ABUAD INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, ADO-EKITI

SSS 3

CHEMISTRY SCHEME OF WORK

FIRST TERM 2024/2025 ACADEMIC SESSION

WEEK TOPIC/CONTENT

1-2 Water, solutions and solubility

3 Nuclear Chemistry

4 Test 1

5 Nuclear Chemistry cont.

6 Hydrogen

7 Mid - Term

8-9 Chlorine and its compounds

10 Nitrogen and its compounds

11-12 Revision/Examination

1
 LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK 1

TOPIC WATER

CONTENT  Sources of water

 Treatment

 Properties of water

 Hardness of water

Sources of Water

Water occurs in oceans, streams, and lakes as surface water, springs and well as

underground water. Rain water is the purest form of natural water because it is

formed as a result of the condensation of the water vapour in the atmosphere. Well

water contains a lot of clay and other mineral salts. It is safer to boil well water

before drinking. River water, lake water and sea-water contain a lot of dissolved air,

mineral salts, bacteria and organic matters. These water have to be purified before

they can be used for drinking.

Treated Water

Treated water is usually prepared for special purposes. Examples of treated water

are distilled water, pipe-borne water for townships, and chlorinated water for use

in swimming pools.

Distiller Water

Distiller water is chemically pure water. It is prepared by condensing steam using

Liebig condenser. Water prepared using ion-exchange resin is called deionized water.

Distilled water is used in

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1. the laboratory for preparing reagents and analytical work;

2. certain industrial processes;

3. the preparation of drugs;

4. car batteries.

Water supply to a township

Pipe-borne water is prepared in a water-treatment plant. This water is usually

germ-free but it contains mineral solutes like sodium chloride.

Water from rainfall, rivers or lakes is stored in reservoirs. This water is purified

by various methods which include: coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and

disinfection. The purified water is then distributed to towns and cities via

underground pipes for domestic and industrial uses.

The treatment of water to make it fit for our use can be done in the following

way:

First, the untreated water is passed through large settling tanks where chemicals

like potash alum, KAl(SO4)2, or sodium aluminate (III), NaAlO2, are added to

cause coagulation or flocculation. The impurities clump together to form big

particles of dirt or flows which settle down rapidly. Next, the water is passed

through a filter bed to remove the remaining fine particles of dirt. Then, the

water is treated with chemicals like chlorine to kill germs. Other useful chemicals

such as iodine and fluorine may be added in the correct amounts as food

supplements to prevent goitre and tooth decay respectively. Equally calcium oxide

(calcium hydroxide) may be career to reduce acidity and remove hardness of

3
water. Finally, the treated water, which is now clear and free from germs is

stored in a reservoir and distributed to the town for use.

Types of water

Water is of two types namely soft water and hard water.

1. Soft water

Soft water typically contains lower concentrations of dissolved minerals,

primarily calcium and magnesium ions, compared to hard water. The chemistry of

soft water can be understood through the following key principles:

Ion Concentrations: Soft water contains fewer calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium

(Mg2+) ions. These ions are the primary contributors to water hardness when

present in significant quantities.

Formation of Soft Water: Soft water is usually sourced from rainfall or surface

water bodies like rivers and lakes. It lacks exposure to geological formations that

can leach calcium and magnesium ions into the water, unlike hard water, which

passes through mineral-rich rock layers.

Ion Exchange: To soften hard water, ion exchange processes are commonly used.

This involves passing the hard water through a resin bed, usually containing

sodium (Na+) ions. The resin exchanges the calcium and magnesium ions in the

water for sodium ions, resulting in a decrease in water hardness.

Chemical Reactions: In soft water, the equilibrium reactions involving calcium and

magnesium ions are shifted towards dissolution. In contrast, hard water contains

more of these ions, which can react with soap and detergents to form insoluble

precipitates (soap scum) rather than forming lather effectively.

4
Reduced Scaling: Soft water is less prone to scale buildup in pipes, appliances,

and water heaters compared to hard water. This is because there are fewer

calcium and magnesium ions available to precipitate and form deposits.

Sodium Content: A potential drawback of softened water is the increased sodium

content due to the ion exchange process. Individuals on sodium-restricted diets

may need to consider this when using softened water for drinking or cooking.

In summary, the chemistry of soft water primarily involves lower concentrations

of calcium and magnesium ions, making it less prone to scale formation and

suitable for various domestic and industrial applications. However, the ion

exchange process used to soften water may introduce sodium ions, which can be

a concern for some individuals.

2. Hard Water

Hard water will not form lather readily with soap. It contains a number of

dissolved salts, the most important being calcium tetraoxosulphate (VI),

magnesium tetraoxosulphate (VI) and calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV).

Soap is the sodium or potassium salt of an organic acid. Soap is usually sodium

octadecanoate. When soap is added to hard water, the dissolved salts in the

water will immediately react with the soap molecules in the following way:

Dissolved calcium or magnesium salts + Soap or sodium octadecanoate → calcium

or magnesium octadecanoate (scum) + sodium salts

The insoluble calcium and magnesium salts form an unpleasant sum which sticks

to clothes and is difficult to rinse away. Hard water is wasteful, as a large amount

of soap has to be used in precipitating and removing the calcium and magnesium

ions, after which more soap has to be used for the actual washing.

5
 In recent years, this problem has been overcome by the introduction of

detergents for domestic and laundry purposes. These detergents are not

affected by hard water because they form calcium and magnesium salts which

are soluble in water.

HARDNESS OF WATER

Hard water is the water that does not form lather readily with soap.

Water acquired hardness when insoluble salts of CaSO4, MgSO4 and Ca(HCO3)2

dissolves in it from the soil which it flows through.

TYPES OF HARDNESS OF WATER

1. Temporary hard water

2. Permanent hard water

TEMPORARY HARDNESS: This is caused by the presences of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the

form of hydrogen trioxocarbonate IV i.e. Ca(HCO3)2

REMOVAL OF TEMPORARY HARDNESS

1. Physical method: By boiling

heat
Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

2. Chemical method: By using of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide solution)

Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) 2CaCO3 (s) + 2H2O (l)

EFFECTS OF TEMPORARY HARDNESS: It causes

1. Furring of kettles and boilers.

2. Stalagmite and stalactites in caves.

PERMANENT HARDNESS

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Permanent hardness in water is caused by the presence of Calcium and Magnesium

ions in the form of soluble tetraoxosulphate (VI) and chlorides (i.e. CaSO 4, MgSO4,

MgCl2, CaCl2)

Removal of permanent hardness: By chemical method only

1. Addition of washing soda

Na2CO3 (aq) + CaSO4 (aq) CaCO3 (s) + Na2SO4 (aq)

2. Addition of caustic soda

2NaOH (aq) + CaSO4 (aq) Ca(OH)2 (s) + Na2SO4 (aq)

3. Ion exchange resin

CaSO4 (aq) + Sodium zeolite Calcium zeolite + Na2SO4 (aq)

(Insoluble)

ADVANTAGES OF HARD WATER

1. It has better taste than soft water.

2. Calcium salts in it helps to build strong teeth and bones.

3. It provides CaCO3, that crab and snail use to build their shells.

4. It does not dissolve lead, hence it can be supplied in lead pipes.

DISADVANTAGES OF HARD WATER

1. It causes furring of kettles and boilers.

2. It wastes soap.

3. It cannot be used in dying and tanning.

EVALUATION

1. Mention TWO compounds that can cause permanent hardness of water.

7
2. Write two equations to show the removal of permanent hardness of water.

STRUCTURE OF WATER

In a molecule of water, H2O, the central atom is Oxygen. Oxygen has the following

electronic configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p4.

The valence shell of oxygen has two lone pairs of electrons (2s22p2) and two unpaired

electrons (2py12pz1). Each unpaired electron forms a covalent bond with an electron

from a hydrogen atom. The water molecule has two lone pairs and two bond pairs of

electrons in the valence shell of its central atom, thereby satisfying the octet rule

for stability.

Ideally, the four electron pairs should be directed towards corners of a tetrahedron.

However, when lone pairs of electrons is located near another lone pair, the repulsion

between them is so great that they squeeze the other two bond pairs of electrons

closer together. As a result, the bond angle in water is compressed to approximately

105o, such that the structure of the water molecule is V-shaped or angular shape.

H H

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF WATER

To prepare water in laboratory, dry hydrogen gas is ignited in air. It burns with a

faint blue flame to give steam, which will condense on contact with any cold surface

to form water.

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

1. Water boils at 100oC and freezes at 0oC

2. It has a maximum density of 1gcm-3 at 4oC

3. It is neutral to litmus.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. Water reacts with electropositive metals to form alkali and liberate hydrogen

gas. E.g

Na (s) + H2O (aq) → NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

Mg and Zn react with steam but Cu, Au, Ag, Hg do not react with water to form

alkaline solution

2. Non-metal like chlorine reacts with water to form acid solution.

H 2O (aq) + Cl2 (g) → HCl (aq) + HOCl (aq)

TEST FOR WATER

When few drops of water are added to

1. white anhydrous copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI), it turns blue;

2. blue cobalt (II) chloride, it turns pink.

NOTE: These two tests are not specific for water. They only indicate the presence

of water. Any aqueous solution or substance containing water will give a positive test

for water.

EVALUATION

1. Describe the structure of water.

2. How will you identify a give solution to be water?

TREATMENT OF WATER FOR MUNICIPAL SUPPLY

The following are the processes of treating river water for town supply

9
1. Coagulation: Chemicals like potash alum, KAl(SO4)2, or sodium aluminate III,

NaAlO2 is added to water in a large settling tank.

2. Sedimentation: The coagulated solid particles or flocs are allowed to settle in

the settling tank to form sediments at the bottom of the tank.

3. Filtration: The water above the sediment still contains some suspended

particles. The water is passed through a filter bed to remove the remaining

fine dirt particles.

4. Chlorination (Disinfection): Chemicals like chlorine is then added to the water

to kill germs. Iodine and fluorine are also added as food supplements to prevent

goiter and tooth decay respectively. The treated water is then stored in a

reservoir and distributed to the town.

