Atmospherw Environment Vol 26A No 12 pp 2149-2162 1992 0004-698L92 $ 5 0 0 + 0 0 0

Pnnted m Great Britain Pergamon Press Ltd and Indoor Air 90

A I R B O R N E PARTICLE SIZES A N D S O U R C E S F O U N D IN
I N D O O R AIR

M K OWENand D S ENSOR
Center for Aerosol Technology, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, U S A

and

L E SPARKS
U S Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 2771 l, U S A

(Recett,ed for pubhcatlon 26 February 1992)

Abstract As concern about Indoor air quahty (IAQ) has grown in recent years, understanding Indoor
aerosols has become increasingly important so that control techmques may be ~mplemented to reduce
damaging health effects and solhng problems This paper begins with a bnef look at the mechamcs of
deposition in the lungs and the aerosol dynamics that influence particles at all times This discussion shows
that the particle dmmeters must be known to predict dose or sodmg and to determine efficient mitigation
techniques The particle sizes produced by the various indoor sources, as well as unusual aspects of each type
of source, must be known so that this process may begin
This paper summarizes the results of a literature search into the sources, sizes and concentrations of
indoor particles There are several types of indoor particles plant and ammal bloaerosols and mineral,
combustion and home/personal care aerosols These types may be produced indoors or outdoors, entering
through building openings The sources may be short term, seasonal or continuous Particle sizes produced
vary from submlcrometer to larger than 10 gm The particles may be toxic or allergenic Thxs reformation is
presented in a summary table and is &scussed in the text

Key word index Particles, indoor air aerosols, particles size, indoor sources, IAQ

INTRODUCTION of the particles deposited here are 5-10 #m in dia-

meter
Knowledge of particle sources, sizes, concentrations, In the tracheal bronchlolar region, air velocity and
phases and compositions tn indoor air IS important directional changes decrease The aerodynamic dia-
because of the potential health effects and the prob- meter range favored for deposition in this range is
lems related to deposltmn on surfaces This hterature from 1 to 5/am The smaller particles are distributed
search has been performed to gather this mformatmn throughout the alveolar segments of the respiratory
for use in designing test methodologies for air cleaners tract As the velocity decreases to virtually zero, more
and other mitigation approaches These data will also time is available for sedimentation to occur, resultmg
aid m the selection of appropriate air cleaners Indoor in fewer and fewer particles reaching the alveoh
air quahty (IAQ) depends on the results of these Gravity becomes less important as the particles be-
efforts come smaller, thus particles, usually smaller than
1/am, are deposited on alveolar walls mostly by
Health tmphcatzons diffusion
Health effects that result from Inhaling indoor The interaction between partacles and cells ts largely
aerosols are directly related to the particle diameters dependent on where m the respiratory tract the par-
and the total mass inhaled The single most important tlcles deposit For example, particles deposited m the
feature in lung d e p o s m o n is the size of the particles alveoh require more mechanisms for removal than
Particles larger than 30 #m in aerodynamic diameter particles that deposit in the upper respiratory tract
(the diameter of a umt density sphere of the same However, the dose received by the person is dependent
mass) have low probablhty of entering the nasal on the solublhty of the particles and other aspects, as
passages Figure 1 shows the American Conference of well as the deposition site
Governmental Industrial Hygienist's standards for Btoaerosols, Including bacteria and viruses, present
particle samphng to approximate the deposition m specml health hazards due to the risk of refection as
various regmns of the respiratory tract (Phalen et al, &scussed in the animal aerosol section
1986) The rapid and sharp changes of direction of air For further Information, see Casarett (1975), Gard-
flow occurring in the passages of the nose and pharyn- ner and Finley (1983), Hinds (1982), K m g h t (1980),
geal regmn favor deposition of larger particles Most LaForce (1986), Llppmann (1972), Nelson et al (1988),

2149
AE(A) 26 12-6
2150 M K OWEN et al

Head
I
Alrwa
Region
table
Ion
rvp,NoN
~lh)
100- \
80-
60-
InsplrableParticulate Mass

40-
20-

Thoracic 0
Mass o ;o so 8'0 ;0 9'0
Fraction
Penetmtion
~t I -rynx) i100- rtlculate Mass

,==6o-
9o 8O-~o,
~ 0-
no20-
! I I I I I I I I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Respirable a.
Mass
Fraction
Past
rmlnel
Srond~ioles) ~Pa~©ulate Mass
100-40.60.80.20.

O I I I I I I I I ! /
0 2 4 6 8 1012 1418 18 2o
Aerodynamic
Diameter(pro)
AdaptKIfromIheAmedcanConferenceofGovemmentalIndustrialHygmr.stL

Fig 1 The three aerosol mass fractions recommended for particle size-selective samphng

