ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for Customers to deal with banks. Insurance Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. Insurance companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns. Insurance companies are maintaining a database of alll clients with information showing Procedure to continue with policies Starting date of the policies Next due installment of a policy Maturity date+ Interests due = Survival benefits + Bonus Education The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system. + The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based Education). + CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning. + Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students = There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to educate the students. + It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out on this basis. Marketing In marketing, uses of the computer are following — + Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products, + Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through the use of computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers. Healthcare Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases, ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines. Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used. * Diagnostic System — Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of illness.Lab-diagnostic System — All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by computer. Patient Mo ing System - These are used to check the patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc. Pharma Information System — Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry dates, harmful side effects, etc. Surgery — Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery. Engineering Design Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose. One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and modification of images. Some of the fields are — Structural Engineering — Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships, buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc. Industrial Engineering — Computers deal with design, implementation, and improvement of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment. Architectural Engineering — Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings. Military Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also employs computerized contro] systems, Some military areas where a computer has been used are — Missile Control Military Communication Military Operation and Planning Smart Weapons Communication Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this category are — E-mail+ Chatting = Usenet. . FTP © Telnet + Video-conferencing Government Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this category are — + Budgets + Sales tax department + Income tax department «Computation of male/female ratio ‘+ Computerization of voters lists «Computerization of PAN card + Weather forecastingComputer Generations Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies. Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an entire computer system. There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. In the following table, approximate dates against each generation has been mentioned, which are normally accepted. First Generation of Computers The period of first generation was from 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and the installations used to fuse frequently. Therefore, they were very expensive and only large organizations were able to afford it. In this generation, mainly batch processing operating system was used. Punch cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape was used as. input and output devices. The computers in this generation used machine code as the programming language. Second Generation of Computer The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this generation, transistors were used that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cotes were used as the primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating system. Third Generation of Computer The period of third generation was from 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors, and capacitors along with the associated circuitry. The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable, and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing,multiprogramming operating system were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation. In this generation on the basis of Charles habage who is known as father of computer the PC (personal Computer) is design. Apple is the first pc in this world. Fourth Generation The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of fourth generation used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements with their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable As a result, it gave rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution. In this generation, time sharing, real time networks, distributed operating system were used. All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE ete., were used in this generation. Fifth Generation of Computer:- The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on patallel processing hardware and Al (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets the means and method of making computers think like human beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this generation Laptop, palm top, mobiles phones etc are the computer of this generation.Classification of Computers Classification of Computer Classification Of Computer Application Basis Purpose Basis Size Basis 1, Application Basis i) Analog Computer ii) Digital Computer iii) Hybrid Computer Analog Computers: - __Analog computer is a computer that performs operations using continuously varying signals such as voltage, current and frequency. In analog computers numbers are represented by continuously varying quantities such as voltage, current and frequency. Analog computers are mainly used for scientific and engineering purposes. These computers do not give completely accurate results, The accuracy of analog computers is less. Analog computers do not require memory for performing operations. Antikythera mechanism is the first known analog computer that is designed to predict astronomical positions and eclipses. This instrument was designed and constructed by Greek scientists between 150 and 100BC.It can work on the analog signal.Digital Computer Digital computer, any of a class of devices capable of solving problems by processing information in discrete form. It operates on data, including magnitudes, letters, and symbols, that are expressed in binary code—i.e., using only the two digits 0 and 1. By counting, comparing, and manipulating these digits or their combinations according to a set of instructions held in its memory, a digital computer can