Applied Food Research 2 (2022) 100118

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Food Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/afres

Trends in Edible Packaging Films and its Prospective Future in Food: A

Review
Ajesh Kumar V 1,∗, Muzaffar Hasan 2,∗∗, Shukadev Mangaraj 1, Pravitha M 2,
Deepak Kumar Verma 3, Prem Prakash Srivastav 3
1
Centre of Excellence for Soybean Processing and Utilization, ICAR‐Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal 462 038, India
2
Agro Produce Processing Division, ICAR- Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal 462 038, India
3
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, West Bengal, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Food packaging is an important area of food research due to its prime role in the protection and containment of
Biopolymer foodstuffs. Traditionally petroleum-derived polymers fulfill the lion’s share of packaging material requirements.
Edible film However, present-day consumers are more concerned about the environmental impact and health hazards of these
Nanomaterials
synthetic polymers. This necessitates the requirement of alternative packaging material with unique biodegrad-
Composite film
able and renewable characteristics. The edible film is considered a solution to replace these synthetic plastics
Safety and regulation
with naturally available bio-macromolecules such as polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids. An enormous number
of researches have been carried out across the world to explore its full potential. Their findings need to be con-
solidated for further development of this trending research area. Therefore, this article comprehensively reviews
previous research progresses, such as different film formulations from various sources and their characteristics
and product applications to guide the enthusiastic researchers. Finally, the last section of this article elaborates
on safety and regulation aspects as well as recent trends and challenges to tackle all the obstacles in establishing
a greener packaging option.

1. Introduction the most significant menace in resolving earth pollution (Hasan et al.,
2020).
The packaging is one of the most critical post-harvest operations In the past few decades, consumers are also aware of the impact of
for the preservation and shelf-life extension of fruits, vegetables, and plastic on the environment. Therefore, the demands of alternate pack-
processed foods. The major functions of food packaging include protec- aging materials which ensure an enhanced shelf-life with good quality
tion, communication, and convenience. Advancement in industrializa- and less impact on the environment are crucial in the food packaging
tion leads to the sharp growth in plastic use for food packaging. The industry. Edible packaging has been traditionally used to improve food
production of plastic in the world has reached up to 380 million tonnes, appearance and preservation, and it captivated substantial attention in
and it has shown a steep increase in the past few decades, where 40% the last few decades due to the possibility of partial substitution of non–
of the plastic produced is used in packaging applications (Groh et al., biodegradable synthetic packaging materials (Hassan et al., 2018).
2019). Although plastic is quite convenient as a packaging material, be- The primary role of edible film is controlling the moisture loss and
cause of its low price, high mechanical strength, convenience in shape reducing the adverse chemical reaction rates to enhance the quality and
molding, heat sealability, and lighter in weight, enormous usage of plas- safety of a wide range of processed as well as fresh foods (Debeaufort, F.
tic packaging material may lead to adverse effects on the environment et al., 1998). In addition, the incorporation of various food additives
(Cazón et al., 2017; Dehghani et al., 2018). For example, plastic waste such as antimicrobials, antioxidants, flavors, and colors into the edible
virtually does not degrade, it will take hundreds of years for its disposal film matrix further extends their applications (Tavassoli-Kafrani et al.,
in a landfill, and the disposal of plastic through incineration can pro- 2016). However, the permeability and mechanical properties of the ed-
duce highly toxic gases (Otoni et al., 2017). Hence, plastic is considered ible film are not on par with conventionally used synthetic plastic films

∗
Corresponding authors: Ajesh Kumar V, Centre of Excellence for Soybean Processing and Utilization, ICAR- Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Nabibagh,
Berasia Road, Bhopal, India, Phone number: +91 8075913057.
∗∗
Corresponding authors: Muzaffar Hasan, Agro Produce Processing Division, ICAR- Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal
462 038, India, Phone number: +91 8290767324.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (A.K. V), muzaff[email protected] (M. Hasan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2022.100118
Received 13 January 2022; Received in revised form 20 March 2022; Accepted 3 May 2022
Available online 7 May 2022
2772-5022/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
A.K. V, M. Hasan, S. Mangaraj et al. Applied Food Research 2 (2022) 100118

Fig. 1. Application of different types of ed-

ible film in various foods. a) Soybean aque-
ous extract-based nanocomposite edible film
applied as cheese slice separator, b.) Guava
(left) and beetroot (right) purees produced ed-
ible film, c.) Sodium alginate based edible
film applied in meat slice, soluble coffee (d.),
powder medicine (e.), cheese slice (V et al.,
2021; Otoni et al., 2017; Gheorghita (Pus-
caselu) et al., 2020; Puscaselu et al., 2019).

(Murrieta-Martínez et al., 2018). Hence, the present research contribu- role in oxygen permeability. It is reported that corn zein, wheat gluten,
tions were geared towards these property enhancements. soy protein, and whey protein-based edible film have greater oxygen
This article reviews the recent progress in edible packaging, empha- permeability than collagen-based films due to the globular structured
sizing standalone edible films. Information including different types, for- proteins (Wittaya, 2012). Protein-based edible films can also be used for
mulation methods, application on food products, safety and regulations, the individual packaging of small portions of food, particularly products
and recent trends in the edible film is comprehensively reviewed. Fi- for which individual packaging is not practically feasible, such as beans,
nally, the challenges faced in commercial application of edible film in nuts, and cashew nuts (Bourtoom, 2009). Both wet and dry methods can
food packaging with possible solutions are also covered. be used to create the protein-based film.