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION

1. Mention two compounds that causes permanent hardness in water

2. State two ways of removing permanent hardness in water

3. List two advantages of hard water

4. State Faraday’s second law of electrolysis

5. Using electron dot-cross representation, show the formation of carbon (IV)

oxide and name the type of bond formed

READING ASSIGNMENT

New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary School by O.Y. Ababio (6th edition)

pages 296-302

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

SECTION A: Write the correct option ONLY

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1. Treated town water undergoes the following steps except A. coagulation B.

precipitation C. sedimentation D. chlorination

2. Water is temporarily hard because it contains A. CaSO4 B. MgSO4 C. chlorine

D. Ca(HCO3)2

3. Temporary hardness of water is removed by the use of one of the following A.

boiling B. use of use of Ca(OH)2 C. use of Na2CO3 D. use of alum

4. A substance that turns white anhydrous CuSO4 blue is A. water B. liquid

ammonia C. hydrochloric acid D. molten sulphur

5. Distilled water is different from deionized water because A. distilled water is

a product of condensed steam while deionized water is filtered laboratory

water B. distilled water is always pure and sold in packs while deionized is not

packaged for consumption C. distilled water is condensed steam but deionized

water is produced using ion-exchange resins which absorbs undesired ions. D.

distilled water is man-made while deionized water is both natural and artificial

SECTION B

1. State the steps involved in the treatment of river water for town supply.

2. Write two equations to show the removal of permanent hardness of water.

11
 LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK 2

TOPIC SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY

CONTENT  Definition of Terms.

 Calculations based on Solubility.

 Solubility Curves.

 Uses of Solubility.

SOLUTIONS

A solution is a uniform or homogenous mixture of two or more substances.

Solution = Solvent + Solute

A solute is a dissolved substance which may be a solid, liquid or gas.

A solvent is a substance (usually liquid) which dissolves a solute.

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

1. Aqueous Solution: This is formed when a solute is dissolved in water.

2. Chemical Solution: This is the apparent solution of a solute in a solvent

accompanied by a chemical change. For example, magnesium appears to

dissolve in dilute hydrochloric acid, what actually happens is that the

magnesium attacks the acid to form magnesium chloride, which dissolves in

water present.

TRUE SOLUTION AND COLLOIDAL SOLUTION

A true solution is formed when solute particles dissolve such that they are able to

get in between the solvent particles. Example of true solution is aqueous solution of

sodium chloride and copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI).

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A False or Colloidal solution is one in which the individual particles are larger than

the particles of a true solution, but not large enough to be seen by the naked eye.

Examples of colloids are starch and albumen.

TYPES OF COLLOIDS

1. Sols and Gels: These are colloids where solid particles are dispersed in liquid

medium. Example: starch, glue, jelly, etc.

2. Aerosols: In aerosols, liquid particles are dispersed in a gas. Fog, smoke, spray

of insecticide is examples of aerosol.

3. Emulsion: For emulsions, a liquid is dispersed in another liquid. Examples of

emulsions are milk, hair cream; cleaning action of detergents is due to their

ability to form emulsion.

EVALUATION

1. Define the term ‘Solution’.

2. State THREE differences between true solution and false solution.

SOLUBILITY

The solubility of a solute (substance) in a solvent at a particular temperature is the

maximum amount of solute in moles or grams that will dissolve in 1 dm3 of the solvent

at that temperature.

The concentration in moldm-3 of a saturated solution is termed the solubility of the

concentration in 𝑔/𝑑𝑚3
substance i.e. Solubility (moldm3) =
Molar Mass

Mass 1000
Solubility in mol/dm3 can also be expressed as = x
Molar Mass Volume

Mass 1000
Solubility in g/dm3 = x
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 1

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Solubility of a solid solute in a solvent increases with rise in temperature while

solubility of gases decreases with rise in temperature.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Saturated Solution: A saturated solution at a particular temperature is one

which contains as much solute as it can dissolves at that temperature in the

presence of undissolved solute particles.

2. Unsaturated solution: This is a solution which contains less of the solute than

it can dissolve at a particular temperature.

3. Super saturated solution: This is a solution which contains more of the solute

than it can dissolve at a particular temperature.

EVALUATION

1. Define Solubility

2. Differentiate between Saturated solution and Unsaturated solution

DETERMINATION OF SOLUBILITY

Solute: KCl, Solvent: water

Method

1. A saturated solution of KCl is prepared by dissolving excess of the solid in

water in a beaker

2. Allow the solution in the beaker to settle down to obtain a clear saturated

solution

3. Decant a portion of clear solution into another beaker and measures its

temperature

4. Transfer the solution into a weighed evaporation dish and record the mass of

the solution

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5. Evaporate the solution to a complete dryness in a water bath

6. Allow the resulting solid to cool and reweigh the basin with content

7. Obtain mass of the dissolved salt and calculate the mass of the salt that would

dissolve in 1dm3 of water at that temperature.

CALCULATION

Mass of basin = xg

Mass of basin + solution = yg

Mass of basin + salt = zg

Mass of solution = (y-x) g

Mass of salt = (z-x) g

Mass of water used = (y-z) g

:. (y – z) g H2O dissolves (z – x) g salt

z −x 100 𝑔
:. 100g H2O dissolves x salt
y−z 1

[Density of water = 1g/cm3]

100(z −x)
:. No of moles of salt =
(y − z) 𝑥 𝑀.𝑀

100(z −x)
:. Moles of salt dissolves in 1 dm3 water =
(y − z) 𝑥 𝑀.𝑀

FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOLUBILITY

1. Nature of solvent and solute

2. Temperature

3. Pressure (often neglected)

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SOLUBILITY CURVES

These are the graphs of solubility against temperature. The graph provides useful

source of information.

USES OF SOLUBILITY CURVES

1. It provides useful information about suitable solvent and temperature for

solvent extraction from natural sources

2. It provides useful information about temperature for fractional crystallization

of a mixture of soluble salts.

3. The curves enable pharmacists to determine the amount of solid drugs that

must be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent to give a prescribed drug

mixture.

EVALUATION

1. Define super-saturated solution

2. State two applications of solubility curves

CALCULATION ON SOLUBILITY

1. If 12.2g of Pb(NO3)2 were dissolved in 21cm3 of distilled water at 20oC.

Calculate the solubility of the solute in moldm-3

Solution:

Molar mass of Pb(NO3)2 = 331g

12.2
No of moles of Pb(NO3)2 = = 0.037moles
331

If 21cm3 of water at 200C dissolved 0.037mole salt

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 0.037 x1000
:. 1000cm3 of water at 200C dissolves 21

= 176moles Pb(NO3)2 per dm3 H2O

2. 1.0dm3 of an aqueous solution at 90oC contains 404g of KNO3 and 245g of KClO3.

Determine:

a. which of the two salts will separate out when the solution is cooled to 60oC;

b. the mass of salt that will separate out at 60oC.

(Solubility of KNO3 in H2O at 60oC = 5.14moldm-3, solubility of KClO3 in H2O at

60oC = 1.61moldm-3)

Solution:

404
(a) No of moles of KNO3 = = 4.0moles dm-3
101

245
No of moles of KClO3 = = 2.0 moldm-3
122.5

The solubility of KClO3 at 60oC (5.14 moldm-3) is higher than the amount in

solution (4.0 moldm-3), then KNO3 will remain in solution while KClO3 will

crystallize out at 60oC since the solubility at 60oC is lower than the amount in

solution.

(b) Mass of salt that will separate out at 60oC = 2.0 – 1.61 = 0.39mole.

Mass of salt = Number of moles x Molar mass

= 0.39 x 122.5 = 47.78g

3. The solubility of KNO3 is exactly 1800g per 1000g water at 83oC and 700g per

1000g water at 40oC. Calculate the mass of KNO3 that will crystallize out of

solution if 155g of the saturated solution at 83oC is cooled to 40oC.

Solution:

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 Saturated solution of KNO3 at 83oC = 1000 + 1800 = 2800g

Saturated solution of KNO3 at 40oC = 1000 + 700 = 1700g

Mass of solute deposited = 2800 – 1700 = 1100g

From 83oC to 40oC, 2800 of saturated solution deposited 1100g of solute

1100 x 155
155g of saturated solution will deposit = 60.80g of salt.
2800

EVALUATION

1. Define the following terms: Solubility, Saturated solution, unsaturated solution.

2. 1.33 dm3 of water at 70oC are saturated by 2.25 moles of lead (II) trioxonitrate

(V) and 1.33 dm3 of water at 18oc are saturated by 0.53 mole of the same salt.

If 4.50 dm3 of the saturated solution are cooled from 70oC to 18oC, calculate

the mount of solute that will be deposited in (a) moles (b) grams.

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION

1. Calculate the solubility of KCl in g/dm3 if 5g of the salt was dissolved in 50cm3

of water at 40oC

2. If 50cm3 of a saturated solution of potassium chloride at 30oC yielded 18.62g

of dry salt, calculate the solubility of the salt in mol/dm3 at 30oC

3. Define solubility

4. A certain mass of a gas occupies 300cm3 at 35oC. At what temperature will it

have its volume reduced by half, assuming its pressure remains constant?

5. A certain mass of hydrogen gas collected over water at 10oc and 760mm Hg

pressure has a volume of 37cm3. Calculate the volume when it is dry at s.t.p.

(Saturated vapour pressure of water at 10 oC = 9.2mmHg)

READING ASSIGNMENT

18
New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary School by O.Y.Ababio (6thedition) pages

303-310

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

SECTION A: Write the correct option ONLY

1. A saturated solution is a solution (a) in which the solute is in equilibrium with

the solvent (b) in which the solute saturates the solution (c) the solvent can

still accept more solute except when the temperature is lowered (d) whose

solvent has low solubility at a given temperature.

2. A graph of solubility against temperature is called (a) sigmoid curve (b)

supernate curve (c) solubility curve (d) dispersion curve.

3. On heating 25g of a saturated solution to dryness at 60oC, 4g of anhydrous salt

was recovered. Calculate its solubility in g/dm3. (a) 160 (b) 180 (c) 200 (d) 220

4. The solubility of alcohols in water is due to (a) their covalent nature (b)

hydrogen bonding (c) their low boiling point (d) their ionic character.