perform such tasks as to control industrial processes and regulate the operations of machines; analyze and (e.g., global weather patterns and chemical reactions) in scientific research. Hybrid Computer Hybrid computer is a computer that has features of both analog and digital computers. These computers use analog part for performing the mathematical calculations such as differential equations and digital part for performing the logical operations and for storing result. Hybrid computers have the speed of analog computer and accuracy of digital computer. These computer are very fast computer. These computer are used mainly in the hospitals, Space centre, Weather forecasting Purpose Basis 1.General Purpose Computer 2.Special Purpose Computer 1, General Purpose Computer The general purpose computers are used for various purposes like playing games, watching videos, doing research, performing calculations etc . These computers perform different operations by using different software's. The computers that are used in homes, schools and business centers are general purpose computers. Personal computers like notebooks, desktops and tablets are examples of general purpose computers.2. Special Purpose Computer As the name states, a Special-Purpose Computer are designed to be task specific and most of the times their job is to solve one particular problem. They are also known as dedicated computers, because they are dedicated to perfom a single task over and over again. Such a computer system would be useful in playing graphic intensive Video Games, traffic lights control system, navigational system in an aircraft, weather forecasting, satellite launch / tracking, oil exploration, and in automotive industries, keeping time in a digital watch, or Robot helicopter. While a special purpose computer may have many of the same features found in a general purpose computer, its applicability to a particular problem is a function of its design rather than to a stored program. The instructions that control it are built directly into the computer, which makes for a more efficient and effective operation. They perform only one function and therefore cut down on the amount of memory needed and also the amount of information which can be input into them. As these computers have to perform only one task, therefore, they are fast in processing. A drawback of this specialization, however, is the computer’s lack of versatility. It cannot be used to perform other operations. Basis Of Size i. ii, iii iv Computers are classified in to four types based on their size. They are Micro computers Mini computers Mainframe computers Supercomputers i. Micro Computer Microcomputers are small size and low cost digital computers. These computers consist of central processing unit (CPU), input unit, output unit and storage unit. In microcomputers CPU is contained on a single semiconductor chip. Microcomputers aregeneral purpose computers designed for individuals. The various examples of microcomputers are notebook computers or laptops, desktop computers or personal computers and note book etc. ii. Mini Computer Minicomputers are smaller than mainframe computers but larger than microcomputers. In 1960’s minicomputers were introduced. At that time mainframe computers are very expensive. Minicomputers are more powerful than microcomputers. The processing speed and storage capacity is higher than the microcomputer but lesser than mainframe computer. Minicomputers are also called as mid-range computers because the size of minicomputer falls between micro and mainframe computers. These computers are mostly used for research and business purpose. They are also used as network servers to manage large intemet websites. Minicomputers are designed for multiple users. They can support hundreds of users simultaneously. These computers has large RAM and hard drive space. Minicomputers are more expensive than microcomputers but less expensive than mainframe computers. iii, Mainframe Computer Mainframe is a very large and expensive computer. They could fill in an entire room. These computers are faster and more powerful than minicomputers but not as powerful as supercomputers . Mainframe computers are designed for multiple users. They can support hundreds of users simultaneously. Due to its high stability and reliability these computers work for decades without any interruption. Mainframe computers are mainly used by corporate and government organizations. These computers have large storage capacity. They are used for performing complex calculations. The first general purpose computer was a mainframe that was developed in the 1940s, Mainframe computers process millions of instructions in one second .The user can access the mainframe computer through a dumb or intelligent terminal. Dumb terminal contains only input and output device. The input was given through this dumb terminal. Dumb terminal cannot store data or process data on its own. All processing and storage was done by mainframe. Monitor and keyboard are called dumb terminals. Dumb terminal was linked to amainframe computer. Intelligent terminal contains input and output device. This terminal can process and store data on its own. When the intelligent terminal was linked to mainframe it acts like dumb terminal. But, alone it can be used as standard computer. Intelligent terminal is also called as PC iv. Super Computer :- Supercomputers are the fastest and most powerful computers. The processing speed of supercomputers is high compared to other computers. The speed of supercomputer is measured in FLOPS (Floating Point Operations per Second). They can perform trillions of calculations per second. These computers are very expensive and large in size. Supercomputers are mainly used for scientific applications such as weather forecasting, aerodynamic research, animation graphics, biological research, molecular research and nuclear energy research. CDC 6600 is the first supercomputer that was developed in 1964 by Control Data Corporation (CDC)Types of Computer Computer Analog Computer Digital Computer Hybrid Computer: Analog Computer:- An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change. As an analog computer does not use discrete values, but rather continuous values, processes cannot be reliably repeated with exact equivalence, as they can with Turing machines. Unlike digital signal processing, analog computers do not suffer from the quantization noise, but are limited by analog noise. Digital Computer- The definition of a digital computer is the most commonly used type of computer and is used to process information with quantities using digits, usually using the binary number system. Ex.