2. Different materials used for edible film formation 2.1.1. Whey protein/milk protein
Whey protein or casein protein is preferred over the total milk pro-
Edible packaging materials are natural polymers obtained from tein for edible film formation as the latter results in crystallization due to
polysaccharides, proteins (animal or vegetable), lipids, or combinations the presence of lactose (Wagh et al., 2014). Edible films can be prepared
of these components (Khaoula et al., 2004; Galus & Kadzińska, 2015). from whey protein fraction, Whey Protein Isolate (WPI), and Whey Pro-
According to Market Research Futures (MRFR), the edible packaging tein Concentrate (WPC) by adding different emulsifiers and plasticiz-
market (based on protein, lipids, polysaccharides, and other) will be ers (Galus & Kadzińska, 2016; Soazo et al., 2016; Çakmak et al., 2020;
worth USD 2.14 billion by 2030, with a compound annual growth Seydim et al., 2020). Whey protein film is characterized by its excellent
rate (CAGR) of 6.79 percent (2022–2030), up from USD 783,32 mil- oxygen, aroma, and oil barrier properties under low to medium rela-
lion in 2021. North America will dominate the edible packaging market tive humidity conditions. It also has the required mechanical properties
throughout the forecast period, followed by the United Kingdom, Japan, for different applications like food coating, separating food layers, and
Indonesia, and Israel (Future, 2021). Several researchers formulated and pouch formation. In recent times, the addition of probiotics and prebi-
characterized numerous edible films from different plant origin materi- otics have been carried out to enhance the functional properties of the
als (Fig. 1). Researchers have continuously worked for the last three whey protein-based films (Fernandes et al., 2020; Zoghi et al., 2020).
decades to develop edible films that can match the conventional plastic
films to enable their commercial application. Varieties of edible pack- 2.1.2. Wheat gluten protein
aging materials have been discussed in the following section. Wheat gluten, which contains more than 75% protein, is the pro-
tein part of the wheat flour after removing other starch granules by
2.1. Protein-based edible film washing (Chavoshizadeh et al., 2020). It consists mostly of monomer
gliadins and polymer glutenins in nearly equal amounts by weight. The
Edible packaging formed from proteins of plant origin includes corn cohesiveness and elasticity of gluten provide integrity and facilitate film
zein, wheat gluten, soy protein, peanut protein, quinoa protein, sesame formation (Fakhouri et al., 2017). Wheat gluten has very good oxygen
protein. In contrast, keratin, egg white protein, myofibrillar protein, col- and carbon dioxide barriers properties (Zubeldía et al., 2015). In ad-
lagen, gelatine, casein, and milk whey protein are film formers from ani- dition, the ability to form cross-linking upon heating, visco-elasticity
mal sources (Mellinas et al., 2016). Among different edible film sources, properties, low water solubility, low cost, and availability due to co-
protein-based material appears to be more attractive as they also provide product in the wheat starch industry make wheat gluten a favorite pro-
nutritional value (Galus & Kadzińska, 2016). In addition, protein-based tein source for edible packaging (Ansorena et al., 2016). Although the
edible films have relatively higher mechanical and gas barrier properties wheat gluten-based films show brittleness and tendency to absorb wa-
with low moisture barrier properties. Protein-based films are better than ter after being processed, the application of different methods such as
lipid and polysaccharide films. They have excellent physical properties adding plasticizers, incorporating additives possessing reactive groups
and gas-blocking effects because of their tightly packed and ordered (e.g. NH2 , –COOH, –OH, and –SH), and blending with polymers (e.g;
hydrogen-bonded network structure (Kumari et al., 2017). Oxidation of aliphatic polyester, poly (hydroxy ester ether), poly (lactic acid), poly-
lipid materials is the major cause of deterioration of quality and shelf caprolactone, poly (vinyl alcohol) and cassava starch) can minimize the
life of high fat or fried foods. This can be controlled to a certain extent impact (Hemsri et al., 2011). Moreover, the mechanical properties of
by using protein-based packaging, which inhibits oxygen permeation gluten-based films are strongly affected by pH and gluten concentra-
(Zhang, S & Zhao, 2017). The structure of protein also plays a crucial tion, while water vapor permeability may be correlated with pH and

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A.K. V, M. Hasan, S. Mangaraj et al. Applied Food Research 2 (2022) 100118

ethanol levels (Fakhouri et al., 2017). The physiochemical properties of it swells in polar liquids with high solubility parameters (Coppola et al.,
the wheat gluten films can be improved by the incorporation of other 2020). Studies have reported that usage of collagen casing for meat
different proteins, polysaccharides, and organic acids (Dong et al., 2022; products dates back to the 1920s (Janjarasskul & Krochta, 2010;
He et al., 2020) Yang et al., 2016). Similar to collagen, gelatin is an animal protein ob-
tained by controlled hydrolysis of the fibrous insoluble collagen present
2.1.3. Soy protein in the bones and skins generated as waste materials during animal
Soy protein isolate (SPI) is one of the major sources of protein for edi- slaughtering and processing (Lopez et al., 2017). The application of
ble packaging obtained from dehulled and defatted soybean (Cristine De gelatin as an edible film has been extensively studied in several research
Souza et al., 2020). Soy protein-based formation of the edible film studies (Bonilla & Sobral, 2016; Jridi et al., 2019). Gelatin is known for
occurred in two steps process- 1) disruption of soy protein complex its application advantages such as good film-forming ability, good gas
structure through alkaline or heating treatment and cleavage of native and oil resistance, nontoxicity, low price, and biodegradable properties.
disulfide bonds lead to exposure of sulfhydryl groups and hydrophobic At the same time, its poor mechanical property, low thermal stability,
groups; and 2) new disulfide bonds, hydrophilic and hydrophobic bonds weak water resistance, and rapid biodegradation property need to be
formation. Utilizing native soy protein is challenging in applications like improved (Ge et al., 2017). This can be tackled by forming a composite
edible packaging due to its structural characteristics (Gao et al., 2015). film using appropriate starch materials (Cheng et al., 2022).
However, modification of soy protein is possible with cross-linking of
protein structure by different methods like denaturation, thermal treat- 2.1.7. Other protein sources
ment, and application of natural cross-linking agents (Friesen et al., For the sustainable use of protein sources, researchers started ex-
2015; Xia et al., 2015). Most commonly used protein cross-linkers are ploiting the use of protein from different sources to assess the edible
aldehydic compounds such as glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, and gly- film-forming abilities. These sources are chosen either as by-product uti-
oxal, phenolic, and epoxy compounds. The SPI-based edible films ex- lization or for exploiting their unique properties and nutritional values.
hibit properties such as transparency, flexibility, low oxygen permeabil- Protein from sources such as peanut protein and peanut protein iso-
ity, even comparable to low-density polyethylene film with abundant late (Sun et al., 2013), lentil protein (Bamdad et al., 2006), a protein
availability and low cost (Nandane & Jain, 2018). The gelling ability of isolated from sesame (Sharma & Singh, 2016), myofibrillar proteins of
the SPI makes it convenient in forming a suitable matrix for composite fish muscle (Kaewprachu et al., 2016), pumpkin seed protein (Xu et al.,
films with lipids as well as bioactive compounds such as antioxidants 2019; Lalnunthari et al., 2020), egg white protein (Han et al., 2020;
and antimicrobial agents (Carpiné et al., 2015; Cristine De Souza et al., Huang X et al., 2020), and rice protein (Wang et al., 2020), etc. were
2020). also exploited for the formation of edible film. The major lacunae of
these proteins are the inability to form a proper film-forming matrix.
2.1.4. Sodium caseinate This can be overcome by cross-linking with transglutaminase and ul-
Sodium caseinate (SC) is a water-soluble form of casein produced trasonication (Cruz-Diaz et al., 2019). These protein sources are used
by adjusting acid-coagulated casein to pH 6.7 using sodium hydroxide directly or in composite film formation.
(Belyamani et al., 2014; Yin et al., 2014). The randomly coiled struc-
ture of the SC enables good film formation (Lin, Wang and Weng, 2020).
The earlier studies addressed that surface modification of SC film with 2.2. Polysaccharide-based edible film
zein coating has yielded film with better barrier properties (Yin et al.,
2014). The structural inversion approach of zein coating on SC film re- Polysaccharides are the most abundant natural polymer, and re-
sulted in surface irregularities with high irregular projections, which ul- cently, they have been widely used to prepare edible film or coatings
timately led to enhanced water and oxygen barrier properties. Whereas materials (Imre et al., 2019). Polysaccharides viz cellulose, hemicel-
the direct coating only reduced the oxygen barrier property in which the lulose, starch, pectin, and derivatives of all these alginates, pullulan,
zein nano-spheres were evenly distributed on the film surface. In recent chitin, and chitosan, are intensively used for edible film and coating
studies, cross-linking with genipinin (Lin et al., 2020; Qiu et al., 2020), materials preparation (Cazón et al., 2017). Polysaccharides-based edi-
and incorporation of essential oils and antimicrobial agents (Alizadeh- ble films have a well-ordered hydrogen-bonded network, making them
Sani et al., 2020; Di Giuseppe et al., 2022) have proven to enhance the efficient oxygen blockers. However, polysaccharides-based films are less
mechanical and antibacterial properties of the SC films. efficient in working as a moisture barrier due to their hydrophilic nature.
Polysaccharide coatings are free from oil content, colorless in appear-
2.1.5. Corn zein ance, and used to extend the product’s shelf life without creating any
Corn zein is a major protein that can be utilized to prepare the anaerobic condition (Mohamed et al., 2020). The polysaccharide-based
edible film, edible coating, and pouches (Chen et al., 2014; Zhang & film can be developed using both wet and dry methods. Commonly used
Zhao, 2017). Corn zein is extracted from corn gluten, a by-product of polysaccharide materials for film formation include the following.
bioethanol production, which ensures plentiful availability (Escamilla-
García et al., 2013). Zein is applied to other protein and polysaccharide- 2.2.1. Cellulose and its derivatives
based films such as SPI and glucomannan (Wang Kai et al., 2017) to im- Cellulose is the most abundant natural organic polymer, which can
prove barrier properties and act as a finishing agent by imparting surface be applied for the preparation of the edible film. It is the primary
gloss (Cheng et al., 2015). The formation of zein coating on hydrophilic structural component of the plant cell wall and is a linear homo-
protein-based films via the specific protein-protein interactions has a polysaccharide comprised of 𝛽-1,4 glucose. Cellulose derivatives are de-
promising potential to improve their barrier capability. Zein contains rived from structural modifications like the addition of a small group
sharply defined hydrophobic and hydrophilic domains at its surface and (methyl, hydroxyl, and carboxyl) in cellulose (Fig. 2).
is capable of self-assembly (Yin et al., 2014). The hydrophobic property Principally four types of cellulose derivatives are used for edible
of zein is contributed by the high proportion of non-polar amino acid coatings or films like Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC; E464),
residues, such as proline, leucine, and alanine. Thus, zein has been rec- Hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC; E463), Methylcellulose (MC; E461),
ommended as an edible film matrix material (Chen et al., 2014). and Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC; E466) (Bourtoom, 2008). MC-based
coatings create a barrier to in and out the movement of oil or lipids
2.1.6. Collagen and gelatin therefore used in confectionery foodstuffs. Similarly, HPMC-based film
Collagen, an animal-sourced protein used in edible packaging, is a or coatings hinder the oil absorption consequently used for fried food
hydrophilic protein rich in glycine, hydroxyproline, and proline; hence products (Ngatirah et al., 2022)