5. A common solvent of sulphur is (a) water (b) carbon (IV) sulphide (c) alcohol (d)

ethanoic acid.

SECTION B

1. Define the following:

(a) Solubility (b) Saturated solution (c) Unsaturated solution

2. If the solubility of KNO3 at 0oC is 1.33mol/dm3, determine whether a solution

containing 30.3g/dm3 at 0oC is saturated or unsaturated.

19
WEEK 3 DATE: _________

TOPIC NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

SUB-TOPIC  Types and Nature of Radiation

 Half-life as a measure of the stability of the

nucleus.

CONTENT

Nuclear Chemistry is an aspect of chemistry that deal with nuclei of atoms.

Radioactivity

For every atomic nucleus, there is a specific neutron/proton ratio which ensures

stability of the nucleus. For sodium, (Na) the neutron/proton ratio for stability is

12/11 for magnesium (Mg), it is 12/12, for fluorine (F), it is 10/9 etc.

Any nucleus with a neutron/proton combination different from its stability ratio (i.e

either too many neutrons or too many protons) will be unstable and split into one or

more other nuclei with the attendant emission of small particles of matter (alpha or

beta particles) and/or electromagnetic ionizing radiation (gamma rays) and

considerable amount of energy.

This phenomenon is referred to as Radioactivity. Radioactivity occurs naturally, but

it can also be caused artificially.

All nuclei heavier than 209

83
Bi (i.e. Bi with atomic number 83, and mass number 209)

are naturally radioactive

e.g. 238
92
U → 234
90
Th + 42 He

Some of the lighter elements that are naturally stable such as H, C and K also have

radioactive isotopes like 3H, ¹⁴C, and 40

K respectively. The latter set of nuclei are

also said to be naturally radioactive, but the contribution of the radioactive nuclei

to the overall element in each case is very small.

20
However, some unstable nuclei are produced artificially in nuclear reactions. Such
30
unstable nuclei also decay by emission of radiation ( 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾) e.g. ²⁴Na and P.
1
0
n + 23
11
Na → 24
11
Na + 00 𝛾
(prompt gamma ray)
When stable 23
11
Na is bombarded with neutrons in a nuclear reactor, radioactive 24
11
Na

is produced with prompt emission of a mass-less, neutral radiation (gamma ray).

The major product, 24

11
Na decays to a stable nucleus, 24
12
Mg by emission of a beta

particle, 0
−1
𝛽
24
11
Na → 0
−1
𝛽 + 24
12
Mg

Characteristics

1. Spontaneously and continually emitting of radiation by radioactive element

2. Temperature and pressure have no effect on radioactivity

3. The radiation can pass through opaque objects

4. It affects photographic plates

5. It causes ionization of gases through which it passes.

6. It causes fluorescence of certain substance

7. It releases large amount of energy.

Types of Radiation

There are three (3) types of radiation

1. Alpha rays

2. Beta rays

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 3. Gamma rays

Characteristics of Alpha-Rays

1. They are helium in nature 42He with 4 atomic mass and 2 atomic number

2. Alpha rays are fast moving streams of positively charges

3. They are deflected toward the negative plate in an electrostatic field

4. They have very low penetrating power

5. They can be absorbed/stopped by a thin sheet of paper on aluminium foil

6. They cause fluorescence of some materials e.g zinc sulphide

Characteristics of Beta-rays

1. They are electron in nature with a mass number of zero and charge of -1 ( −10e-)

2. They are fast moving stream of electrons

3. They can penetrate than alpha rays

Characteristics of Gamma Rays (ϓ)

1. They are not particles but electromagnetic waves similar to light but are of

shorter wavelength than light rays and have higher frequency.

2. They have neither mass nor charge

3. They are therefore not deflected in an electric field

4. They travel at the speed of light

5. They have very high penetrating power. Out of the three types of radioactive

emission, they are the most penetrating.

6. They have the least ionizing power.

Effects of Electrostatic Field on the Three Radiation

EVALUATION

1. State two (2) properties of 𝛼, β, and 𝛾 rays each.

2. What do you know about radioactivity?

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Detection of Radiation

The radiation can be detected by using the following devices.

i. Gas-filled radiation detectors;

ii. scintillation detectors;

iii. semi-conductor detectors; and

iv. Emulsion/solid state, state nuclear track detectors.

v. Diffusion cloud chamber

Gas-filled Radiation Detectors

These are based on the ionization-causing property of radiation.

They are of two (2) types: Gas proportional counters and Geiger-Muller counters.

The former are used for detecting 𝛼 and 𝛽 − particles while the latter are used for

detecting mainly 𝛽 − particles and 𝛾 -rays to some extent.

Scintillation Detectors

These are detectors based on the emission of light by some materials after being

struck by radiation. They are of 2 types - solid scintillation detectors and liquid

scintillation detectors. A very popular solid scintillation detector (NaI/Tl) that is

used for detecting 𝛾 -rays. Liquid scintillation detectors are mainly used for

detecting 𝛽 −particles, and in some cases, 𝛼 − particles.

Semiconductor Detectors

The common detectors of this type are the Lithium drifted Silicon (Si/Li) and

Germanium (Ge/Li) detectors are generally used for detecting X-rays while Ge(Li)

detectors are used for detecting-rays

Nuclear Emulsion and Solid State Nuclear Track

These are detectors for autoradiographic images. They produce an image of the

distribution of sources of radiation as they pass through a given tissue specimen. All

kinds of radiation - 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 can be detected by this type of detectors.

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Diffusion Cloud Chamber

The Diffusion Cloud Chamber is used to view high energy alpha particles, lower

energy beta particles, and electrons produced by gamma rays interacting with gas

molecules. The Chamber allows for the viewing of cosmic rays without the need for

dry ice or external illumination. Historically the Cloud Chamber was the first particle

detector for making ionizing particles visible. Its working principle is based on

supersaturated vapour. This vapour shows tracks of condensated alcohol while being

penetrated by ionizing particles. Vapour clouds build up along the particle tracks,

which are sometimes thin and long, sometimes thick and round or bulbous. They may

appear gradually or pop up all of a sudden or move very fast like a projectile

splintering into all directions.

HALF LIFE

The half-life of a radioactive element is the time taken for half of the actual number

of atoms in a given substance or radioactive element to decay.

NUCLEAR STABILITY

The spontaneous disintegration/decay of nucleus of an element is due to its

instability.

The neutron-proton ration determines the stability of an element.

This varies between unity for the lighter elements and a value of about 1.5 for the

heavier element with atomic numbers around eighty.

24
N.B. Atoms with a neutron – protons less than 1 or greater than 1.5 tends to be

unstable.

EVALUATION

1. State two methods through which a radiation can be detected.

2. What is half life as a measure of the stability of the nucleus?

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Define the term nuclear chemistry

2. Define the term radioactivity.

3. Explain the term radioisotopes

4. Give an account of the uses of radioisotopes.

READING ASSIGNMENT

New School Chemistry by O.Y, Ababio pages 299-304.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. ____ is an example of radiation (a) Alpha (b) Carbon (c) Uranium (d) Nucleus.

2. Alpha particle was deflected towards negative plate while Beta deflected

toward (a) Neutral plate (b) Negative plate (c) Zero plate (d) positive plate

3. The following caused fluorescence of matter except (a) Alpha (b) Beta (c)

Gamma (d) X- ray

4. In the above diagram, Z represents (a) Alpha (b) Beta (c) Gamma (d)

Radioactive

5. B represents ____ in the diagram above (a) Alpha (b) Beta (c) Gamma (d)

Radioactive source

THEORY

1. Find the half-life of a radio isotope element which was found to be 120g

initially and later changed to 15g in 24 hours

2. State the three main type of radiation with their properties each.

25
WEEK 5 DATE: _________

CONTENT:
TOPIC NUCLEAR REACTIONS

SUB-TOPIC  Nuclear Fusion and Nuclear Fission with Example

 Effects and Application of Radioactivity

 Comparison of Nuclear Reaction and Ordinary

Chemical Reactions

CONTENT

Nuclear Reaction

This is the spontaneous emission of radiation that involves the nuclei of radioactive

element.

Nuclear Fission and Fusion

Nuclear Fission: This is the splitting of a heavy isotope by a neutron into light nuclei

with the emission of two or more fast moving neutrons and high energy 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

The neutrons produced react with more atoms of the heavy isotope, setting up a

chain reaction. Only a few kinds of isotopes undergo fission. These are the fissile

isotopes. The most important fissile isotopes are uranium-235 and plutonium -239.

The three possible fissions of uranium – 235 used in nuclear power station can

be represented by the following nuclear equations:

i. 235
92
U + 10n→ 142
54
Xe + 90
38
Sr + 4 10n + energy

ii. 235
92
U + 10n→ 148
56
Ba + 85
36
Kr + 3 10n + energy

iii. 235
92
U + 10n→ 144
55
Cs + 90
37
Rb + 2 10n + energy

Therefore fission produces a mixture of fission product nuclei. 238

92
U does not

undergo fission during neutron bombardment. It absorbs neutrons and disintegrates

to neptunium and plutonium.

26
 i. 238
92
U + 10n → 239
92
U + 𝛾 −rays
0 -
238
92
U → 239
92
Np + −1
e
0 -
239
92
Np → 239
94
Pu + −1
e

Plutonium -239 formed undergoes atomic fission similar U-235 as follows:

239
94
U + 42He → 242
96
Cm + 10n
242
94
Cm + 42He → 244
98
Cf + 2 10n

If heavier bombarding molecules are used:

242
94
Cm + 12
6
C → 254
102
No + 4 10n
250
96
Cf + 11
5
B → 257
103
Lw + 4 10n

Characteristics of Fission

1. Fission always gives neutrons as products usually two or more neutrons are

formed for every one neutron used to initiate a fission.

2. When fission occurs, more stable product nuclei are formed from the less stable

parent nucleus with the production of large amount of energy (nuclear energy).

Nuclear Fusion: Fusion is another type of that can produce energy. At high

temperatures, it is possible for some writer reply to fuse to form heavier nuclei.