- Laptop, Palm Top, Etc Hybrid Computer:- A hybrid computer is a type of computer that offers the functionalities of both a digital and an analog computer. It is designed to include a working analog unit that is powerful for calculations, yet has a readily available digital memory. In large industries and businesses, a hybrid computer can he used to incorporate logical operations as well as provide efficient processing of differential equations. Mainly this computer is used in the Hospital, Space etc.Chapter :- 2 Input Devices Input -A place where, or a device through which, energy or information enters a system is known as input. These are the Input Devices :- Keyboard Mouse Joy Stick Light pen Track Ball Scanner Graphic Tablet Microphone Magnetic Ink Card Reader{MICR) Optical Character Reader(OCR) Bar Code Reader Optical Mark Reader(OMR) 1. Keyboard :- Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions. Old Style Keyboard have 103 or 104 keys .And modern keyboard have only 84or 85 keys, 2. Mouse:- Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed. Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.3. Joystick :-Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions. The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games. 4. Light Pen :- Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU. . Track Ball :- Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved. |. Scanner :-Scanner is an input device, which.works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation, Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed. . Digitizer :- Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications. . Microphone :-Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form. The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music. |. Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR) :- MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable. a 2 nN oo o10. Optical Character Reader (OCR):- OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable code, and stores the text on the system memory. 11. Bar Code Reader :- Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. 12. Optical Mark Reader (omr):- OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.Chapter 3 :- Out Put Devices Output:- A computer or other device produce, deliver, or supply (data).These are the output devices of computer. + Monitors + Graphic Plotter + Printer Monitors :-Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels. There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors. + Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) + Flat-Panel Display Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help. A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There are some disadvantages of CRT — «Large in Size + High power consumption Flat-Panel Display Monitor The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and graphics display The flat-panel display is divided into two categories —+ Emissive Displays ~ Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light: For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes) + Non-Emissive Displays — Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device). 2. Printers Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper. There are two types of printers — + Impact Printers + Non-Impact Printers Impact Printers Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the paper. Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following — + Very low consumable costs + Very noisy ‘+ Useful for bulk printing due to low cost + There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image These printers are of two types — + Character printers + Line printers Character Printers Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time. These are further divided into two types: + Dot Matrix Printer(DMP) + Daisy Wheel Dot Matrix Printer In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9,9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer. Daisy Wheel Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality. Inkjet Printers Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable features. They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also. Advantages + High quality printing «More reliable Disadvantages «Expensive as the cost per page is + Slow as compared to laser printer Laser Printers + These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the characters to be printed on a page. Advantages + Very high speed + Very high quality output + Good graphics quality + Supports many fonts and different character size Disadvantages + Expensive + Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printingChapter 4 :- CPU( Central Processing Unit) CPU (pronounced as separate letters) is the abbreviation for central processing unit. Sometimes referred to simply as the central processor, but more commonly called processor, the CPU is the brains of the computer where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer system. A central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. Traditionally, the term "CPU" refers to a processor, more specifically to its processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from extemal components such as main memory and I/O circuitry. Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features — + CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. + CPU performs all types of data processing operations. + It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). + It controls the operation of all parts of the computer. CPU itself has following three components. + Memory or Storage Unit © Control Unit = ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)Memory or Storage Unit This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM). Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are — + It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing. + It stores intermediate results of processing. + It stores the final results of processing before these results-are réleased to an output device. + All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory. Control Unit This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data processing operations. Functions of this unit are — + It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer. + It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer. + It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the computer. + It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage. + It does not process or store dataALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit used to perform arithmetic and logic operations. It represents the fundamental building block of the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. Modem CPUs contain very powerful and complex ALUs. In addition to ALUs, modem CPUs contain a control unit (CU). Mainly it consist Two parts these are + Arithmetic Section + Logic Section Arithmetic Section Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above operations. Logic Section Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and merging of data.Chapter 5 Memory _A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535. Memory is primarily of three types — + Cache Memory = Primary Memory/Main Memory + Secondary Memory Cache Memory Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can access them. Advantages The advantages of cache memory are as follows — * Cache memory is faster than main memory.