Parkhurst et al (1988), Phalen et al (1986), Repace degradation results in ultra-small particles of radon
and Lowrey (1985), Revsbech et al (1987) and Tunel progeny Resuspenslon that occurs with sweeping or
(1985) m-breezes results m large sohd particles reentering the
air Spraymg yields medmm hqmd or small pamcles
Sod, ng
Aerosol removal
Problems caused by indoor aerosols, other than
The motion of particles is determmed by the kinetic
those due to health effects, include deposmon on
properties of the gas and other external forces that act
surfaces that results in dirty floors and wmdows m the
on the particles The following physical phenomena
home and office, fadure of precision machinery, soiled
can produce forces that result m motion, transport or
and discolored art work m museums, etc Agam, the
deposmon of aerosol particles gravitational and elec-
particle dmmeters determine the path taken by the
trical fields, drag forces, centrifugal flows, inertial
particles whether they deposit on a horizontal or
forces, shear gradients, Conohs forces, and concentra-
vemcal surface, remain m the alrstream, or are re-
tion and thermal gradients Interfacml phenomena
moved by an air cleanmg dewce
include evaporation, condensation, nucleation, adhe-
F o r more reformation, refer to Baer and Banks
sion and electrical chargmg of particles Evaporatxon
(1985), Gardner and Fmley (1983), Nazaroff and Cass
and condensation of droplets change the size distri-
(1989), Okada and Matsunuma (1974), Raes et al
bution of the particles Evaporation reduces or chin-
(1987) and Raunemaa et al (1989)
mates some particles, condensation leads to the
growth of other particles Critical diameter is used to
Aerosol formatzon determine which particles wdl grow by condensation
General sources and mechamsms that form aerosols This d]ameter depends on vapor pressure Particles
include condensat]on, combust]on, nuclear degrada- smaller than the crmcal diameter wdl evaporate with
tion, resuspenslon and spraying Condensation of their mass becoming avadable to md m the growth of
vapors m gas streams produces small hqmd partxcles the larger particles
Combustion results in small hqmd and sohd particles, Adhesion forces arise from particle and surface
as well as larger sohd particles such as soot Nuclear properties, interface geometry and condensed gas con-
 Airborne particle sizes and sources 2151

stltuents When small aerosol particles deposit on a Impactlon occurs when a particle colhdes with an
solid surface, they usually adhere on contact due to obstacle m the flow path Smaller particles follow the
these forces The adhesive force can be increased by gas flow hnes around an obstacle, whereas larger
particle electrostatic charge, but high humldzty can particles, owing to their greater mertm, are unable to
counteract this effect Most air-cleaning devices use change their direction, as shown by the time to
this property to collect particles terminal velocity m Fig 2, resulting m ~mpact w~th the
The electrostatic charge associated with suspended obstacle Thus impactlon shifts the particle size dis-
particles consists of an excess or deficiency of electrons tribution toward the smaller particles Fdters use this
or an excess of Ions attached to the particle Most method (as well as others) to capture particles
small particles have naturally acquired charges from Diffusion of aerosol particles m a gas, a mlcroscale
electron transfer during contact or separation or mechamsm, is the result of their bombardment by
because of free-ton diffusion Collision and adhesion of molecules of the gas (Browman motion) Diffusion is
oppositely charged particles (or particles and a sur- seldom considered for particles larger than 1 #m m
face) affect sedimentation rates The maximum likely diameter As shown in Fig 3, the diffusion coefficient,
particle charge increases with particle dmmeter Elec- Browman motion and mobility decrease rapidly with
tromc air cleaners use this property by charging increasing particle diameter Diffusion can result m
particles then collecting them on opposite charged the deposition of particles on surfaces in addition to
surfaces that caused by sedimentation and lmpactlon Filters
External forces that may act on aerosol particles use this mechanism prlmardy to capture small par-
Include gravitational, electrical, thermal and molecu- ticles Figure 4 shows which forces most strongly affect
lar forces Sedimentation, resulting from gravity, leads the collection efficiency of a typical filter, Illustrating
to particles settling out of a stream onto horizontal the Influence of particle size on which force is predom-
surfaces The settling velocity of a small spherical Inant and on the total collection efficiency for the filter
particle can be closely approximated by Stokes' law The most penetrating size is m the region between
and is directly proportional to the particle diameter mechanisms
squared As the sedimentation velocity or particle size In addition to these phenomena that remove par-
increases, lnertml effects in the fluid become important tlcles from a stream to a surface, particles may collide
and must be incorporated into the velocity calcu- with each other, due in part to diffusion, and coagulate
lation Once the sedimentation velocities have been to form larger particles This is the process primarily
determined, the rate of deposition on surface due to responsible for the removal of very small particles
sedimentation alone can be calculated Sedimentation from the air and results in a shift in the size distribu-
is an example ofa macroscale mechanism The settling tion toward the larger particle sizes
velocity, which directly relates to the number of It Is important to understand these forces in order
particles of a gwen size that deposit, as shown by to predict which particles will remain m the a~r long
particle size in Fig 2 This figure shows that settling enough to be inhaled, resulting m potentml health
velocity and time to terminal velocity increase rapidly problems, and which will deposit resultmg in soiling
with particle s~ze or damage to surfaces Knowledge of the sizes of the

10o 1013
102
10-1 1012 101
100 "
10 -2 ..=-- • 1011
10-1 !
E 10-3 ="101° E 10 -2 [-
10_4 109
10 -3 r-
o~
=} 10-s 108 ~; io -4 r-
io -s
10-6 10;'
10-6 ~-
10-7 106
10-7 F
10-E , ~ , , , n = l ,,,,,,,~ ,,,,,~ 105 lO-8r~
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101
10-9
Part=cle D,ameter (#m) 10 -4 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10o 101 102
Particle Dtameter (~m)
rms Browman Motton (cm/s)
- , - Mobtltty (cm/s dyn) •-4=- Ttme to Terminal Velocity (s)
-!1- Dfffumon Coefficient (cm2/s) -.IB- Setthng Veloctty (cm/s)

Fig 2 Mlcroscale mechanisms FLg 3 Macroscale mechamsms

2152 M K OWEN et al

dynamics Comparison of these results to actual par-

Overall flJter t~cle size distributions will aid m the understanding of
performance ~.
High
the specifics of indoor aerosol dynamics
The following paragraphs present the results of a
hterature search mined at Identifying types of sources
and the szzes of particles they produce Some of the