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A.K. V, M. Hasan, S. Mangaraj et al. Applied Food Research 2 (2022) 100118

Fig. 2. Chemical Structure of different polysaccharides.

2.2.2. Starch and modified starch lose makes it a poor barrier for water vapor. Therefore, improvising the
Starch is a homo polysaccharide, comprised of amylose and amy- property of the starch-based edible film, starch modification is needed
lopectin, used to develop biodegradable films because it can form a (Askari et al., 2018).
continuous matrix and is a renewable and abundant resource. Amylose
is a linear polymer of (1→4) glucose, while amylopectin is a branched 2.2.3. Pectin
polymer of 𝛼 (1→4) glucose and 𝛼 (1→6) glucose (Fig. 2). Among amy- The polysaccharide pectin predominantly consists of galacturonic
lose and amylopectin, amylose is generally used for film formation be- acid and its derivatives (Fig. 2). These polysaccharides are largely ex-
cause of its high flexibility, low oxygen permeability, and water solubil- tracted from citrus peel and apple pomace (Morales-Contreras et al.,
ity (Cazón et al., 2017). However, the inherent hydrophilicity of amy- 2020). The degree of esterification of pectin with methanol directly

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A.K. V, M. Hasan, S. Mangaraj et al. Applied Food Research 2 (2022) 100118

affects the gelation and film-forming ability. Methoxy pectin (or es- to the emulsion-based edible film to impart more hydrophobic prop-
terified pectin) can be classified as low methoxy pectin (LMP) and erties due to their low polarity (Janjarasskul & Krochta, 2010; Galus &
high methoxy pectin (HMP) according to the degree of esterification Kadzińska, 2015). Oils and fats are chemically similar mixtures where
(Espitia et al., 2016). Pectin is widely used in the edible film industry main components are triglycerides but differ in origin and physical ap-
due to its biodegradability, biocompatibility, edibility, versatile chemi- pearance. Oils come from plants and liquids in nature, whereas fats
cal and physical properties such as selective gas permeability, and gela- originate from animals and are solid in appearance at room tempera-
tion (Chodijah et al., 2019) ture. Different vegetable oils (sunflower oil, olive oil, rapeseed oil, etc.),
plant-based waxes (candelilla, carnauba, and sugar cane waxes), animal-
2.2.4. Alginate based waxes (beeswax, lanolin, and wool grease), and synthetic waxes
Alginates have mannuronic acid and guluronic acid in structure like paraffin wax and petroleum wax were added to form FFS (Rhim
(Fig. 2) and the composition of mannuronic acid and guluronic & Shellhammer, 2005). Waxes are made up of alcohol and/or esters
acid affects the physical property and molecular weight of alginates of a long-chain acid; therefore, waxes have a larger molecular weight
(Madsen et al., 2021). Alginate polysaccharides are mainly isolated with potent hydrophobicity. Vegetable oil is a raw, oily material pro-
from brown seaweeds. The colloidal nature of alginate, which includes duced from nuts, seeds, or newly cut flowers after being pressed cold.
thickening, stabilizing, film-forming, and suspending properties, makes On the other hand, essential oil is a highly aromatic compound produced
it competent for edible film-forming material (Hassan et al., 2018). through steam distillation from various parts of a plant (leaves, roots,
The presence of both the anionic sugar-acid enables it to bind divalent fruit, wood, and flower). Essential oils are highly rich in hydrophobic,
cations like Ca+2 , Mg+2 , Mn+2 , and Fe+2 . Therefore, incorporating di- aromatic, and volatile compounds like terpenes and terpenoids. Further-
valent cations as a gelling agent causes the alginates-based edible film more, essential oils have potent antimicrobial properties.
to be attributed to other physical properties like retaining moisture and Some lipid materials like virgin coconut oil added to the FFS have
color (Senturk Parreidt et al., 2018). The alginate-based edible film or reduced the water vapor permeability (WVP) of the edible film prepared
coatings show lesser resistance to moisture or water because of the in- from SPI (Carpiné et al., 2015; Fangfang et al., 2020). To give antiox-
herent hydrophilic nature of alginates (Dhanapal et al., 2012). idant and antimicrobial properties, essential oils from many aromatic
spices of clove, rosemary, cinnamon, lemon, thyme, garlic, oregano
were added into FFS during the emulsification process. Encapsulating
2.2.5. Pullulan
essential oils in the edible film also gives them stability against their
The pullulan polysaccharide is secreted by the fungus Auerobasid-
volatile nature (Alexandre et al., 2016; Perdones et al., 2016; Hashemi
ium pullulans to resist desiccation and predation. The structure of pul-
& Mousavi Khaneghah, 2017). The main disadvantage of lipid film mate-
lulan mainly comprises maltotriose units (Fig. 2). Pullulan works as
rial is its fragile nature. It also makes the film waxy and greasy in texture
a thickener in edible film formation, and pullulans-based coatings are
and taste, which is not desirable for packaging material on many occa-
helpful to increase the shelf life of fruits (Diab et al., 2001). The ed-
sions. To have the desired properties for the film, the compatibility of
ible coating property of pullulan can be enhanced by the use of glu-
the lipid phase with the polymer matrix is essential. The use of different
tathione (reducing agent) and chito oligosaccharide (antibacterial) in
essential oils in edible film formulation for improving the WVP as well
combination (Hassan et al., 2018). Like other polysaccharides, pullu-
as the functional properties such as antibacterial and antioxidant prop-
lan is hydrophilic in nature, which negatively affects its water barrier
erties are listed in Table 1. The lipid-based self-supporting edible film
and mechanical properties. This limitation can be negotiated by adding
is generally prepared with an FFS containing any of the high molecular
lipids and fatty acids such as beeswax (BW), palmitic acid, and oleic
weight polymers (protein or polysaccharide) using the solvent casting
acid (Omar-Aziz et al., 2021).
method (Rhim & Shellhammer, 2005).