Fusion is the journey together of two or more small atomic nuclei to form heavier

nuclei with evolution of large amounts of energy. The energy available from a single

fusion far exceeds that from a single fission. This process occur in the hydrogen

fusion bombs, for example

i. 3
1
H + 21H → 42He + 10 n

ii. 2
1
H + 21H → 42He + 𝛾 + energy

iii. 1
1
H + 11H + 11H + 11H → 42He + 2 +10 β – + energy

The neutron formed in (i) interacts with lithium – 6 to give more tritium.
6
3
Li + 10n → 42He + 31H

27
The fusion process can produce larger amount of energy for a given amount of

materials than the fission process. The process is used to produce atomic bomb.

EVALUATION

1. Write short notes about

a. Nuclear fission

b. Nuclear fusion

2. What is the principle of atomic bomb?

Hazards of radiation

1. Gamma rays, x-rays and high speed alpha and beta particles can penetrate living

tissue and cause damage in varying degrees.

2. Ionizing radiation can cause permanent cell damage; sometimes it damages the

chromosomes.

3. Prolong exposure to radiation can induce cancer.

4. Ionizing radiation can damage the development of the embryos and cause

mutations in cells of the gonads (i.e. egg or sperm cells).

5. Exposure to high levels of radiation may cause radiation sickness with symptoms

of nausea, vomiting and weakness.

Uses of radioisotopes

1. ²⁴NaCl is used as a tracer element:

i. to follow the flow of blood and any constrictions in blood vessels.

ii. to detect leakages and blockages in underground pipes containing liquids

(usually petroleum oils) or gases.

32
2. P is used to follow phosphorus (phosphate) uptake by growing plants from any

type of soil or manure by “labeling”.

28
3. ¹⁴C is used to study the kinetics of plants’ photosynthesis. The 14
6
C Present in a

carbonaceous material has arisen As a result of the bombardment of the

atmospheric carbon dioxide by cosmic rays (neutrons).

4. Radioactive 132
53
I is useful in medicine because it is known to accumulate in the

thyroid gland and in the brain. It’s uses are:

i. Being a gamma emitter, radioiodine is useful in locating deep seated disorders

such as brain tumors and malignant thyroid tumor (goiter).

ii. 132
53
I can also be used to control ordinary thyroid iodine deficiency.

5. Cobalt-60 emits 𝛾 −rays as shown in the following equation:

59
27
Co + 10n → 60
27
Co + 𝛾-rays

i. Medicinally, the gamma radiation from cobalt-60 can be used therapeutically

in the treatment of deep cancerous growths being of greater penetrating

power than radium.

ii. Monitoring processes – gamma radiation is also used in measuring and

controlling the thickness of materials and levels of substances in containers.

Differences between Nuclear Reaction and Chemical Reactions

Nuclear Reaction Chemical Reaction

1. Release large amount of energy Release little amount of energy when

compared to that of nuclear reaction

2. It involves nuclei of atoms of It involves the outer most electrons of the

radioactive elements atoms of elements

3. This produces different elements The compound produces contain the same

type of element from the reactants

29
 4. It produces radiation No radiation is produced

5. Temperature and pressure have no Both temperature and pressure have effect

effect on chemical reaction on chemical reaction

Artificial Transmutation

This is the process of transmutation of an element by bombarding it with fast moving

atomic particles e.g neutrons, protons, deuterons and alpha particles.

14
7
N + 10 n 14
6
C + 1
1
P

N.B: If the nucleus being bombarded is heavy it captures the neutron to produce an

isotope of the original element

59
27
Co + 1
0
n 60
27
Co

Binding Energy

If mathematical calculations is carried out between the parent nucleus and daughter

nuclei together with neutrons and protons on either nuclear fusion or nuclear fission,

it will be found that the values are differed.

The loss of mass is known as mass defect and can be accounted for by Albert

Einstein’s theory.

E = mc2

E is energy in joule (j)

Radioactive Disintegration

This is the process by which radioactive elements decay spontaneously to release

radiation.

During this process, there is usually transmutation of an atom. That is formation of

daughter nucleus from the disintegrating nucleus.

30
 1. Alpha Decay

When an atom losses ά particles during disintegration, the atomic number and atomic

mass of the atoms is reduced by 2 and 4 respectively. This can be represented as

A
Z
K A−4
Z−2
L + 42He

e.g 238
92
U 234
90
Th + 42He

The range of an alpha particle in air is only a few centimeters (1-10cm). Indeed to a

reasonable approximation, the range in air (in cm) is equal to its energy (in MeV).

Thus a 4 MeV- particle will have a range in air of approximately 4cm. The range is

shorter in materials other than air, obeying the following relationship:

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Range (in cm) = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 (𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑔/cm³)

2. Beta Decay (𝜷- or 𝜷+)

During beta decay the atomic number of the atom increases by one unit, but the

atomic mass number remains unaltered.

A
K (Z+1)L + −10e

e.g 234
90
Th 234
91
Pa + 0
−1
e

Beta particles are of 2 types-negative beta particles or negatrons (𝛽 -), and positive

beta particles or positrons (𝛽 +) which are both formed from some nuclear processes

within the nucleus.

i 𝛽 - emission

A negatron is actually like an orbital electron the only difference being in the

energy content. A negatron has more energy than an orbital electron whose

energy is just 0.511 MeV.

The emission of a 𝛽 - particle results in no change of mass number, but an increase

by 1 unit in the atomic number. This is an example of isobaric transformation (no

change of mass number).

31
 0 -
e.g. 234
90
Th → 234
91
Pa + −1
𝑒
0 -
214
82
Pb → 214
83
Bi + −1
𝑒

In general, emission of ‘n’ 𝛽 - − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 by a radioactive substance “N” with mass

M and atomic number A can be represented as:

M
A
𝑁 → M
A+n
N + n −10e-

Parent nucleus daughter nucleus Beta– particles

ii 𝛽 + - emission (Positron emission)

The emission of 𝛽 + - particles results in no change in mass number, but decrease

by 1 unit in the atomic number.

e.g. 38
19
K → 38
18
Ar + +10 𝑒-
0 -
95
43
Tc → 95
42
Mo + +1
𝑒

In general, emission of ‘n’ 𝛽 + − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 by a radioactive substance “N” with mass

M and atomic number A can be represented as:

0 -
M
A
𝑁 → M
A−n
N + n +1e

Parent nucleus daughter nucleus Beta+ particles

Properties of 𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

i. They are of high velocity

ii. They have more penetrating power than 𝛼 − particles

iii. They ionize gases to a lesser extent that 𝛼 − particles

iv. They are attracted to the positive plate and North pole, hence are negatively

charged particles.

A positron is essentially the same as a negatron except in charge. While a negatron

caries a negative charge, a positron carries a positive charge.

3. Gamma Decay

A gamma ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation. It has zero mass and no charge.

Its energy could range from 10KeV to 3 MeV. The range of a gamma ray in any

32
medium is not definite like 𝛼 𝑜𝑟 𝛽, but it is much longer than for both of them. The

rays are comparable to X-rays, although they have a shorter wavelength. The symbol

is 00 𝛾. The intensity of gamma ray in any medium decreases exponentially from the

source. An important and common property of all these radiation types is that they

all cause ionization of gas molecules as they traverse through any medium, hence

they are referred to as ionising radiation.

e.g. 60
27
Co → 60
27
Co + 00 𝛾

They are also emitted in a process called electron capture. For example;
0 -
37
18
Ar + −1e → 37
17
Cl + 00 𝛾

4. Electron Capture

This is a decay process whereby an unstable nucleus captures (pick up) an electron

from an inner orbital of an atom. In effect a proton is changed to a neutron as in

positron emission.
0 -
1
1
P + −1
e → 10 𝑛

An example is given by potassium - 40 which can also decay by electron

capture.
0 -
40
19
K + −1
e → 40
18
𝐴𝑟

They decay by electron capture results in no change in mass number but a

decrease by 1 unit in the atomic number.

Radioactive Decay Series

Sometimes, if the nuclei of the new elements produced during radioactive decay is

not stable, the disintegration continue until a stable nucleus is finally produced e.g.

Uranium series, the thorium series and the actinium series.

M is the loss in mass in kilogram (kg) and C is the velocity of light in ms-1

33
Kinetics of Radioactive decays

Radioactive decays are believed to follow first-order reaction. Let us consider, for

example, the decay process of radioactive atom N:

N → Products
d[N]
Rate = − = 𝜆[N]…………………………. (i)
N

Where 𝜆 = decay rate constant

d[N]
− = 𝜆𝑑𝑡
N
d[N]
= − 𝜆𝑑𝑡 …………………………. (ii)
N

Integration of equation (ii) between the limits N = N0 and N =Nt ; t = 0 and t = t.

Nt d[N] t
∫N = ∫0 − λ t
0 N

[In N]N t = −λ t
N
0

Nt
In = −λ t …………………………. (iii)
N0

Nt −λt
Or log10 =
N0 2.303

−2,303 Nt
λ= log10 …………………………. (iv)
t N0

From equation (iii),

Nt
= 𝑒 −λ𝑡
N0

∴ Nt = N0 𝑒 −λ𝑡 …………………………. (v)

Where t = time interval of decay; λ = decay constant or radioactive constant; N0 =

initial number of atom at t = 0; Nt = number of atoms remaining undecayed at a later

time.

34
Half-life (𝐭 𝟏/𝟐 )

Half-life (t1/2) of a radioactive element is the time taken for half of the atoms of a

radioactive isotope originally present to disintegrate or decay. The half-life formula

is derived as shown below:

Nt
In = −λ t
N0

Nt
λ t = - In
N0
N0
λ t = In
Nt
N0
At half-life i.e t1/2; Nt =
2
N0
λ t1/2 = In N0
2

λ t1/2 = In 2
In 2 0.693
∴ λ t1/2 = =
λ λ

The values of t1/2 vary considerably from one isotope to another, since

different radioactive isotopes have different decay constants. For examples:

238
92
U; t1/2 = 4.5 x 109 years
234
90
Th; t1/2 = 2.41 years
234
91
Pa; t1/2 = 1.14 minutes

Half-life (t1/2) can be in the units of years, days, months, weeks, hours, minutes or

seconds. The half-lives of various radioactive isotopes of the same element differ

greatly. The half-life of an isotope can be considered as a measure of the stability

or instability of its nucleus.