! particles included are larger than those normally

Included as aerosols However, due to the character-
lst~cs of indoor acuvlty (e g sweeping and people
J
LC moving), larger particles (e g cat hmr) that will often
be entrained, ff only for short periods, have been
included Fxgure 5 shows the reported s~ze ranges for
Low ~ IH I I IIlIil I I I I IIIII
many indoor particles grouped by source type Table 1
0 01 0 10 10 10
P a r t i c l e S t z e (p.rn)
presents a summary of the particle types and their
sizes, as well as brief notes on their shapes or unusual
Adal~od~om Hr~ds ll;62
characteristics Th~s table includes the data used to
Fag 4 Particle removal efficiency as a function of partmle generate F~g 5 Note that the data are reported in
size for a typical fibrous filter &ffermg forms, as presented in the hterature Spherical
particles are represented as a single average dmmeter
or by a range of dmmeters Other shapes are g~ven by
partzcles will also enable the selection of approprmte average &mens~ons or otherwise as appropriate
air cleaning measures Table 2 summarizes values reported In the literature
For addmonal mformatzon, see Fzsk et al (1987), for concentrations produced by specific sources These
Hinds (1982) and Nelson et al (1988) data are limited since most reports include total mass
or total number of particles not merely those from a
Aerosol-producing mechamsms specified source
Aerosols can be classified as either dispersion or The sources have been classified into six types
condensatzon aerosols Dispersion aerosols are formed bloaerosols (plant and animal), mineral, combustion,
by mechamcally breaking up a solid or llqmd through home/personal care and radioactive aerosols
such processes as grinding or atomization or by
re&spersmg a powder CondensaUon aerosols are Plant aerosols
formed when vapors condense or when a gas-phase Btoaerosols contain particles of hvlng origin, ezther
reaction produces an aerosol product In general, plant or animal Plant particles include pollens,
&sperslon aerosols are larger than condensation aero- spores, molds and miscellaneous by-products Most of
sols and tend to be more polydzsperse these partzcles will be of outdoor ongm and will
See Fuchs and Stugln (1964) for more reformation infiltrate through windows, doors, cracks and the
The particles m indoor mr are produced or become heating, venulatlng and alr-condmomng (HVAC) sys-
airborne by several different mechanisms Frtctzon tem Of course, when plants are indoors, these par-
between mowng parts or pieces of furmture will tzcles will be produced indoors Molds wzll usually be
produce sohd particles, sweeping, vacuuming and present Indoors, as well as outdoors Plant products
dustmg reentram sohd particles, and humidifiers and such as cornstarch will be purely of Indoor origin and
various sprayers produce llqmd partzcles Smoking will be readily apparent to the occupants
and cookmg produce condensatmn aerosols, both Pollen and spores are given off by plants at certain
sohd and hquid In addition to particles produced by times of the year These particles are often too large to
these mechamsms, other not so obwous particles, such remain in the air for prolonged periods However, the
as radon progeny, are produced through processes sweeping, dusting and vacuuming that are used to
such as nuclear degradation
remove them from floors and other surfaces reentrazn
a large percentage of the particles In tMs way even the
PARTICLES IN I N D O O R AIR larger particles can remain an aerosol problem for
some time These types of particles present a speczal
An important approach to assessing the indoor hazard as allergens For many people, allergic reac-
particulate contamination problem is to identify the tzons greatly outweigh the potential lung deposmon as
potentml sources of indoor aerosols Then it zs pos- a source of health concern
sible to determine the sizes, phase(s) and typzcal Molds are also a naturally occurring source of plant
concentrations of the particles these sources produce particles These, however, are present all year with the
This reformation IS necessary to determine which greatest concentrations occurring during, or Immedi-
types of mr cleaners will be effioent in reducing the ately after, wet or humid periods (elther weather or
particle concentrations Also with this Information, It indoors due to humidifiers, etc ) One potential source
IS possible to begin calculations based on aerosol for high levels of indoor airborne mold zs ultrasonic
 A~rborne partzcle s~zes and sources 2153

PARTICLE DIAMETER (pro)

~ ~~?"Ts~.--,,..;~
i ""_~,;";"?;'7_____~"'"°'~'~o,,~o~_'
001 01 10 10 ~ • 100 1000
PLANT
? ~ f"r_;"?~.,.r?R., ~7 ~;~_ ' '

Cornllarch ~ ~. -- Mdl~d FI~J¢, OtourtO ~I'11 r Grain Ooata

ne Multlrd ~Olngef
- Toa Dull
Carbo~ Black ~l= ChMIrl~ BUIck It Taxlda Ftborl
~ =11 ~om ~ GhML
P L~dtr~ MIx _ ~ Cayenne Pepper

ANIMAL III Orm~klt NIJ~IIII 1 It ~Ictana

11 QIfllln ~
V=ruses ,el
S~de~We~o Hair
.~ .~- Epitheha"llCells (human) It
Im S~ay Dried Mdk h •
D~smlegrated Feces ~ Feces ~ Bone DuSt
.11 at

Asbestos
MINERAL I alc
,I Carbon Oust from Graphite ~, Im Im Carlx~ Dust Coal Oust
m
m Clay ..,.
~ t ¢ l u m Zlr~ • Lead Dust
iron ID
!1 Lead Bromine D S ~ L a l Use ) tnsul~on~ • Fidergla~ss~ Glass Wcol ,~
MMMF;' > h
Metallur~l~..alDusts and Fumes Textdes ~ __
FerliltZ~r. Ground Limestone
Sea Sail ~1 NH t CI Fume .~_ ~. C.4DfTlef'llDUSt
11 I'