2.2.6. Chitin and chitosan 2.4. Composite edible film

Chitin is the primary component of the cell wall of fungi and inverte-
brates. Deacetylation of chitin in alkali solution, convert it into chitosan. Composite films are multi-component systems in which different hy-
The repetitive unit in chitin polysaccharide is N-acetylglucosamine, a drophobic, as well as hydrophilic compounds are blended to achieve
derivative of glucose monosaccharide (Fig. 2). Chitosan-based edible better functional properties. Many times, single functional compounds
films have barrier properties for O2 and CO2 as well as possess inherent forming the polymer matrix, which is capable of forming a structural
antimicrobial properties. The physicochemical properties of chitosan- matrix with sufficient cohesiveness, may not be sufficient to provide
based edible film or coatings are varied with the degree of deacetylation all of the required properties, such as mechanical, barrier, and so on
of chitin (Kumar et al., 2020). Chitin is characterized by its excellent (V. et al., 2022; Dhumal & Sarkar, 2018). Polar bio-polymeric edi-
biodegradability, biocompatibility, antibacterial activity, and low im- ble films like polysaccharides and protein generally show good gas
munogenicity (Li et al., 2019). Chitosan products are highly viscous, barrier properties and reasonably good mechanical properties at low
resembling natural gums with antimicrobial properties due to active relative humidity. Nevertheless, they show poor water barrier prop-
amino groups (Nguyen et al., 2020), and they can form transparent erties due to their hydrophilic nature at high humidity. In contrast,
films to enhance the quality and extend the storage life of food prod- hydrophobic lipids are reasonably efficient against moisture migra-
ucts (Ribeiro et al., 2020). tion, but due to their non-polymeric nature, they show poor me-
chanical properties and are inferior to those of hydrocolloid films
2.3. Lipids-based edible film (Janjarasskul & Krochta, 2010). So, mixing this hydrophobic lipid with
hydrophilic polysaccharides or protein can yield films with better prop-
Lipids are naturally originated compounds from plants, animals, and erties than those formed from individual compounds. For example,
insects. The diversity of the lipid functional groups is made up of mono-, Omar-Aziz et al. (2021) experimented with developing film by combin-
di-, tri-glycerides, phospholipids, phosphatides, terpenes, cerebrosides, ing beeswax and pullulan. They have found a significant improvement
fatty acids, and fatty alcohol (Mohamed et al., 2020). Unlike protein in WVP and TS in the composite film than those films formed from pul-
and polysaccharides, lipids alone cannot form an edible film. Though lulan alone.
they are capable of forming an edible coating, the lack of a large num- Composite films are prepared either in layer form or in the emulsion
ber of repeating units connected by covalent bonds prevents the forma- of film-forming materials. Layered composite films are classified into
tion of a stand-alone film. Therefore, different plant and animal-based binary or ternary based on the number of polymers used. Several com-
lipids (oils and fats) are incorporated in film-forming solution (FFS) binations of carbohydrate-protein (Wang Kun et al., 2017; Tavares et al.,

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A.K. V, M. Hasan, S. Mangaraj et al. Applied Food Research 2 (2022) 100118

Table 1
Use of different essential oils in edible film formulation.

Targeted
Matrix Polymer Essential Oil Used Product Film Formation Method Observations and Remarks Reference

Carboxymethyl chitosan: Galangal essential oil (GEO) Mango Casting Developed film exhibited excellent (Zhou et al., 2021)
Pullulan thermal stability, biodegradability and
mechanical properties and was able to
provide good preservation effect on
mango.
Gelatin: Green tea Lemon essential oil (LEO) Casting Incorporation of green tea extract and (Nunes et al., 2020)
extract LEO helps to achieve good WVP for the
developed film.
Gelatin–chitosan blend Ferulago angulate essential Turkey meat Casting FAEO incorporated in gelatin-chitosan (Naseri et al., 2020)
oil (FAEO) blend film improved the water solubility
and WVP. Increased anti-microbial
property of the film helped in enhancing
the shelf life of turkey meat.
Millet starch Clove essential oil Casting Inclusion of clove oil enhanced the (Al-Hashimi et al.,
anti-oxidant activity and antimicrobial 2020)
properties of the film.
SPI-gum acacia Oregano essential oil Casting GF-EO contained film exhibited better (Xue et al., 2019)
conjugates (OG-EO), lemon essential oil WVP, mechanical properties and glass
(LM-EO), fruit of Amomum transition temperature than other EO
tsaoko Crevost et Lemaire containing films. However, radical
(ACL-EO) and/or grapefruit scavenging activity and antimicrobial
essential oil (GF-EO) activity was superior for LM-EO
incorporated films.
Basil seed gum Oregano essential oil Casting The resulting film showed a significant (Hashemi &
reduction in WVP with antimicrobial and Mousavi Khaneghah, 2017)
antioxidant activity.
SPI:Acetem: Tween 60 Carvacrol and Casting The addition of emulsions significantly (Otoni et al., 2016)
cinnamaldehyde reduced the tensile strength of the films
and improved their EAB. An only slight
improvement is reported with the
addition of essential oils
Gelatin: MMT Ginger essential oil (GEO) Casting Synergetic effect of GEO with MMT (Alexandre et al.,
significantly improved the mechanical 2016)
properties like EAB, puncture force and
puncture deformation.
Zein Zataria multiflora Boiss. Minced meat Casting Addition of ZEO along with monolaurin (Moradi et al., 2016)
essential oil (ZEO) significantly improved the antioxidant
activity and antimicrobial properties
against L. monocytogenes and E.Coli
Chitosan Cinnamon and Ginger Pork Casting Cinnamon and Ginger essential oil has (Wang et al., 2017)
essential oil distinctly increased the thickness and
opacity of the chitosan films. The WVP of
films remained unaffected. Incorporating
1% EOs yielded the highest antimicrobial
and antioxidant activities chitosan films
WPI Almond and walnut oils Casting Addition of oils increased the opacity of (Galus &
the film whereas swelling, water vapor Kadzińska, 2016)
permeability, and surface hydrophilicity
were reduced.
Chitosan:MMT Rosemary essential oil and fresh poultry Casting Incorporation EOs improved only the (Pires et al., 2018)
ginger essential oil meat barrier to oxidation but not the
antimicrobial properties. Overall
performance of EOs in Chitosan/MMT
film is not significant
Abbreviations: EAB: Elongation at break, EO: Essential oil, MMT: Montmorillonite WVP: Water vapor permeability, SPI: Soy protein isolate, WPI: Whey protein
isolate.