Carbon-14 dating

Because the rate of radioactive decay of a nuclide is constant, this rate can serve

as a clock for dating very old rocks and human implements containing the nuclei. The

35
methods of radioactive dating depend on determining the fraction of a radioactive

isotope that has decayed and from this the time that has elapsed.

Carbon 14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon produced in the atmosphere when

nitrogen 14 absorbs a neutron which has been activated by cosmic radiation. A proton

is emitted in the process.

14
7
N + 10n→ 14
6
C + 11p

Plants absorb this radioactive carbon in the form of carbon dioxide (Carbon dioxide

contains carbon 14). During photosynthesis and incorporate it into sugar and

starches. After death, no more 14

6
C begins to decrease by radioactive decay. Thus,

this ratio of carbon isotopes (¹⁴C/¹²C) becomes a clock measuring times since the

death of the organism. If the radioactivity of a weighed sample of the fossil or plant

remains is measured, the approximate time of death can be calculated; knowing that

t1/2 of ¹⁴C is 5700 years.

Worked Examples

1. A radioactive element has an initial count rate of 1400 counts per second as

measured by a proportional counter and this falls to 1800 counts per minutes in

15 hours.

i. Calculate the half-life of the radioactive element

ii. If the initial number of atoms in another sample of this element is 4.5 x

1019, how many atoms has decayed in 28 hours?

Solution

i. Initial count rate, No = 1400 cps

New count rate after 15 hours Nt = 1800 cpm= 30 cps;

t = 15 hours = 15 x 60 x 60 = 54000 s
−2,303 Nt
λ= log10
t N0

36
 −2,303 30
= log10 = 7.12 x10-5 s-1
54000 1400
0.693 0.693
t1/2 = = = 9.73 x 103s
λ 7.21 x 10−5 s

ii. Nt = ? and N0 = 4.5 x 1019 atoms

−2,303 Nt
λ= log10
t N0
−λt
Nt = log −1
10
( )
2.303

but λ = 7.12 x10-5 s-1

t = 28 hours = 28 x 60 x 60 = 100800s
−λt
Nt = N0 log −1
10
( )
2.303

−7.21 x 10−5 x 100800

Nt = 4.5 x 1019 log −1
10
( )
2.303

= 4.5 x 1019 𝑥 7.65 x 10-4

=3.44 x 1016 atoms

Amounts that have decayed = initial amount of atoms – amount remaining undecayed

= N0 - Nt

= (4.5 x 1019 ) − ( 3.44 x 1016) atoms

= 4.496 x 1019 atoms

2. An old human skull was unearthed in an archaeological excavation at the

University College Hospital, Ibadan and its 14

6
C /12
6
C ratio was only 0.326 of that

in the atmosphere today. How old is the skull if the half-life of 14

6
C is 5,700 years.

Solution
−2,303 0.693
λ= = = 1.22 x 10-4 yr-1
𝑡1/2 5700 years

Nt
= ratio is 14
6
C /12
6
C = 0.326
N0

−2,303 Nt
λ= log10
t N0

37
 −2,303 Nt −2,303
t= log10 = log10 (0.326)
𝜆 N0 1.22 x 10−4 yr−1

= 9.19 x 103 years

3. The following decay series of 238

92
U has been somewhat abbreviated as shown

below:
2-alpha P Q R
238
92
U → X→ 222
86
R → 211
82
Pb → 207
82
Pb
2-beta

i. Identify the isotope X by giving its mass and atomic numbers

ii. Identify both the number and types of radiation represented by letters P, Q

and R from the above radioactive decay.

iii. If the average atomic mass of the two isotopes of 211

82
Pb and 207
82
Pb was 209.32.
211 207
The exact mass of Pb is 210.979 and the exact mass of Pb is 206.973.
211
What is the isotopic ratio of Pb to 207Pb?

Solution

i.
2-alpha P Q R
238
92
U → X→ 222
86
R → 211
82
Pb → 207
82
Pb
2-beta

2- alpha = 2 𝛼 = 2 42He and 2-beta = 2𝛽 = 2 −1

0
𝛽

This implies that the mass number of 238

92
U should decrease by 8 units and atomic

number by 2 units.

Isotope X is 230
90
X i.e mass number = 230 and atomic number = 90

ii. The differences in the composition of X and Rn are:

Mass number = 230 – 222 = 8 units

Atomic number = 90 -86 = 4 units

These amounts correspond to two 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠, i.e 2 42He

38
P is 2 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠

The differences in composition of 222

86
Rn and 221
82
Pb are:

Mass number = 222 – 211 = 11 units

Atomic number = 86 -82 = 4 units

These amounts correspond to two 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 and three neutron particles, i.e. 2 42He

and 3 10n

Q = 2 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 and 3 neutron particles

The difference in the composition of 221

82
Pb and 207
82
Pb is:

Mass number = 211 – 207 = 4 units

This amount corresponds to 4 neutron particles, i.e. 4 10n

R = 4 neutron particles

iii. Let x be the fraction of 221

82
Pb

∴ (1 - x) will be the fraction of 207

82
Pb

Hence, 210.979x + (1-x) 206.973 = 209.32

210.979x – 206.973x = 209.32 – 206.973

4.006x = 2.347
2,347
∴ x= = 0.58
4.006

Abundance of 221
82
Pb = 0.58

Abundance of 207
82
Pb = 1 – 0.58 = 0.42
211 0.58
Isotopic abundance ratio of Pb/207Pb = = 1.39
0.42

Exercise

1. The half-life of the isotope of uranium of mass number 234 grams is 2.5 x 10 5

years. Hoe long after the isolation of a sample of this isotope will only one – sixth

of the original mass be left?

39
2. The half-life of a radioactive isotope is 28 days. What fraction of the original

mass remains undecayed after 2 months?

Assignment

1. Cobalt-59, a radioactive element decayed by emitting gamma rays according to

the following equation:

59
27
Co + 10n → 60
27
Co + 00 𝛾

If 0.037 mg of cobalt-60 is obtained from 1.00 mg of cobalt-59 after 4 years.

i. Calculate the half-life of cobalt-59

ii. How much cobalt -59 will be transformed cobalt -60 after a period of 10 years?

2. ³²P has a half-life of 14 days. Calculate the time taken for a given amount of ³²P

to decay to one-eight of its original activity.

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Define the following with an example each (a) Nuclear Fission (b) Nuclear Fusion

2. (a) State two effects of radioactivity.

(b) State two differences between nuclear reaction and chemical reaction.

READING ASSIGNMENT

New School Chemistry by O. Y. Ababio pages 304-310.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Examples of radioactive elements are except (a) Uranium (b) Polonium (c)

Thorium (d) Oxygen

2. 235
92
U + 1
0
n → 141
56
Ba + 92
36
Kr + 3 10n

The above nuclear reaction represents (a) nuclear fission (b) nuclear fusion

(c) oxidation reaction (d) esterification reaction.

3. 238
92
U 234
90
Th + A. In the equation, A represents (a) hydrogen (b)

beryllium (c) helium (d) oxygen

40
 4. Chain reaction helps during the preparation of ____ (a) Solar bomb (b) atomic

bomb (c) hydrogen bomb (d) nuclear fusion

5. 23
11
Na + 10n 24
11
Na. The reaction represents (a) artificial radioactivity (b)

Natural radioactivity (c) Nuclear fission (d) Binding energy.

THEORY

1. Explain briefly the principle of the operation of a nuclear power plant

2. State five (5) uses of radioactivity

41
WEEK 6 DATE: _________

TOPIC HYDROGEN

SUB-TOPIC  Properties of hydrogen

 Preparation of hydrogen

 Test for hydrogen

 Uses

CONTENT

Hydrogen

The first element on the periodic table. Having atomic number of one with one

electron, it is place in group one floating among the metals on the periodic table.

Hydrogen has three isotopes as indicated below

Element Symbol Number of Proton Number of neutron Number of electron

Hydrogen H 1 0 1

Deuterium D 1 1 1

Tritium T 1 1 1

Method of preparation

1. When mineral acid react with any of the moderate metal e.g zinc

Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2(g)

2. Methane reacting with steam to liberate carbon dioxides in two reactions

Ni / 750oC
CH4(g) + H2O(g) → 3H2(g) + CO(g)
o
Fe/ 350 C
CO(g) + H2O(g) → CO2(g) + H2(g)
1. Methanol and steam in the presence of Cu as catalyst and a temperature of

250oC.

42
 Cu / 250oC
CH3OH (g) + H2O (g) → CO2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
4. It is produce industrially by electrolysis of brine solution

Physical properties of hydrogen

1. Colourless, odourless gas.

2. Has no action on damp blue or red litmus

3. It is insoluble in water

4. It is non poisonous

5. It burns with pale blue flame and does not support combustion

Chemical properties

1. Undergo combustion in the presence of oxygen and a good reducing agent.

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

2. Reaction with Nitrogen to produce ammonia.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

3. Hydrogen react with unreactive metal oxides (CuO, PbO, Fe2O3) liberating the

metals

CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g)

Test for hydrogen

Hydrogen extinguishes a lighted splint with a pop sound

Uses

1. Employed in the extraction of metals

2. Production of fertilizer and other valuable chemical

3. Hydrogenation process oil to fat, unsaturation to saturation in organic

compounds.

43
LESSON PLAN FOR WEEK 8 & 9 DATE: _________

TOPIC Chlorine and its compounds

SUB-TOPIC  Electronic Configuration of Halogens

 Physical and Chemical Properties of Halogens.

 Laboratory and Industrial Preparation of Chlorine.

 Preparation, Properties and Uses.

 Compound of Chlorine: Hydrogen Chloride.

 Test for Chlorides

HALOGENS

Halogens (salt formers) are found in group VII of the periodic table. They are the

most reactive nonmetals. They have seven valence electrons, they exist as diatomic

molecules, and they are coloured and ionizes to form univalent negative ions. They

form electrovalent compounds with metals. In the group are chlorine, fluorine,

bromine, iodine and astatine.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF HALOGENS

The halogens meaning salt makers are found in group VII of the periodic table. The

electronic configuration of the halogens is one electron short of the noble gas

structure (i.e. contains seven electrons on their outermost shells), and the chemistry

of the group is dominated by the tendency to complete the octet arrangement by

receiving an electron. The electronic configurations of the halogens are shown below:

Fluorine = 9: 1s2 2s2 2p5

Chlorine = 17: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

44
 Bromine = 35: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p5

Iodine = 53: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s2 5p5

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE HALOGENS

1. They are usually univalent, and easily accept one electron from other atoms to

form ionic compounds (especially from metals e.g Na & K). They also share

electrons with themselves or with non-metals to form covalent compounds.