Tobacco Smoke
COMBUS~ON
> Burning Wood <
Rosin Smoke ~Smo~ierlng or Flaming CookBng OI
_ Coal Flue G a s . I~ Od Smoke Fly Ash
>
4
AUtO kmlss~s <
< Antlperspuanl
HOME/ Ha~ Sp,ay ~ ~ < Oust,r~ A~I
PERSONAL Splay Paml Spray Pare! Oust
CARE Air Freshener ~11
Antb Stick Solar .~
u,.--~,lT-- ~ ~ Fabric Prolector
Nl~llZaf OtOOS =
=11 Paint P~ments II1 at
Alkali Fume ~ I ~ Dust~ ~ EmoIhents
It _ ,,m"~'~=
Face Powder ~- at,
Talc P,gment ~Clumps ~ , * ~ , MgCO, =
Co~er Toner at,
Arhhc=al Texhle FBbers
JII -~ Lint
RADIOACTIVE ,11 Raden Progeny

I LlquM droplets containing bacler*a etc sneezed ate

2Man made mineral hbors

Fig 5 Sines of indoor pamcles

humidifiers Molds may grow m the stagnant water Ammal aerosols

left in the humidifier and then be aerosohzed when the Bloaerosois are also produced by animals These
unit is reactivated Molds are also potential allergens particles may be very small and remain airborne for
In addition to the health problems, molds can be long periods or quite large and only remain in the air
unsightly, will stain surfaces and may rum furniture In for short periods This type of parucle includes bac-
humid environments mold may grow on HVAC fil- tena, viruses, hair, insect parts and dandruff
ters, thus the alr-eleamng system may exacerbate the Bacteria have many sources in buildings They may
contamination problem come from outdoors by air, m water, on shoes, w~th
See Hinds (1982) and Ishn et al (1979) for more equipment, etc People transport bacteria on their
reformation clothing, as well as in their bodies Bacteria will grow
Miscellaneous particles of plant origin come from indoors m many locations Bacteria become airborne
such sources as coffee roast soot and cornstarch These through many mechanisms Smce they are small,
parUcles are mtentlonally introduced to the indoor slight breezes may pick them up People aspirate them
environment by the occupants and either intentionally as droplet nuclei House cleaning, such as sweepmg,
or unintentionally aerosohzed Cooking generates spreads them Toilet flushing may aerosohze them
many particles Opening containers of finely ground Bacteria that grow in duct work, on filters or on fans
grains results in some air contaminatmn However, are spread through the HVAC system Ultrasonic
much of this will settle out rapidly and wet cloth clean- hum]&fiers spray them into the alr
up yields less reentralnment than vacuuming or sweep- For more lnformaUon, refer to Arnow et al (1982),
ing This type of source is usually confined to a small Green and Lane (1964), Knight (1980) and Riley
portion of the building, although the partmles may be (1982)
camed to the rest of the structure Nonetheless, source Bacteria present a special problem since they repro-
control or venting is much simpler than for pollens duce A single bacterium or colony can grow to
and molds become a major problem Disease bacterm present a
2154 M K OWEN et al

Table 1 Sizes of parUcles that m a y occur mdoors

Dmmeter (/~m)
Item Smallest Largest MMD Notes Phase Ref

Plant aerosols
Pollens c o m m o n allergens sohd
American elm 28 58 in H20 a
Bermuda grass 22 7 31 5 b
black walnut 28 6 40 6 b
clover 52 c
corn 75 92 b
corn 100 c
cottonwood 22 a
dandehon 25 (12-29) × (13-30) a
general 10 100 d
horse chestnut 25 x 14 a
lamb quarters 25 8 aqueous a
orchard grass 31 0 elhptlcal c
others 26 × 14 26,34 a
paper mulberry 10 3 14 3 b
ragweed 17 8 22 2 b
19 6 spherical c
rye 55 c
Spamsh moss 150-200 x 500-750 very thin a
sugar maple 35 a
Spores can be allergens sohd
Bermuda grass smut 51 75 b
cinnamon 40 70 a
corn rust 68 c
fern
fungal 200* c o m m o n allergen e, f
general 10 30 sohd d
Johnson grass smut 58 9 sohd b
lycoperdon 2 09 b
lycopodmm 25 35 b
lycopodmm 30 c
lycopodlum 31 38 a
marginal shield 40 x 25 average a
pemcflhn 5 a
puff ball 48 86 c
puff ball 3 4 a
rattlesnake 18 30 a
wheat smut 45 a
Molds common allergen g
10-12/~m wide ribbons sporamgophores sohd a
3 5 spores a
Starches
arrowroot starch 7 75 sohd a
potato starch 15 100 sohd a
lace starch 3 30 sohd a
tapioca starch 5 25 sohd a
tea dust <8 300 sohd a
wheat starch 3 100 can be allergen sohd a, g
Miscellaneous oeneral
barley gram dust 10 380 sohd a
carbon black <0 5 10 most 0 5 - 4 sohd a
cayenne pepper 15 1000 sohd a
coffee 5 375 several shapes sohd, h q m d a
coffee roast soot 4 sohd c
corncob chaff 30 100 sohd a
cornstarch 30 irregular sohd c
cotton fibers 8-33 × 10-27 2 m m sohd a
cotton hnters 10-25 x 17 m m sohd a
f~nger 24 45 sohd a
ground corn some 25 most ~ 900 can be allergen sohd a, g
flax ~17× <30cm sohd a
hemp 10-50 × 2 m m - 3 cm sohd a
jute 15-25 x 200/~m-8 m m sohd a
kapok 10-35 x 2-3 cm sohd a
milled flour 1 70 sohd d
 Airborne parade sizes and sources 2155