«It consumes less access time as compared to main memory. + It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time. + It stores data for temporary use. Disadvantages The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows — + Cache memory has limited capacity. «It is very expensive Primary Memory (Main Memory) Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM. Characteristics of Main Memory + These are semiconductor memories. «It is known as the main memory. + Usually volatile memory. «Data is lost in case power is switched off. + Itis the working memory of the computer. «Faster than secondary memories. = Accomputer cannot run without the primary memory.Secondary Memory This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc. Characteristics of Secondary Memory + These are magnetic and optical memories. + It is known as the backup memory. + It isa non-volatile memory. + Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off. + Itis used for storage of data in a computer. + Computer may run without the secondary memory. + Slower than primary memoriesChapter 6 RAM(Random Access Memory) RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased. Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive. RAM is volatile, i.e, data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold. RAM is of two types — + Static RAM (SRAM) + Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Static RAM (SRAM) The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis. There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.Characteristic of Static RAM © Long life + No need to refresh «Faster + Used as cache memory + Large size + Expensive High power consumption Dynamic RAM (DRAM) DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor. Characteristics of Dynamic RAM + Short data lifetime + Needs to be refreshed continuously + Slower as compared to SRAM + Used as RAM + Smaller in size + Less expensive Less power consumptionChapter 7 ROM (Read Only Memory) ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven. Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics. MROM (Masked ROM) The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable. EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes, Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory) EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow. Advantages of ROM The advantages of ROM are as follows — + Non-volatile in nature + Cannot be accidentally changed + Cheaper than RAMs + Easy to test + More reliable than RAMs + Static and do not require refreshing + Contents are always known and can be verifiedChapter 8 — Computer Memory Units Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes. The following table explains the main memory storage units — S.No. Unit & Description Bit (Binary Digit) A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a component in an electric circuit. Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble. Byte 3 A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a data item or a character. Word A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a unit, which varies from computer to computer but is fixed 4 for each computer. The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length. It may be as small as 8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in the form of computer words. The following table lists some higher storage units — S.No. Unit & Description Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes 2. Megabyte (MB)1 MB = 1024 KB GigaByte (GB) 1GB = 1024 MB TeraByte (TB) 1 TB = 1024 GB PetaByte (PB) 41 PB = 1024 7BChapter 9. Software Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem. There are two types of software — + System Software = Application Software System Software The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users. Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc. (ae vinx Linux Wir Windows Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software — + Close to the system + Fast in speed + Difficult to design + Difficult to understand + Less interactive + Smaller in size «Difficult to manipulate + Generally written in low-level languageApplication Software Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application software. Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package. Examples of Application software are the following — + Payroll Software + Student Record Software + Inventory Management Software + Income Tax Software + Railways Reservation Software «Microsoft Office Suite Software + Microsoft Word «Microsoft Excel «Microsoft PowerPoint. . ~, Office Features of application software are as follows — + Close to the user + Easy to design + More interactive + Slow in speed «Generally written in high-level language + Easy to understand + Easy to manipulate and use + Bigger in size and requires large storage spaceChapter 10 Operating System An operating system (0S) is a collection of software that manages computer hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. The operating system is 2 vital component of the system software in a computer system. An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. Some popular Operating Systems include Linux, Windows, OS X, VMS, OS/400, AIX, 2/OS, etc. Definition ‘An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and contrals the execution of all kinds of programs. Following are some of important functions of an operating System. «Memory Management + Processor Management «Device Management + File Management «Security + Control over system performance «Job accounting+ Error detecting aids = Coordination between other software and users Memory Management Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address. Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the following activities for memory management — + Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in use. + In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much. + Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so. + De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated. Processor Management In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following activities for processor management — + Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is known as traffic controller. + Allocates the processor (CPU) toa process. + De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required. Device Management An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the following activities for device management — + Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the 1/0 controller. + Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time. + Allocates the device in the efficient way. + De-allocates devices. File Management