2. They exist in their natural states as non-polar diatomic molecules.

3. Fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid.

4. The halogens are coloured, with typical penetrating odour. The colours deepen

down the group. Fluorine is pale-yellow, chlorine is greenish- yellow, bromine is

red and iodine is violet.

5. They are volatile substances. Their volatility decreases down the group.

6. All the halogens except fluorine, dissolve to some extent in water, fluorine

reacts with water to give oxygen and hydrogen fluoride.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE HALOGENS

The halogens are very reactive elements. Their reactivity decreases down the group.

Fluorine is the most reactive halogen. They are also strongly electronegative. Their

Electronegativity decreases down the group.

1. As oxidizing agents. Halogens are strong oxidizing agent. They do so by

accepting electrons and forming halide ions especially in the reaction with

metals. The oxidizing power decreases down a group.

2. Reaction with metals: Halogens react with metals to form ionic compounds.

2Na(s) + F2(g) → 2NaF(s)

45
3. Reaction with hydrogen: Fluorine explodes with hydrogen even in the dark,

chlorine reacts slowly in the dark but explode in bright sunlight, bromine reacts

with hydrogen in the presence of platinum catalyst; while iodine reacts partially

with hydrogen on heating. Example

H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)

Stability of the hydrogen halides decreases down the group. Hydrogen fluoride

is a liquid with a boiling point of 19OC. The other hydrogen halides are gases.

4. Reaction with water: Fluorine reacts vigorously with water to give off oxygen gas.

Chlorine reacts very slowly with water to give a mixture of hydrochloric acid and

oxochlorate (I) acid which later decomposes to give hydrochloric acid and oxygen gas.

The oxygen gas given off by the oxochlorate (I) acid is responsible for the bleaching

action of moist chlorine gas and chlorine water.

H2O(g) + Cl2(g) → HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)

EVALUATION

1. Write the electronic configuration of the following atoms/ions: Cl, F-, Br.
2. Give three physical properties of the halogen

CHLORINE

Chlorine is the most important element in the halogen family. It does not occur as

free element in nature because it is too reactive. It is usually found in combined

state as chlorides.

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF CHLORINE

1. By the oxidation of concentrated HCl with strong oxidizing agent such as

MnO2 or KMnO4

46
 MnO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) → MnCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)

2. By heating concentrated H2SO4 with a mixture of NaCl and MnO2

2NaCl(s) + MnO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + MnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + Cl2(g)

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION

Chlorine is manufactured industrially by the electrolysis of brine and molten NaCl,

MgCl2 or CaCl2.

EVALUATION

1. Explain one laboratory preparation of dry chlorine gas.

2. Name the method of collection of chlorine gas and explain why it can be

collected by the method.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas with unpleasant chocking smell.

2. It is a poisonous gas.

3. It is about 2.5 times denser than air.

4. It can be liquefied under a pressure of about 6atm.

5. It is moderately soluble in water.

47
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. It is very reactive and tends to attain stability by forming electrovalent

compound with metals and a single covalent bond compounds with non-metals.

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

Cl2(g) + H2(g) → 2HCl(g)

2. It displaces other halogens from solution of their acids and salts

Cl2(g) + NaI(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + I2(g)

3. It combines directly with other elements except oxygen, nitrogen carbon and

the noble gases; to form chlorides

Ca(s) + Cl2(g) → CaCl2(s)

4. It has a very strong affinity for hydrogen; it removes hydrogen from its

compounds.

C10H12(l) + 8Cl2(g) → 10C(s) + 16HCl(g)

5.
It is a powerful oxidizing agent: it oxidizes green Fe2+ to yellow Fe3+

2FeCl2(aq) + Cl2 →2FeCl3(aq)

6. It has a bleaching action: in the presence of water, chlorine bleaches most dyes

and inks except printer’s ink. The bleaching action of chlorine is due to its

ability to react with water to form oxochlorate (I) acid which decomposes to

release oxygen which oxidizes the dye to form a colourless compound.

H2O(l) + Cl2(g) → HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)

HOCl(aq) → HCl(aq) + [O]

Dye + [O] → [Dye + O]

Coloured Colourless

48
7. It reacts with hot concentrated NaOH solution to give a mixture of

trioxochlorate (V) and chloride of the metal.

6NaOH + 3Cl2(g) → NaClO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Sodium trioxochlorate (V)

With cold dilute solution of NaOH, a pale yellowish mixture of oxochlorate (I)

and chloride of the metal is formed.

2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) → NaOCl(aq) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

8. It reacts with slaked lime solutions to produce bleaching powder

Ca(OH)2(aq) + Cl2(g) → CaOCl2.H2O(s)

Bleaching powder

TEST FOR CHLORINE

1. It turns damped blue litmus paper pink and then bleaches it. It is acidic gas.

2. It turns damped starch-iodide dark blue. Chlorine turns starch-iodide paper

blue because it displaces iodine from the iodide. The iodine liberated then turns

the starch blue.

USES OF CHLORINE

1. It is a powerful germicide [due to its oxidizing nature].

2. It is used as a bleaching agent for cotton, wool, pulp etc.

3. It is used in the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and synthetic rubber.

4. It is used in the manufacture of organic compound e.g CHCl3, CCl4.

5. It is used in producing KClO3, for making matches and fireworks.

6. It is used for making NaClO3, a weed killer.

7. It is used for making domestic antiseptics e.g acidified NaClO solution.

49
EVALUATION

1. Mention FOUR physical properties of chlorine.

2. Using balanced equations, state FIVE chemical properties of chlorine.

COMPOUNDS OF CHLORINE

HYDROGEN CHLORIDE

Hydrogen chloride (marine-acid gas) exists as a gas at room temperature. It

dissolves in water to form hydrochloric acid. It occurs in traces in the air as

industrial by-product and is considered as air pollutant; but it can be easily washed

down as acid rain since it is very soluble in water.

LABORATORY PREPARATION

The gas is prepared by the action of hot concentrated H2SO4 on any soluble chloride.

Example 2NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(g)

Note: NaHSO4 is first formed at a lower temperature and later at higher

temperature HCl gas is formed. The gas is dried by passing it through concentrated

H2SO4 in another flask and collected.

50
INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION

Pure HCl gas can be produced in large scale by direct combination of hydrogen and

chloride gas obtained from the electrolysis of brine.

H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Pure HCl gas is colourless and has sharp irritating smell

2. It turns damp blue litmus paper red

3. It is about 1.25times denser than air

4. It is very soluble in water, forming aqueous HCl acid

5. It is readily dissolved in non-polar solvent like chloroform and toluene; but the

solution does not conduct electricity and has no acidic properties because

hydrogen chloride which is a covalent molecule does not ionize when it dissolve

in non-polar solvents. But it dissolves in water and ionizes. The ions formed in

aqueous solution are responsible for the acidic property and conductivity of its

aqueous solution.

6. It forms misty fumes in moist air because it dissolves in the moisture to form

tiny droplets of HCl acid.

7. It does not support combustion.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. It combines directly with NH3 and produces a white fumes of ammonium

chloride

HCl(g) + NH3(g) → NH4Cl(s)

51
2. It reacts with various heated metals to form their respective chloride and

hydrogen

Zn(s) + 2HCl(g) → ZnCl2(s) + H2(g)

TEST FOR HYDROGEN CHLORIDE

1. A gas rod that has been dipped in ammonia solution is brought near the gas jar

containing the unknown gas, if there are dense white fumes on the glass rod,

then the gas is hydrogen chloride gas.

2. Few drops of silver trioxonitrate (V) is added to the gas jar containing the

unknown gas and shaken. If white precipitate of silver chloride is observed,

then the gas is hydrogen chloride gas.

EVALUATION

1. State TWO physical and TWO chemical properties of hydrogen chloride gas

2. An unknown gas is colourless, has an irritating smell, fumes in moist air and turns

blue litmus paper red; describe how you will confirm the gas to be hydrogen

chloride gas.

CHLORIDES

Chlorides are normal salts formed when metallic ion replace the hydrogen ion in

hydrochloric acid. Chlorides are prepared by neutralization reaction. Chlorides are

soluble in water with exception of few.

Soluble chlorides Insoluble chlorides

NaCl, NH4Cl, KCl CuCl2, AgCl, PbCl2

CaCl2 etc

PROPERTIES

52
1. Chlorides are not decomposed by heat. They can only be recovered from

solution by evaporation to dryness or sometimes by crystallization.

2. They react with hot concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid to produce

hydrogen chloride gas.

2NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(g)

On heating a chloride with concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) in the presence of a

strong oxidizing agent, chlorine is produced.

ZnCl2(s) + KMnO4(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + K2SO4(aq) + 2MnO2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)

TEST FOR CHLORIDES

The test solution is acidified with dilute trioxonitrate (V) acid to prevent

precipitation of other salts. Few drops of AgNO3(aq) is then added to the acidified

solution in a test tube, a white precipitate of AgCl which readily dissolves in excess

NH3(aq) solution indicates the presence of a chloride.

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION

1. Explain why hydrogen chloride in toluene does not conduct electricity but its

aqueous solution does conduct electricity.

2. Describe a test for a soluble chloride.

3. Give FOUR uses of chlorine gas.

4. Define Ionization energy and Electronegativity.

5. State the second law of thermodynamics.

READING ASSIGNMENT: New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by

O.Y. Ababio (6th edition) pages 356-361

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

53
SECTION A: Write the correct option ONLY

1. The gas released when chlorine reacts with water in the presence of sunlight

is a. Cl2 b. H2 c. O2 d. N2

2. A misty white fume produced when HCl gas react with ammonia is a. NH4OH b.

NH4Cl c. NaCl d. ZnCl2

3. The reaction between common salt and concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI)

acid liberates a. SO2 b. O2 and Cl2 c. HCl gas d. H2

4. Apart from hydrogen chloride gas, which other common gas is used in the

demonstration of fountain experiment? a. H2S b. SO2 c. NH3 d. CH4

5. What property makes hydrogen chloride suitable for the fountain experiment?

a. It is very soluble in water b. It is slightly soluble in water c. It dissolves in

water to give an acidic solution d. It forms acid rain

SECTION B

1. Explain why hydrogen chloride in toluene does not conduct electricity but its

aqueous solution does conduct electricity.