Table 1 (eontd)
Dmmeter (~an)
Item Smallest Largest MMD Notes Phase Ref

mustard 6 10 sohd a
pudding mix 3 148 55*/o cornstarch solid a
sawdust 32 640 solid a
snuff 3 25 sohd a
soybean dust 5 2000 sohd a
Ammal aerosols
Bacteria mixed c
E coh 2 x 14 cylinder c
Serraua mdlca 10 x 20 cyhnder c
Serratza marcescens 12 x 20 cylinder c
B globtgn 16 x 30 cylinder c
Bacteria--general 03 30 d
Bacteriophage mixed
E coh-T-3 002 005 spherical C
Bone dust 3 385 sohd a
Droplet nuclei*" 05 5 liquid h
Dust m~te feces 10 43 24 common allergen solid 1
when disintegrated 08 14 solid 1
Eplthehal cells 20 sohd a
(human)t
Gelatin 5 90 solid a
Hair can be allergens solid
fruit bat to 50+ 1-1 5 em long a
Smmese cat type 1 50 70 width a
Siamese cat type 2 25 35 width a
dog--small 10 90 a
dog--large l0 75 a
mohmr 10 9O a
wool 10 70 common allergen ag
human 50 150 a
rabbit type 1 100 width a
rabbit type 2 5 30 13 5 a
House dust mite 100 300 sohd 1,1
Inspect parts vary solid a
Spider web ~17 width solid a
Spray dned milk 01 10 solid d
agglomerates ~50 a

Viruses 0 03 005 mixed d

Mmeral aerosols
Asbestos 05 irregular solid
< 1 wide fibrils make up 70 + wide bundles
Bromine 01 0 65 solid
Calcium 0 65 20 solid
Carbon dust 50 irregular sohd
from graphite 0 002 2 chains of sphere solid
Cement dust 3 100 sohd
Coal dust 1 100 solid
Clay 01 40 sohd
Femhzer 10 1000 solid
Fiberglass 8 diameter solid
Glass wool 3 15 10 wldth solid
Ground limestone 10 1000 sohd
Ground talc 05 50 solid
Iron 36 20 solid
Lead 01 0 65 sohd
Lead dust 22 solid
Man-made mineral 0 2000 length and solid
fibers (MMMF) diameters
MMMF--lnsulatlon 3 15 nominal m
--textiles 6 20 m
--special use < 15 m
5 1000 25 length a

Metallurgical dusts 0 001 100 sohd d

and fumes
NH4CI fume 01 3 sohd
2156 M K OWENetal

Table 1 (contd)
Dmmeter (#m)
Item Smallest Largest MMD Notes Phase Ref

Saccharin 15 ~ sphere sohd c

Sea salt 0.03 05 sohd d
Talc sohd
mlcromzed 25 irregular n
coarse 16 nregular n
Zinc 0 65 20 sohd k
Combustwn aerosols
Auto emissions 1 120 + can be allergemc sohd, hqmd a
Burning wood <03 >25 can be allergen sohd, hqmd g, o
Channel black <0 5 100 sohd a
Cigarette smoke, 0 25 5 volumetnc modes sohd, hquld p
mainstream
Flaming Xmas tree 0 18-0 37 sohd, hqmd q
Flaming cooking od 0 8-0 4 sohd, hqmd q
Fly ash 1 200 sphencal and sohd d
Fly ash <1 2000 irregular sohd n
O11 smoke 0 03 1 sohd, hqmd d
Pulverized coal
utility boder
flue gas 0 16-0 16 sohd, hqmd r
Rosin smoke 0 01 1 sohd, hqmd d
Smoldenng cook oll 0 8-0 35 common allergen sohd, hqmd q
Tobacco smoke 0 01 1 can be allergen sohd, hqmd d, g
Wood burnmg m 0 17 sohd, hquld s
fireplace
hard, softwood, fake
Home/personal care aerosols
AnUpcrsplrant can be allergen g
during spray 6 8-8 11 hquld t
persistent 5 9-7 27 llqmd t
Dusting aid
during spray 8 4-12 4 hqmd t
persistent 6 4-7 5 hqtud t
Hmr spray
during spray 2 8-3 4 hqmd t
persistent 4 5-6 2 hquld t
Paint can be allergen g
during spray 8 1-9 7 hqmd t
persistent 7 1-8 7 hqm~t t
Acetate 20 30 width sohd a
Acryhc 20 30 width sohd a
Air freshener 02 2 ~ 17 can be allergen hqmd g,u
Alkah fume 01 5 sohd d
Anti-sUck spray
1 mm after 0 55 2 ~ 17 hqmd
40 mm after 0 45 19 ~ 16 hqmd
90 mm after <0 2 18 ~09 hqmd
Fabric protector 2 6-4 hqmd
Face powder can be allergemc
mixture of ~ I talc 7 5 % sohd
3 27 small clumps
5 30 MgCOa
6 8 emolhents
Humidifier < 25 can carry allergens h q m d g)¥
Insecticide dusts 05 I0 hqmd d
Lint plant, ammal
and man-made fibers I0 90 sohd
Nebuhzer drops I 20 hqmd
Nylon, bnght 2O 30 width sohd
Nylon, semldull 15 width sohd
Paint pigments Ol 5 solid
Pamt spray dust can be allergen
ln&vtdual spheres 8 100 solid
clumps 50 lO00 + sohd
Photocopier toner can be allergenic
_<15 binder
 Airborne particle sizes and sources 2157