2021), protein-protein (Dong et al., 2022; Tsai & Weng, 2019), and tent (Saberi et al., 2016). Several studies have been published on the
carbohydrate–carbohydrate (Cheng et al., 2015; Fan, Yang, Duan, & composite film made by combining polysaccharides and lipids, with the
Li, 2021) is possible in the case of binary film. A myriad of litera- goal of improving its water barrier properties. The size of the lipid par-
ture is available in the case of binary film, but limited numbers of ticle on the composite film had a significant effect on WVP properties
works are reported in case of ternary composite edible films (Dhumal & and mechanical properties due to its higher surface area (Otoni et al.,
Sarkar, 2018). Composite films formed by emulsifying the constituents 2016). It is also found that composite films using minerals and protein
give the better film than layered ones, as the layered film may tend to de- have shown a significant improvement in their mechanical properties
laminate over time, and it also requires a greater number of casting and (Wang et al., 2015).
drying processes (Galus & Kadzińska, 2015). Composite film prepared by Bi-layer films, predominant in composite edible films, can be pre-
emulsifying the lipid phase into the hydrocolloid-based structural ma- pared by casting one layer over the other, but this multi-step process
trix provides better functionality and barrier properties (Ochoa et al., involves the risk of layer delamination. A single-step process in which
2017). The proportion of various polysaccharides in the composite film one compound is dispersed with other FFS and then cast to form the film
can also influence the different physical and optical properties to an ex- can solve this problem (Valencia-Sullca et al., 2018; Zuo et al., 2019).

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A.K. V, M. Hasan, S. Mangaraj et al. Applied Food Research 2 (2022) 100118

The incorporation of essential oil in nano-emulsion form is the recent drying the casted film formulation solution, 4) peeling/removing the
trend followed by the researcher for better efficacy (Shen et al., 2021). film and storing at suitable RH and temperature.
Details of some composite edible films are given in Table 2. During the formulation of FFS, all the components are mixed in to
homogenize solution with the help of low-speed stirrings, ultrasonica-
2.5. Nanoparticle based edible films tion sometimes at a higher temperature suited for the solubilization of
the components into the solvents (Abral et al., 2019). The FFS should
In the last decade, nanotechnology has been used as an innovative be free from air bubbles to avoid the entrapment in the film matrix that
approach to obtaining nano-scaled organic and inorganic compounds can affect the structural integrity of the film. Air bubbles from low vis-
with unique properties due to their size (Espitia & Otoni, 2018). By def- cous FFS are normally removed by vacuum degassing (Ghasemlou et al.,
inition, nanomaterials have at least one of its dimensional particle sizes 2011; Kim & Min, 2012; Jouki et al., 2013). In the casting step, the
of about 1-100 nm. The application of nanomaterials in the food packag- amount of the solution is controlled for adjusting the film thickness. For
ing sector is an emerging area. Incorporating nanomaterials into matrix example, V et al. (2022) developed an edible film from soybean aqueous
polymers proved to be a promising strategy for improving their physi- extract by following steps like initial mixing of beeswax, clove essential
cal and mechanical properties, which conventional components cannot oil, and span-20 using a magnetic stirrer and ultrasonication followed by
achieve (Bizymis & Tzia, 2021). Moreover, it can be used for the syn- solution casting on Teflon sheet and drying at ambient temperature. As
thesis of efficient active packaging materials by the method of nanoen- of now, the majority of the works are limited to bench casting, which is
capsulation of bioactive natural materials. The nanoencapsulation tech- a batch process. Some limited research on continuous casting is also re-
nique improves the stability and solubility of bioactive compounds, thus ported. In the drying process, the solvent is evaporated to form an edible
leading to the formation of an active film with better performance than film. The drying is usually carried out at ambient air condition or at low
conventional ones (Pal et al., 2017). Various researchers have reported temperature (below 60°C) in a hot air dryer. The drying condition plays
several combinations of the bio-based matrix polymer and nanoparti- a major role in determining the properties of the film (Bagheri et al.,
cles. The application of nano clay is widely exploited due to its abil- 2019). Although the drying time is considerably reduced by alternative
ity to improve the barrier and mechanical properties by their high as- drying methods such as microwave and IR drying, it had a significant
pect ratio and surface to volume ratio (Shekarabi et al., 2014). Çağrı negative effect on the quality and mechanical properties without af-
Mehmetoğlu et al. (2021) demonstrated the effect of silver nanoparti- fecting WVP of the film (Kaya & Kaya, 2000; Srinivasa et al., 2004;
cles in whey protein-based films. Their findings show that adding sil- Cárdenas et al., 2008; Tapia-Blácido et al., 2013).
ver nanoparticles to a film increases its tensile strength by 84% and its The dry process is mainly classified into extrusion, compression
barrier properties by 67% over a control film. Similarly, other nanopar- molding, and injection molding. The extrusion method is widely used
ticles like zinc oxide, titanium oxide, nano cellulose, etc., have been for commercial synthetic plastic film formulation (Fig. 4 B), in which
widely used in food packaging (Dash et al., 2019; Malik & Mitra, 2021; the film-forming matrix is subjected to structural changes by the effect
Yekta et al., 2020). of high temperature, pressure, and low moisture content (Hernandez-
However, whether these nanomaterials are safe or not is still a Izquierdo & Krochta, 2008; Dang & Yoksan, 2015). In this method, the
controversial question for the scientific community. Nanomaterials can edible bioplastic materials are first converted into pellets and extruded
have various toxic effects depending on their chemical composition, par- with suitable plasticizers (Huntrakul et al., 2020; Vedove et al., 2021).
ticle size distribution, particle shape, and surface condition. The poten- The film formulation through extrusion occurs in three steps; i) feeding
tial to cause oxidative stress and, in some cases, inflammatory responses the FFS to the extruder, ii) mixing of the FFS in the kneading zone of
or genotoxic effects are the most common effects observed in experimen- the extruder, iii) heating the FFS and either passing through the slit die
tal studies. The intensity of this harmful effect further depends on the followed by calendaring (slit-die extrusion) or blowing through circle
nanomaterial dose in that particular FFS (Malakar et al., 2021). Based die (blown-film extrusion).
on the size, their ability to penetrate the human cells also varies. For The process variables in the extrusion of films, such as screw speed,
example, 100 nm particles can easily penetrate cells, 40 nm can en- temperature, feeding rate, and moisture content, have shown great
ter nuclei, and below 35 nm can cross the blood-brain barrier. More- influence on the properties of the film (Jebalia et al., 2019; Ochoa-
over, smaller sized particles will have more catalytic ability, and their Yepes et al., 2019). Extrusion of the film is considered as the most suit-
reactive oxygen species producing potential, adsorption rate, and bind- able for the large-scale commercial production of edible film with low
ing capability may be comparatively higher than bigger-sized particles energy consumption and short processing time. However, the high tem-
(Bumbudsanpharoke et al., 2015; Vlachogianni & Valavanidis, 2014). perature generated during the extrusion causes undesirable changes in
Reliable data on nanoparticles’ safety and toxicological effects is still not the biopolymer, such as nutritional and sensory losses in edible film, and
available in the public domain. Hence, the effect of these nanoparticles application is limited to a certain polymer that is tolerant to high tem-
on human health and environmental microbiota needs to be explored in perature with low moisture content FFS (Otoni et al., 2017; Suhag et al.,
detail to rule out any adverse effect. 2020).
Compression molding is considered a sustainable process compared
3. Methods for edible film formulation to the traditional solvent casting method due to its rapid formation and
less energy requirement (Uranga et al., 2018). In compression molding,
The edible film can be prepared mainly by the wet process and dry film-forming materials are subjected to high pressure and temperature
process (Fig. 3). In the wet process, biopolymers are solubilized or dis- in the mold until solidification (Lisitsyn et al., 2021). Processing pa-
persed in an aqueous solution, water-based or alcohol-based, to form rameters like temperature, pressure and time are critical in deciding
FFS followed by drying of the solvent. In the dry process, biopolymers the film properties. The compression method is frequently used with
were converted into the film by utilizing the thermoplastic behavior the extrusion method, in which the former is used for preparing the
exhibited by some proteins and polysaccharides at low moisture levels film-forming material prior to the thermoforming process in the latter.
(Cao et al., 2007; Nussinovitch, 2013). Ceballos et al., (2020) developed an edible film from cassava starch and
The wet process, also known as solvent casting, is the most pre- yerba extract. The ingredients were extruded into thread form using a
dominant technique used in edible film formulation (Fig. 4 A). The twin-screw extruder, followed by compression molding to yield the film.
solvent casting process involves the following steps described by A compression-molded film can have higher thickness and more flexi-
Rodríguez et al. (2020), they are as follows: 1) solubilizing the base bility than solvent cast film (Krishna et al., 2012).
biopolymer into a suitable solvent such as water or ethanol to form a The injection molding method is popular for the industrial produc-
FFS, 2) casting the FFS into suitable moulds or Teflon coated plates, 3) tion of plastics. It is suitable for the mass production of edible films.