2. Describe a test for a soluble chloride.

54
LESSON PLAN FOR WEEK 10 DATE: _________

TOPIC Nitrogen

SUB-TOPIC  General Properties of Nitrogen Family.

 Laboratory Preparation and Industrial Preparation

of Nitrogen.

 Properties and Uses of Nitrogen.

 Nitrogen Cycle.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF NITROGEN FAMILY (GROUP VA ELEMENTS)

The group V elements include: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony and Bismuth.

There are more differences than similarities between the elements in this group.

1. Nitrogen is a diatomic gas and does not exhibit allotropy. Phosphorus is a typical

non-metal and exhibits allotropy. Arsenic and Antimony are metalloid; while

bismuth is a metal.

2. Nitrogen is a colourless gas. Phosphorus exists in variety of allotropic forms

like white and red phosphorus. Arsenic exists as a dull grey metallic solid.

Antimony and bismuth is silvery-white solid.

3. Nitrogen is the most electronegative element in the group. It combines with

metals and non-metals to form a variety of compounds.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

The electronic configuration of the group V elements is as follows:

Nitrogen = 7: 1s2 2s2 2p3

55
 Phosphorus = 15: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

Arsenic = 33: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p3

Antimony = 51: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s2 5p3

NITROGEN

Nitrogen occurs chiefly as a free element in the air. It makes up 78% by volume of

the atmosphere. It also exists in combined form in many compounds e.g ammonia,

urea, proteins etc.

LABORATORY PREPARATION

From Air

It can be obtained from air by passing air through caustic soda to remove CO2 and

overheated copper turnings to remove O2 respectively. The nitrogen obtained is not

pure, it contains 1% by volume of rare gases and it is denser than air.

Pure nitrogen is obtained in the laboratory by chemical method. The following

chemicals are used to prepare nitrogen.

1. Thermal decomposition of ammonium dioxonitrate (III)

a. NaNO2(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) → NH4NO2(aq) + NaCl(aq)

b. NH4NO2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + N2(g)

56
2. Thermal decomposition of ammonium heptaoxodichromate (VI)

(NH4)2Cr2O7(s) → Cr2O3(s) + 4H2O(l) + N2(g)

3. Oxidation of ammonia by hot Copper (II) oxide

2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s) → 3Cu(s) + 3H2O(g) + N2(g)

4. Reduction of dinitrogen (I) oxide by red-hot copper.

N2O(g) + Cu(s) → CuO(s) + N2(g)

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION

Industrially, nitrogen is obtained by fractional distillation of liquid air.

EVALUATION

1. Write the electronic configuration of nitrogen and phosphorus.

2. Using balanced equations, state TWO methods of preparing nitrogen in the

laboratory.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. It is colourless, odourless and tasteless

2. Pure nitrogen is lighter than air.

3. Slightly soluble in water

57
4. Melting point – 2100C and boiling point is -1960C

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. It reacts with very electropositive metals to form nitrides

3Mg(s) + N2(g) → Mg3N2(s)

2. It reacts with non – metals like hydrogen and oxygen to form ammonia and

oxides respectively.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 3NH3(g)

N2(g) + 2O2(g) → 2N2O(g)

USES

1. It is used industrially to manufacture ammonia.

2. Liquid nitrogen is used as a cooling agent.

3. It is used as preservative in packaged foods to prevent rancidity.

EVALUATION

1. State TWO physical properties and TWO chemical properties of nitrogen.

2. Mention THREE uses of nitrogen.

58
The stages in which atmospheric nitrogen is converted into soil nitrogen and back to

free nitrogen occurs in the following ways:

1. Oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen: During lightning and thunderstorm, there is

electrical discharge in the atmosphere which cause atmospheric nitrogen and

oxygen combine to form oxides of nitrogen which can dissolve in rain water as

dioxonitrate (III) and trioxonitrate (V) acids. These acids go into the soil and

react with mineral salts in the soil to form trioxonitrate (V) salts which is

absorbed by plants.

N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g)

2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)

4NO(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) → 4HNO2(aq)

4NO(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) → 4HNO3(aq)

59
2. Action of nitrogen-fixing bacteria: Soil micro-organisms like Rhizobium living in

root nodules of leguminous plants are able to convert atmospheric nitrogen into

organic nitrogenous compounds which are used directly by the host plants.

These compounds are released into the soil when these plants die. Other free

living micro-organisms in the soil like Azotobacter and Clostridium are also able

to convert atmospheric nitrogen directly into trioxonitrate (V) which is

absorbed by plants. These processes are known as nitrogen fixation.

3. Decay of organic matter: When plants and animal die, putrefying bacteria and

fungi in the soil converts organic nitrogenous compounds to ammonia. Nitrifying

bacteria like Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter convert the ammonia to

trioxonitrate (V) which can again be absorbed by plants. These processes are

known as nitrification.

4. Denitrification: Trioxonitrate (V) salt in the soil can be converted to gaseous

nitrogen by denitrifying bacteria. The process is known as Denitrification. The

nitrogen so formed escapes into the atmosphere, where it becomes atmospheric

nitrogen. Denitrifying bacteria therefore reduces the quantity of trioxonitrate

(V) in the soil.

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION

1. Using balanced equation ONLY, show how nitrogen can be prepared in the

laboratory.

2. Outline the stages involved in the nitrogen cycle.

3. Write the electronic configuration of N3- and P5-

4. Balance the following redox equation: I- + MnO4- → IO3- + MnO2 in basic

medium

5. State the effect of the following on the equilibrium position of the reaction

below: 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g) ∆H = +ve

60
 i. Increase in temperature

ii. Increase in pressure

iii. Using iron filings instead of iron rod.

READING ASSIGNMENT

New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by O. Y. Ababio (6 th edition),

pages 404-405, 422-423.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

SECTION A: Write the correct option ONLY

1. In which group of the periodic table is nitrogen found? (a) 2 (b) 5 (c) 7 (d) 6

2. The boiling point of nitrogen in 0C is (a) -183 (b) -196 (c) 200 (d) 240

3. The percentage of nitrogen in air is (a) 78 (b) 75 (c) 71 (d) 67

4. The following are uses of nitrogen except a. as a cooling agent b. to prevent

rancidity c. in the manufacture of fertilizers d. in laundry.

5. The atomicity of nitrogen is (a) 1(b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4

SECTION B

1. Briefly describe the preparation of nitrogen from air in the laboratory.

2. State three physical properties and two chemical properties of nitrogen.

61
LESSON PLAN FOR WEEK 10 CONT. DATE: _________

TOPIC Compounds of Nitrogen

SUB-TOPIC  Oxides of Nitrogen

 Ammonia: Preparation, Properties and Uses.

 Trioxonitrate (V) acid: Preparation, Properties and

Uses.

OXIDES OF NITROGEN

NITROGEN (I) OXIDE, N2O

Nitrogen (I) oxide is known as laughing gas as it causes uncontrollable laughter when

inhaled.

LABORATORY PREPARATION

The gas is prepared in the laboratory by thermal decomposition of ammonium

trioxonitrate (V). Ammonium trioxonitrate (V) is not heated directly since the

reaction is exothermic and may become uncontrollable leading to an explosion.

a. KNO3(s) + NH4Cl(s) → KCl(s) + NH4NO3(s)

b NH4NO3(s) → 2H2O(g) + N2O(g)

62
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. It is a colourless gas with a faint pleasant sickly smell and it has a sweetish taste.

2. It is fairly soluble in cold water.

3. It is 1.5 times denser than air.

4. It is neutral to moist litmus paper.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. It decomposes on strong heating (about 600oC) to form nitrogen and oxygen.

2N2O(g) → O2(g) + 2N2(g)

2. It supports the combustion of any burning substance which is hot enough to

decompose it.

Mg(s) + N2O(g) → MgO(s) + N2(g)

3. It is reduced to nitrogen by heated copper or iron

Cu(s) + N2O(g) → N2(g) + CuO(s)

TEST FOR N2O

A glowing splinter is inserted into the gas jar containing the unknown gas. If the

splinter is rekindled, the gas is either oxygen or nitrogen (I) oxide. If the gas has a

pleasant smell and does not produce brown fumes with nitrogen (IV) oxide; then the

gas is nitrogen (I) oxide.

USE: Nitrogen (I) oxide is used as anesthetic for minor surgical operations.

EVALUATION

1. Describe the laboratory preparation of nitrogen (I) oxide.

2. Describe a test to distinguish between nitrogen (I) oxide and oxygen gas.

63
NITROGEN (II) OXIDE, NO

LABORATORY PREPARATION

Nitrogen (II) oxide is prepared by reacting 50% trioxonitrate (IV) acid with copper.

3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(aq) → 3Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 2NO(g)

Some of the nitrogen (II) oxide gas reacts with oxygen in the flask to form brown

fumes of nitrogen (IV) oxide which is dissolved in water as the gas is pass through

water.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. It is a colourless and poisonous gas.

2. It is a almost insoluble in water.

3. It is slightly denser than air.

4. It is neutral to litmus.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. It reacts readily with oxygen to form brown fumes of nitrogen (IV) oxide

2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)

2. It decomposes on heating at high temperature to form equal volume of nitrogen

and oxygen

2NO(s) → N2(g) + O2(g)

3. It is reduced to nitrogen by hot metals

2Cu(s) + 2NO(g) → 2CuO(g) + N2(g)

4. It acts as reducing agent decolourizing acidified potassium tetraoxomanganate

(VI) slowly

64
 3MnO4-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 5NO(g) → 3Mn2+(aq) + 5NO3-(aq) + 2H2O(l)

TEST FOR NO

1. Using air: the gas jar containing the unknown gas is opened, if the gas turns

reddish-brown, then the gas is NO.