Table 1 (contd)
Diameter (#m)
Item Smallest Largest MMD Notes Phase Ref

<05 3 pigment solid a

Polyester 10 15 width solid a
Rayon 11 width sohd a
Rayon. viscous 10 50 width sohd a
Radtoactwe aerosols
Radon progeny 0 005 04 sohd w
0001 10 x

* Droplet nuclei produced by coughing, sneezing and talking carry the infectious organisms
]"Dandruff is one or more epithelial cells
(a) McCrone and Delly (1973), (b) Duke Scientific Corporation (1985), (c) Glrman et al (1982), (d) Hinds (1982) (e) Burge
and Solomon (1987), (f) Ishix et al (1979), (g) Faelten et al (1983), (h) LaForce (1986), (1) Anderson and Korsgaard (1986),
(j) Academic American Encyclopedia (1988), (k) Flocchlnl (1977), (1) Turlel (1985), (m) Riley (1982), (n) Dennis (1976), (o) Raes
et al (t987), (p) Chang et al (1985), (q) Krafthefer and Lee (1984), (r) McElroy et al (1982), (s) Dasch (1982), (t) Mokler et al
(1979b) (u) Gardner and Finley (1983), (v) Hlghsmlth et al (1988), (w) Walsh et al (1984) (x) Parkhurst et al (1988)

problem m ad&tion to that of nonhvlng aerosol since Insects and arachnids (the family that includes
they may cause dlness Droplet nuclei are m the size spiders) also produce particles Insect parts and by-
range shown to have increased mfectlvlty when aspir- products can become aerosol particles These ammals
ated Bacterml refection may spread through an entire and their by-products may come from outdoors In the
building through the very equipment mtended to case of smaller arachnids, such as mites, the source ~s
purify the mr However, m many cases bacteria can be Indoor infestation, usually in upholstered furniture.
controlled using standard dismfectants--a disinfected beds and dusty corners These particles enter the air
bathroom spreads fewer bacteria than one that Is through windows, breezes and household cleaning
neglected Bacterm may attach to other particles and Problems presented by this type of particle mclude
be transported wlth them allergic reactions and SOdlng These particles may
Another animal aerosol is wruses The sources and carry bacteria or viruses that lead to disease
problems that are explained above for bacterm apply One example of this, and one of the most talked
to viruses as well However, viruses are much smaller about sources of particles at this time. ~s the house dust
than bacterm, will stay airborne longer and will be less mite The house dust mite Itself is too large to be
hkely to be caught by filters In addition, some disin- readdy airborne although its parts may be The house
fecting methods that would be effective against many dust mlte's feces are considered to be a major source of
bacterm will not kill viruses the allergic reaction some people have to indoor dust
See Brundage et al (1988) and Knight (1980) The fecal pellets disintegrate to form particles in the
The next category m the summary table ts that of resplrable range The most commonly recommended
hair Although most hairs are too big to remain methods to reduce exposure to this allergen do not
aerosols for extended periods, they will be m the air at involve air cleaners Reduction of household humidity
least occasionally Hairs are produced by many ani- to 45% relative humidity or less is recommended to
mals including pets and humans They become air- control the growth of mites, but the most stressed
borne as a result of falhng out, trimming and brushing methods for reductions are frequent cleaning and
Again certain types of cleaning, such as sweeping, removal of breedmg grounds For persons with this
cause these particles to become reentramed after allergy, removal of all rugs and carpets, covermg beds
setthng out of the a~r stream In a d d m o n to inhalation with plastic sheets, frequent changmg of bed hnen and
problems, hmrs are ~mportant from the allergy and frequent floor cleaning, etc, are recommended How-
sodmg perspectwes However, longer hairs are rel- ever. literature discussing the effectiveness of air-
atively easy to collect and will become trapped m a cleaning devices m controlling the allergic reaction
standard vacuum cleaner or on a filter ff they remain was not found
airborne long enough For more information see Ishn et al (1979)
Eplthehal (skin) cells flake off humans and ammals
Dandruff is simply two or more eplthehal cells clump- M i n e r a l aerosols
ed together These cells are shed as a normal part of Mineral aerosols are produced when nonorgamc
growth After they are shed, they may become air- matter is broken down by natural processes such as
borne or remain on a surface The aerosohzed par- weathering or artificial processes such as grmdmg
t~cles may settle out and become room dust or stay m Many of these particles are produced outdoors and
the air as mhalable particles enter through wmdows and cracks or are brought

AE(A) 26 12-C
 Table 2 Concentrations and source rates for particles

Concentration range (pg m - 3), Source rate (vg h - 1),

Item Lower Upper Median Lower Upper Median Ref

Plant aerosols
Mold total 742 colony forming umts/m m a
Cladospormm 456 colony forming umts/m m a
Pemcdhum 108 colony forming umts/m m 3
Aspergdlus 22 colony forming umts/m 3
©
Ammal aerosols
Not found rr~
z
Mineral aeroso~
Calcmm 0 110 0 400
Man-made mineral 0 356
fibers (MMMF)
during Installation 5 × 1 0 -3 0 4 fibers c m - 3
before l x l 0 -a 0 03 fibers c m - 3
Combustwn aerosols
Cigarette 3 x l0 s 3 x 101° cm -3 84 67 30mg/og e,f
Wood-burning m
fireplace
hard, softwood, fake 21 2 0 g k g -1 g
Kerosene heater 30 160
330 9 x 1011 mln -x h
Wood heater 27 91 3 50gkg -1 1, j
Wood stove, airtight <290 11-36 k~
Wood stove, not airtight < 1 x 10 4 210-970 k
Gas oven < O 0 5 p g k J -1 (8400 kJ h - 1) k
Gas top burners (9200 kJ h - 1) 0 24 06/agkJ -1 k
Gas space heater 0 02 0 3 # g k J -1 1
Q u a r t z heater 31 25 × 1 0 ° m m -1 h
Heavy cod heater 16 40 x 1 0 9 m m - t h
F m e cod heater 15 × 1 0 1 ° m m -1 h