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Table 2
Composite edible film using different polymer matrices.

Matrix Polymer Plasticizer Method of Preparation Observations and Remarks Reference

Ipomoea batatas: Glycerol Casting Composite blend of Ipomoea batatas and (Bharti et al., 2020)
𝜅-carrageenan 𝜅-carrageenan yield film with good
mechanical and optical properties.
Chitosan: Nano-silicon Glycerol Casting Combination of chitosan, Nano-silicon (Lin et al., 2020)
aerogel: Okra powder aerogel with okra powder improved
mechanical, barrier, optical and
anti-microbial properties with excellent
surface characteristics.
Pearl millet starch: Glycerol Casting Starch and carrageenan concentration has (Sandhu et al., 2020)
Carrageenan gum positive influence on the Tensile strength
and barrier properties of the film. It
enhanced optical, WVP and mechanical
property values of the film.
Chitosan: WPI Glycerol Casting Composite film resulted in high tensile (Tavares et al., 2021)
strength, lower deformation, flexibility,
malleability and good WVP than the films
formed individually.
PG: Modified starch Casting Incorporation of PG reduced WVP, WS, (Askari et al., 2018)
MC, and TS of the composite film with an
increase in its % EB especially when gum
percentage greater than 50. Result of
Morphological analysis shows that
developed film is having good
homogeneity with smooth structure.
SPI: VCO:SL Glycerol Casting Amalgamation of SPI, VCO and SL (Carpiné et al., 2015)
resulted in the formation of film with
increased EAB and lower MC than the
film obtained from SPI alone. However,
this blending was not influenced the WVP
value of the film.
Gelatin: DXG: NH2 -MMT - Casting Cross-linking effect of DXG and NH2-MMT (Ge et al., 2017)
nanofiller resulted in the enhancement of
water resistance, UV barrier property, and
mechanical properties of the gelatin-based
composite film. Enhanced hydrophobicity
and compact structure resulting from the
cross-linking slowed down the fungal
degradation of the film.
Gelatin: GLU Glycerol, Casting Gelatin in the composite film improved its (Fakhouri et al., 2017)
Sorbitol WVP and gluten enhanced its flexibility.
EAB was greatly influenced by glycerol
concentration. However, presence of
Sorbitol did not alter the EAB.
Fish gelatin: Chitosan Glycerol Casting Addition of glycerol caused significant (Fakhreddin Hosseini
increase in the TS and elastic modulus, et al., 2013)
leading to stronger films as compared
with gelatin film, but significantly
decreased the EAB. Chitosan drastically
reduced the WVP and solubility of gelatin
films.
Gelatin: Starch: 𝜀-PL Glycerol Extrusion blowing Starch/gelatin mix is a suitable substrate (Cheng et al., 2022)
for making 𝜀-PL loaded antimicrobial
edible packaging.
Cassava starch: Pea Glycerol Extrusion blowing Incorporation of pea protein isolate at (Huntrakul et al., 2020)
protein 20% in cassava starch increased the
strength of the composite film.
Casein: wax powder: Glycerol Extrusion blowing Extrusion was used to create a new (Chevalier et al., 2018)
potassium sorbate composite edible film based on casein and
several edible waxes.
Cassava starch: YME Glycerol Compression molding Tensile toughness of the cassava starch (Ceballos et al., 2020)
YME composite film highest was obtained
for 10% YME
GLU: MMT Glycerol Injection molding MMT showed and lubricating effect and (Cho et al., 2011)
facilitated the injection molding of GLU
Abbreviations: DXG: Dialdehyde xanthan gum EAB: Elongation at break, GLU: Wheat gluten, MC: Moisture content, NH2 -MMT: Amino-functionalized montmo-
rillonite, PG: Psyllium Gum, SL: Soy lecithin, TS: Tensile strength, VCO: Virgin coconut oil, WPI: Whey protein isolate, WS: Water solubility, WVP: Water vapor
permeability, YME: yerba mate extract, 𝜀-PL: 𝜀-polylysine hydrochloride.