2. Using iron (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI): A solution of FeSO4 which has been

acidified with a little dilute H2SO4 acid is poured into the gas jar containing

the unknown gas. If the solution turns dark brown, then the gas is NO.

EVALUATION

1. Give an equation to show the laboratory preparation of nitrogen (II) oxide.

2. State TWO physical and TWO chemical properties of nitrogen (II) oxide.

NITROGEN (IV) OXIDE, NO2

LABORATORY PREPARATION

Nitrogen (IV) oxide is prepared by thermal decomposition of lead (II) trioxonitrate

(V) because the nitrate does not contain water of crystallization which can interfere

with the preparation.

Pb(NO3)2(s) → 2PbO(s) + O2(g) + 4NO2(g)

The gas mixture obtained is passed through a U- tube immersed in a freezing

mixture. Nitrogen (IV) oxide liquefies as a green liquid (yellow if pure) in the tube

while oxygen escapes out.

65
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. It is a reddish – brown gas.

2. It has an irritating smell and is poisonous.

3. It turns damp blue litmus paper red and dissolves in water to form acidic

solution.

4. It liquefies into yellow liquid at 21oC.

5. It is much heavier than air.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. Nitrogen (IV) oxide exists mainly as dinitrogen (IV) oxide, N 2O4 at low

temperature. It decomposes on heating as follows.

N2O4(g) 2NO2(g) → 2NO(g) + O2(g)

Pale Reddish colourless

yellow brown

2. It supports combustion as it decomposes on heating to nitrogen and oxygen

2NO2(g) → N2(g) + 2O2(g)

3. It is reduced to nitrogen by reducing agent.

66
 4CU(s) + 2NO(g) → 4CuO(s) + N2(g)

4. It dissolves in water to form a mixture of dioxonitrate (III) and trioxonitrate

(V) acids. It is a mixed acid anhydride.

H2O(l) + 2NO2(g) → HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)

5. It reacts with alkalis to form mixture of dioxonitrate (III) and trioxonitrate

(V) salts

2KOH(aq) + 2NO2(g) → KNO3(aq) + KNO2(aq) + H2O(l)

AMMONIA

Ammonia is a hydride of nitrogen. It is produced in nature when nitrogenous matter

decays in the absence of air. Thus, traces of ammonia may be found in the

atmosphere but being very soluble in water, it is dissolved by rain water and washed

down into the soil.

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF AMMONIA

Ammonia is prepared in the laboratory by heating calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 (slaked

lime) with ammonium chloride.

Ca(OH)2(s)+ 2NH4Cl(s) → CaCl2(s) +2H2O(l)+2NH3(g).

Ammonia is dried using calcium oxide, CaO. Ammonia being alkaline cannot be dried

using Conc. H2SO4 or fused CaCl2, because they will react.

67
INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION

Ammonia is manufactured from nitrogen and hydrogen by the Haber process. It

involves mixing nitrogen and hydrogen in ratio 1:3 by volume. The reaction is

reversible so special conditions listed below are required for optional yield of

ammonia.

i. Finely divided iron catalyst is used

ii. Temperature of about 450Oc is used

iii. Pressure of about 200atm is used.

The yield is about 15% under this condition

N2(g) +3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) + heat

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. It is a colorless gas with a characteristic choking smell.

2. Ammonia in large quantity is poisonous as it affects respiratory muscles.

3. It is the only known alkaline gas.

4. It is about 1.7 times less dense than air.

5. Solid ammonia melts at -34.4OC and the liquid boils at -77.7OC.

68
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. Ammonia burns readily in oxygen to form water vapor and nitrogen

4NH3(g) + 3O2(g) → 6H2O(g) + 2N2(g)

2. Ammonia reacts as reducing agents reacting with

i. Copper II oxide

3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) → 3Cu(s) + 3H2O(l) + N2(g)

ii. Chlorine

3Cl2(g) + 8NH3(g) → 6NH4Cl(s) + N2(g)

3. Ammonia reacts with carbon IV oxide to form Urea and water vapour.

2NH3(g) + CO2(g) → (NH2)2 CO(s) + H2O(l)

urea

4. Ammonia reacts with acid to form ammoniums salts.

2NH3(g) + H2SO4(g) → (NH4)2SO4(s)

TEST FOR AMMONIA

Ammonia has a choking smell. It can be confirmed using:

1. Litmus paper: Damped red litmus is dipped into the gas jar containing the

unknown gas. If the litmus paper turns blue, then the gas is ammonia.

2. Hydrochloric acid: a glass rod is dipped in concentrated HCl and then inserted

in the gas jar containing the unknown gas. If white fumes are observed on the

glass rod, then the gas is ammonia.

USES OF AMMONIA

1. Ammonia is used in the manufacture of trioxonitrate (V) acid and Sodium

trioxocarbonate (IV) by the Solvay process.

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2. Liquid ammonia is used as a refrigerant.

3. Aqueous ammonia is used in softening temporary hard water.

4. Aqueous ammonia is also used in laundries as a solvent for removing grease and

oil stains.

EVALUATION

1. Briefly describe the laboratory preparation of ammonia.

2. State TWO physical and THREE chemical properties each of ammonia.

TRIOXONITRATE (V) ACID, HNO3

LABORATORY PREPARATION

Trioxonitrate (V) acid is a volatile acid and it is prepared in the laboratory by its

displacement from any trioxonitrate salt by concentrated H2SO4 which is less

volatile. Trioxonitrate (V) of potassium or sodium is usually used because they are

cheap.

KNO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → KHSO4(aq) + HNO3(aq)

NOTE: An all glass apparatus must be used in this preparation because the hydrogen

trioxonitrate (V) acid vapour will attack cork or rubber.

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INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION

Trioxonitrate (V) acid is obtained by the catalytic oxidation of ammonia:

- Ammonia is treated with excess air using Platinum-rhodium catalyst at 700oC to

produce nitrogen (II) oxide (96% conversion of NH3 is obtained)

4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)

- Nitrogen (II) oxide formed is cooled and mixed with excess air to produce

nitrogen (IV) oxide.

2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)

- Nitrogen (IV) oxide formed is dissolved with excess air in hot water to yield

trioxonitrate (V) acid solution of up to 50% concentration.

4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) → 4HNO3(aq)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. The pure acid is a colourless fuming liquid with sharp choking smell. The acid turns

yellow due to its decomposition to nitrogen (IV) oxide which redissolves in the acid.

2. The pure acid boils at 860C and melts at -47oC

3. The density of the pure acid is 1.52 gcm-3

4. The pure acid is miscible with water in all properties and forms constant boiling

mixture with it at 121oC

5. The concentrated form of the acid is corrosive.

6. The dilute acid turns blue litmus red.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. As an acid it neutralizes bases and alkalis to form metallic trioxonitrate (V) and water

only

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 NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

2. As an acids it reacts with metallic trioxocarbonate (IV) to liberate

carbon (II) oxide

CaCO3(s) + HNO3(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

3. Unlike other acids, it rarely gives out hydrogen with metals except when very dilute

solution is reacted with Ca, Mg or Mn.

4. As an oxidizing agent, it reacts with non – metal to form the corresponding oxides of

the non – metals.

S(s) + 6HNO3(aq) → H2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 6NO2(g)

5. As an oxidizing agent, it oxidizes Cu, Pb, Hg and Ag to yield the

respective trioxonitrate (V) and nitrogen (IV) oxide if concentrated, but

nitrogen (II) oxide if the concentration is moderate.

Aluminum and iron are not oxidized to their oxides by concentrated HNO 3(aq)

due to formation of a surface coating of oxide which is passive do not allow

further reaction with the metals. Aluminum or iron lined container can be used

to transport concentrated HNO3(aq)

6. As an oxidizing agent, it oxidizes hydrogen sulphide to sulphur

H2S(g) + 2HNO3(aq) → S(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2NO2(g)

7. As an oxidizing agent, it oxidizes iron (II) salts to iron (III) salts

6Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) → 6Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 2NO(g)

USES

1. It is used as an acid, oxidizing agent and nitrating agent in the laboratory.

2. It is used in nylon production and Terylene.

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3. It is used as rocket fuel.

4. It is used in production of fertilizers, dyes, drugs and explosives.

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION

1. Describe the laboratory preparation of trioxonitrate (V) acid.

2. Write TWO equations of reactions in which trioxonitrate (V) is acting as an

acid.
3. Write an equation to show the reaction of nitrogen (IV) oxide as a mixed anhydride.

4. Describe the electrolysis of CuSO4 solution using platinum electrodes.

5. Classify the following oxides: CuO, Na2O, PbO, NO2, N2O

READING ASSIGNMENT

New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by O. Y. Ababio (6 th edition),

pages 406-409, 411-419.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

SECTION A: Write the correct potion ONLY.

1. Pure trioxonitrate (V) acid is colourless but the product of its laboratory

preparation is yellow because of the presence of dissolved a. N2O b. NO c. NO2

d. NH3

2. Common laboratory drying agents are not used for drying ammonia because a.

ammonia is alkaline b. ammonia forms complexes with them c. ammonia reacts

with them and disappears into products d. ammonia is highly soluble in water

3. Ammonia has relatively high boiling point when compared with other similar

compounds because a. ammonia is stable b. ammonia is easily liquefied c. ammonia

has hydrogen bonding d. ammonia is soluble in water.

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4. Aqueous ammonia solution used in the laboratory is referred to as aqueous

ammonia and not ammonium hydroxide because a. ammonia dissolves in water

without forming bond b. ammonia solution easily decomposes and liberated free

ammonia when the temperature of the room rises leaving water in the bottle c.

bond between ammonia and OH- of water is weakly acidic d. ammonia is less

dense than air.

5. Which of the following metals would be in passive state when treated with

concentrated HNO3? a. Zinc b. Sodium c. Tin d. Iron

SECTION B

1. Give reason for the following

a. The flask used for the laboratory preparation of ammonia is mounted in a

slanting position

b. An all glass apparatus is used for the laboratory preparation of

trioxonitrate (V) acid.

2. Give an example of a reaction in which ammonia behaves as a

a. reducing agent b. base c. precipitating agent

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