Home~personal care aerosols

Antiperspirant
d u n n g spray 172+95 m g m - 3 m
persistent 246+53 m g m - 3 m
Air freshener 27+3 mg m - 3 m
C o p y machine 50 500 n
Dusting aid
during spray 100+58 m g m - 3 o
persistent 86+9mgm 3 o
Fabric protector 9+3 mg m- 3 m
F u r m t u r e wax 15 + 2 22 m g m - 3 m
Hair spray
o"
during spray 18 + 4 mg m - 3 o O
persistent 18___2 m g m 3 o t~
H u m l & f i e r - w h o l e house "O
,.n
impeller 56 191 P
steam 41 P
ultrasomc 426 658 P
ultrasomc-closed r o o m 7078 P o~
Paint
during spray 161 + 3 0 m g m - 3 o
persistent 180+ 34 mg m - 3 o
R a d l o a c t w e aerosols
None ~und

* Except as noted
"t"Submlcrometer particles only, b a c k g r o u n d concentrations 5-24 #m g - t m 3
(a) F r a d k m el al (1987), (b) Raes et al (1987) (c) Rdey (1982) (d) Tunel (1985), (e) Langer and Fisher (1956), (0 Nelson el al (1988) (g) Dasch (1982), (hi Tu and Hmchhffe (1983),
(1) O k a d a and M a t s u n u m a (1974), (J) Burnet el al (1982), (k) T r a y n o r el al (1982), (1) G l r m a n et al (1982), (m) Mokler el al (1979a), (n) H a n s e n and Anderson (1986), (o) Mokler et
al (1979b) (p) Hlghsmlth et al (1988)
2160 M K OWEN et al

indoors by occupants Other types of these particles particles m smoking environments, ~s an extremely
are produced mdoors These particles do not present complex substance It contains particles and orgamc
the refection potential of the ammal aerosols but may compounds The hquid particles and gases may con-
be carcmogemc or mutagemc They also present prob- dense on filters, then outgas later This substance is
lems by contaminating industrml environments and produced by smoking cigarettes, p~pes, etc Tobacco
soflmg furniture, etc These particles include asbestos, smoke particles are almost all wlthm the resplrable
carbons, clays, elemental particles and artificial fibers range with the vast majority smaller than 1 #m
Asbestos, a major concern for buddmg and health Tobacco smoke creates allergy and odor problems
care professionals, ~s a carcinogenic fiber, formerly The deposmon of particles may reqmre more frequent
used In insulation Asbestos, as an indoor mr contam- or extenswe cleaning of drapes and furniture
mant, occurs when the coatmg over asbestos msul- Burning wood and other heating fuels, as well as
ation degrades, releasing fibers mto the mr and durmg cooking sources, also produce particles These par-
mmgatlon when asbestos is removed from bufldmgs ticles are also mostly in the respirable range and
The first situation requires reseahng or removal The should be considered in any IAQ control plan These
removal procedure requires special contamment ap- sources are often difficult to eliminate as they are
paratus Asbestos is an important source of Indoor mr integral to the occupants' comfort and lifestyle
pollution but is not an mfluentlal particle type m the Industrial sources play a part even m indoor air
choosing of ventdatlon and mr-cleanmg strategies These sources may pollute the ambient air m some
since asbestos contamination must be addressed as a regions to the extent that they contribute noticeably to
separate issue from routme indoor mr quahty the indoor particle counts In these cases t~ght controls
Talc is another source of mmeral-based particles on inlet air are important including filtration of the
that is often Indoor m orlgm These particles make up ambient air as it enters the HVAC system
the majority of many types of body powders Thus,
they are mtroduced into the mr by the occupants at
controllable Intervals While many of these particles Home~personal care aerosols
settle out of the mr rapidly, others are mhaled espe- These products, mcludmg antiperspirants, dusting
cially since the powders are usually used close to or aids and hair sprays, are mostly sprays used in the
wlthm the breathing zone home These products are designed to produce par-
Man-made mineral fibers (MMMF) are used exten- tlcles m order to dehver a product Note that m Tables
sively m buddmg materials, manufactured products 1 and 2 sizes are reported as a range of MMDs,
and textdes They may be manufactured from cer- therefore, the sizes m the distribution may vary con-
amics, glass, rock, etc These fibers may enter w~th the slderably from these numbers These products pro-
outdoor air Indoors, M M M F can be generated in duce a relatively small amount of mass but do so m a
ventdatlon systems or when ceiling boards are dam- short period of time so that the mltml concentration is
aged M M M F handlers have reported skin Irritation, quite high Since most of the use of these products is m
respiratory tract irritation and eye problems Other the breathing zone, the dose dehvered may be quite
mineral particles vary greatly m size and shape, but high One of the problems pecuhal; to this type of
need to be addressed In preventing their mfiltratlon or aerosol ~s that these products are often designed to
extracting them from the air stream Agam they may stick to surfaces When th~s occurs to unintended
be inhaled ff m the appropriate sxze range and can be a surfaces, it often results m cleaning problems The
source of costly contammatlon to sensitive eqmpment smaller particles become part of the circulating air
stream
Humidifiers are a relatwely recent source of con-
Combustion aerosols cern Research has shown that, along w~th the water
Combustion aerosols are produced by burnmg droplets that are the intended output of humidifiers,
Among the sources of this type of particle are cigar- these devices produce mineral and hwng aerosol par-
ettes and other tobacco products, cookmg sources, ticles Most of the minerals dissolved m tap water can
heatmg appliances and Industrml plants These par- become aerosol particles, possibly aggravating the
tlcles are produced m a gas stream and are hfted by the health condmons that the units were intended to help
hot mr into the surrounding environment Particles Fungus and bacteria may grow m the umts and
produced outdoors may enter through windows, become aerosols The vaporizer type of humidifier
doors, cracks or the HVAC system Most of these produces fewer of these hwng particles In addition to
particles are m the resplrable range and need to be the health risks involved with both hwng and mineral
taken mto consideration when designing an air quality aerosols, these particles may cause sodmg of walls and
control system These sources are frequently con- floors Delomzed, distilled or at least filtered water ~s
sldered for mdwidual source venting, e g the chimney recommended for use m these units
for the fireplace and the hood for the range These The other products m thzs category are sources
particles are a major source both of outdoor and found indoors after certain actiwtles which can to
Indoor particles some extent be controlled or at least monitored Still,
Tobacco smoke, as the leading source of aerosol all are considered necessary at t~mes and present
 Airborne particle sizes and sources 2161