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A.K. V, M. Hasan, S. Mangaraj et al. Applied Food Research 2 (2022) 100118

Fig. 3. Film formulation methods.

Fig. 4. Schematic representation of the edible film formulation: (A) Casting method and (B) extrusion method.

This method is used in combination with the extrusion method for ob- 4. Application of edible film for packaging of foods
taining the final film (Mellinas et al., 2016). However, limited research
was reported in edible film injection molding (Mellinas et al., 2016). Every year the demand for the packaging material increases by
Cho et al. (2011) demonstrated the successful development of wheat 8% to meet the total requirement (Rodrigues et al., 2016; Tavassoli-
gluten-based nanocomposite film using injection molding. The ingredi- Kafrani et al., 2016). This increases, and consumers’ concern over
ents were pelletized with the help of a compression mold prior to in- green packaging triggers the spike in the utilization of bio-based food
jection molding using a three-phase screw injection-molding machine. packaging materials for shelf-life extension of different food products
Among the processing parameters, pre-injection temperature, molding (Falguera et al., 2011). Some of the successful applications of edible film
temperature, and injection pressure are most critical for injection mold- explored to date are elaborated in the proceeding sections, and Table 3
ing (Perez et al., 2016). summarizes the different applications of edible packaging on various
food types.

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Table 3
Application of edible film/coatings for essential functions in fruits, vegetables, meat and seafood.

Edible Film/Coating Additives Food Commodities Significant Function References

(A) Edible Packaging of Fruits

Candielila wax Mineral oil Guava fruits Color retention, weight loss (Tomás et al., 2005)
Cabdielila wax Jojuba oil + ellagic acid Golden delicious apple Weight loss and Sensory qualities Ochoa et al., 2011
Candelilla wax Guar gum +glycerol Strawberry Anti-fungal, increase shelf life (Oregel-Zamudio et al., 2017)
Carnauba wax Walnuts, pine nuts Overall appearance by reduction in (Mehyar et al., 2012)
rancidity, taste
Polysaccharide + car- Mango During the storage of mango ripening (Baldwin et al., 1999)
nauba improve the permeability
wax
Carrageenan + whey CMC salt+ Apple Browning on minimally processed (Lee et al., 2003)
protein PEG + CaCl2 + glycerol + ox- apple slices
alic acid
additives
Pectin + LDH-salicylate Glycerol Apricot Morphological, thermal and barrier (Gorrasi & Bugatti, 2016)
properties
Whey protein + pectin Sorbitol + gallic Fresh apples, carrots, Antioxidant, phenolic content, weight (Rossi Marquez et al., 2017)
acid + transglutaminase potatoes loss, texture and sensory attribute
HPMC + lipid potassium sorbate + sodium Oranges Improved antifungal property during (Valencia-Chamorro et al., 2009)
benzoate + sodium storage
propionate + stearic
acid + glycerol additives
Cabdielila wax Jojuba oil + ellagic acid Golden delicious apple Sensory qualities, wight loss (Hassan et al., 2018)
Candelilla wax Guar gum +glycerol Strawberry Anti-fungal, increase shelf life (Hassan et al., 2018)
Carnauba wax Walnuts, pine nuts Hydrolytic and oxidative rancidity, (Bhartiya et al., 2020)
taste, overall appearance
(B) Edible Packaging of Vegetables
Chitosan + gelatin Red bell peppers firmness, CO2 , weight loss, and (Poverenov et al., 2014)
ethanol concentration
Calcium caseinate Acetylated Zucchini (summer reduce water (Hassan et al., 2018)
coatings monoglycerides + fatty acid squash)
esters + sodium salt of
carboxymethyl cellulose
Candelilla wax Brussels sprout Reduces weight loss, Preservation of (Kowalczyk, 2011)
vitamin C and polyphenols, mini-
mal softening, increased overall ap-
pearance during
storage.
HPMC + Beeswax Oleic acid + glycerol Cherry tomato Weight loss, peel color, fruit firmness, (Fagundes et al., 2015)
respiration rate, sensory qualities
enhanced.
k-carrageenan or Tapioca Potassium sorbate + ascorbic Fortified pumpkin Color and antimicrobial activities (Genevois et al., 2016)
starch coatings acid + citric acid + glycerol Fresh-cut
(C) Edible Packaging for Sea Foods and Meat Products
1.25 % chitosan 0.8% glycerol+ Tween Salmon Reduce microbial growth Reduce (Alves et al., 2017)
80+grape seed lipid oxidation
extract+carvacrol
Whey protein Glycerol+green tea extract Salmon Retarded lipid oxidation (Castro et al., 2019)
concentrate
Gelatin Olive leaf extract+glycerol Cold smoked Salmon Microbial growth inhibited by olive (Albertos et al., 2017)
leaf extracts
Chitosan (94.7% DD) Bacteriocin (divergicin M35) Cold smoked wild pacific Effective against L. monocytogenes (Benabbou et al., 2018)
sockeye salmon
2 % chitosan (75-85 % Glycerol + tween 80+ grape Rainbow trout Improved shelf life by Deferring (Kakaei and Shahbazi, 2016)
DD) + gelatin seed extract + Ziziphora microbial growth and lipid oxidation
essential oil
1% agar + fish protein Glycerol + Clove EOs Flounder (Paralichthys Improved shelf life by improving (da Rocha et al., 2018)
hydrolysates orbignyanus) biochemical and microbiological
parameter
3% Chitosan + 3% Glycerol + Tween 80 with Red sea bream Extend the shelf life (Cai et al., 2020)
Sarcoplasmic protein ginger EOs
1 % Chitosan + 0.5 % Glycerol + pomegranate peel White shrimps Reduce microbial spoilage and (Licciardello et al., 2018)
Locust bean gum extract volatile bases production
1 % Basil seeds gum Glycerol + (99.5%) Thymol Pacific white shrimp Reduced oil uptake and moisture loss (Khazaei et al., 2016)
during fryig
Sweet potato starch Glycerol + Tween 80 + EOs Shrimp reduce melanosis prevent microbial (Alotaibi and Tahergorabi, 2018)
(Thyme) growth and reduce lipid oxidation
7% Chitosan (75.5% DD) 1% Protein (42.7%)- lipid Shrimp Delayed the onset of melanosis and (Arancibia et al., 2015)
(11.48%) concentrate maintained sensory qualities
1% Chitosan (85% DD) 3% gelatin Shrimp Reduced weight loss and improved (Farajzadeh et al., 2016)
texture and color changes
Chitosan (90% DD) Pomegranate peel extract Pacific white shrimp Inhibited melanosis and improved the (Yuan et al., 2015)
sensory qualities
Chitosan (90% DD) 0.5% Tween 80, 0.5% Pacific white shrimp Extended the shelf life during the iced (Q. Wang et al.,2018)
carvacrol, and 1% caprylic storage
acid
(continued on next page)

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Table 3 (continued)