health hazards by their chemical n a t u r e tn a d d m o n to Chang P T, Peters L K and Ueno Y (1985) Particle size
the particle size I A Q control strategies need to be distribution of mainstream cigarette smoke and undergo-
adjusted whenever these sources are to be m t r o d u c e d mg ddutton Aerosol Scz Technol 4, 191-207
Dasch J M (1982) Paruculate and gaseous emissions from
wood-burmng fireplaces Envlr Sci Technol 16
Radloactwe aerosols
Dennis R (ed) (1976) Handbook on Aerosols Technical
Radioactive aerosols are m t r o d u c e d into the i n d o o r Information Center, Energy Research Development Ad-
e n v i r o n m e n t when r a d o n enters t h r o u g h cracks m the ministration
Duke Scientific Corporation (1985) Bulletin 83, Palo Alto,
b a s e m e n t or floor, m the water, a n d from exposed rock
CA
or sumps R a d o n decays to form r a d o n progeny Faelten S and the editors of Prevention magazine (1983) The
t h r o u g h nuclear d e g r a d a t i o n These particles are ultra Allergy Self-Help Book Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA
small a n d may attach to larger particles Flsk W J, Spencer R K, Gnmsrad D T, Offerman F J
Pedersen B and Sextro R (1987) Indoor air quahty control
techniques Noyes Data Corporation, Park Ridge, NJ
Flocchlni R G (1977) quoted by Alzona J, Cohen B L,
SUMMARY Rudolph H, Jow H N and Frohhnger J (1979) in Indoor-
outdoor relationships for airborne particulate matter cf
U n d e r s t a n d i n g i n d o o r aerosols Is i m p o r t a n t so t h a t outdoor origin 4tmosphertc Enrzronment 13, 55-60
control techniques may be implemented to reduce Fradkln A R, Tobm R S, Tarlo S N, Tuclo-Porretta, M
d a m a g i n g health effects a n d s o d m g problems A brief and Mallouch D (1987) Species identification of airborne
molds and its significance for the detection of indoor
look at the m e c h a m c s of deposition in the lungs a n d pollution APCA Notebook 37(1), January
o n surfaces shows that particle diameters must be Fuchs N A and Stugm A G (1964) Highly &sperse aerosols
k n o w n to predict dose or s o l i n g and to determine Kolloldn~t Z 26, l l 0 ll6
efficient mitigation devtces Particle sizes p r o d u c e d by Gardner R A and Finley M J (1983) Residence time and
the various i n d o o r sources, as well as unusual aspects size spectrum of household aerosol spray products J
Enitr Hlth 46, 4- 9
of each type of source must be k n o w n so that this G l r m a n J R A p t e M G , T r a y n o r G W AllenJ R and
process may begin Hollowell C D (1982) Pollutant emission rates from
There are several types of i n d o o r particles plant indoor combustion appliances and sldestream cigarette
a n d animal bloaerosols a n d mineral, c o m b u s t t o n and smoke Env,r Int 8, 213 221
Green H L and Lane W R (1964)Part,~ulate Clouds Dust~,
h o m e / p e r s o n a l care aerosols These types may be Smokes, and Vhsts Van Nostrand Princeton NJ (1976J
p r o d u c e d indoors or outdoors, entering t h r o u g h Hansen T B and Anderson B (1986) Ozone and other air
b u d d i n g openings The sources may be short term, pollutants from photocopying machines 4m lnd H,q
seasonal or c o n t i n u o u s Particle s~zes p r o d u c e d vary Ass 47, October
Hlghsmith V R, Rodes C E and Hardy R J (1988) Indoor
from subm~crometer to larger t h a n 10 ~ m The par-
particle concentrations associated with use of tap water in
tlcles m a y be toxic, allergemc or neutral All of these portable humidifiers Env,r S~, Technol 22(9)
particles c o n t r i b u t e to the i n d o o r aerosol problem Hinds W C (1982) Aerosol Technolog~ Wiley, New York
Ishu A Takaoka M, Ichmoe M Kabasawa Y and Ouchi T
(1979) Mite fauna and fungal flora in house dust from
homes of asthmatic children Allero~ 34, 379 387
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