Edible Film/Coating Additives Food Commodities Significant Function References

0.5 and 1.5% Chitosan Atlantic salmon 1.5% Chitosan maintained better (Soares et al., 2015)
(91% DD) quality and controlled microbial
growth
4% Collagen 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, and 0.7% Salmon Reduced weight loss and improved (Wang et al., 2017)
Lysozyme + 1% glycerol texture and sensory qualities
1% Carrageenan 1% EOs (lemon) Rainbow trout Preserved physical–chemical, (Volpe et al., 2019)
morphological, and olfactory
characteristics
1% Alginate 0.3% Tannic acid, 0.3% Rainbow trout Reduced microbial counts and lipid (Sáez et al., 2020)
quebracho tannin, and 1% oxidation
ascorbic acid
Whey protein Glycerol Rainbow trout Suppressed microbial growth and (Oğuzhan Yıldız &
concentrate enhanced sensory attributes Yangılar, 2016)
Whey protein Glycerol+NaOH Atlantic salmon Improved the overall quality of (Rodriguez-Turienzo, Cobos and
salmon Diaz, 2012)
Caseiante Ascorbic acid Beef Effect of gamma irradiation on (Hassan et al., 2018)
microbiological characteristic of
ground beef
Abbreviations: DD: de-acetylated, HPMC: Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, EO: Essential oil.

4.1. Fruits and vegetables in cheese observed to have considerable influences on its shelf life.
Fajardo et al. (2010) evaluated the efficacy of chitosan-based film as
Consumers always prefer to choose fruits and vegetables in fresh a carrier of natamycin to improve storage stability of Saloio cheese, and
form, which has led to the continuous development of advanced meth- observed that the product was stable until seven days at ambient stor-
ods that helps in maintaining quality and shelf life of the produce age conditions. Mahcene et al. (2020) assessed the preservative effect
(Flores-López et al., 2016). Nevertheless, high moisture and microbial of sodium alginate-based edible film incorporated with essential oil on
deterioration make these products highly perishable and limit their homemade cheese, and they concluded that edible packaging is an ef-
storability. Applying adequate packaging such as edible packaging can fective preservation method of cheese.
enhance its shelf life by creating a barrier against microbes, moisture, Martins et al. (2010) evaluated the shelf-life extension of Ricotta
and gases (Pizato et al., 2019). A number of works have been reported cheese, a soft Italian cheese, during cold storage (4°C) upon using
based on bio-polymer application in fruits and vegetables (Table 3 galactomannan-based edible coatings in combination with nisin (50 IU
(A&B)). For example, a chitosan-based film in combination with TiO2 g–1) against Listeria monocytogenes. Authors found that edible coatings
has experimented for the storage of grapes (Zhang et al., 2017), appli- with nisin delay the microbial growth significantly (P<0.05), increased
cation of alginate-based composite film on shelf life of fresh fig was the tensile strength (0.84 to 1.46 MPa), increased the opacity (3.68
studied by Reyes-Avalos et al., (2016), the effect of beeswax content on to 4.59%), improved the elongation breakpoint (50.93 to 68.16%), in-
hydroxypropyl methylcellulose-based edible film on postharvest quality creased the CO2 permeability (1.96 to 6.31×1012 ) cm3 . (Pa.s.m)−1 ), and
of coated plums was evaluated by Navarro-Tarazaga et al., (2011). decreased the O2 permeability (1.84 to 1.35×10−12 ) cm3 ) x (Pa. s.m)−1 ).
Edible film/coatings can improve the quality and shelf life of vari- Similarly, whey protein (10% w/w) based coating in combination with
ous fruits by inhibiting lipid oxidation, delaying moisture loss, prevent- chitooligosaccharide (20g L−1 ) and lactic acid (6g L−1 ) potentially in-
ing discoloration, and maintaining the fruits’ appearance during mar- hibited the microbial growth (<2.0 cfu/g) on laboratory manufactured
keting by minimizing dirt and dust contact, entrapping volatile flavor cheese after 60 days long storage at 10°C (Ramos et al., 2012).
compounds, and acting as carriers of food additives such as antimicro-
bial and antioxidative agents. Ochoa et al. (2011) successfully improved 4.3. Meat and meat products
the quality and shelf life of delicious golden apples by applying edible
layers comprised of natural wax extracted from Euphorbia antisyphi- Meat and meat products are considered favorable food among con-
litica and potent antioxidant 0.01% ellagic acid (EA). Walnuts and pine sumers due to their unique taste and nutritional benefits. Nevertheless,
nuts coated with a homogenized coating solution of whey protein isolate meat is highly susceptible to spoilage due to microbial and chemical
with carnauba wax exhibited lower oxidative and hydrolytic rancidity changes; therefore, its preservation requires special attention. Advanced
and improved sensory quality (Mehyar et al., 2012). Fagundes et al., packaging techniques such as intelligent and antimicrobial packaging
(2015), evaluated the beneficial properties of composite edible films have emerged as food safety hurdles technology primarily for the prod-
formulated with HPMC, beeswax, and different food preservatives hav- ucts like meat (Soni et al., 2018). The edible packaging concept is gain-
ing an antifungal property like sodium benzoate, sodium ethyl paraben, ing much popularity among meat and meat products due to its signifi-
and sodium methyl paraben applied to cherry tomato with artificially in- cant role in improving physicochemical and sensory properties (Galus
oculated black spot fungi Alternaria alternata during cold storage. The & Kadzińska, 2015). Research progress in applying edible film in meat
authors observed that sodium benzoate (2%) based edible packaging and meat products was briefly summarized in Table 3 (C).
significantly reduced weight loss, respiration rate, and maintained the Essential oils have become more widely used in edible films due
firmness of the cherry tomatoes. to their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties in recent years.
Moradi et al. (2016) assessed the antimicrobial effects of zein-based
4.2. Dairy products films in combination with Zataria multiflora Boiss. essential oil (ZEO)
(3%) and monulaurin (1%) against E. coli O157: H7 and Listeria mono-
Milk and milk products are considered a good source of dietary cytogenes in vitro and minced beef. The authors found that ZEO sig-
supplements for better health of both children and adults (Cardador nificantly enhanced the antimicrobial activity of the film. Similarly,
& Gallego, 2016). The literature survey shows that cheese packag- Ferulago Angulate Essential Oil (FAEO) (0.05%) incorporated with
ing is considered one of the potential application areas of the edi- gelatin-chitosan-based film inhibited the microbial growth and im-
ble film (V et al, 2021). Packaging, especially with antimicrobial film proved the shelf life of turkey meat (Naseri et al., 2020).

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A.K. V, M. Hasan, S. Mangaraj et al. Applied Food Research 2 (2022) 100118

4.4. Seafoods 6. Recent trends, challenges, and future perspectives in edible

film
Seafood, which includes fish and fish products, generally has a lim-
ited shelf life due to the rapid growth of microbes, which can pose a The edible film research area is constantly evolving, with new
threat to consumers’ health as well as result in economic loss. (Gómez- raw materials for film formation, active packaging development, nan-
Estaca et al., 2010; López de Lacey et al., 2014). In recent years, the ed- otechnology applications, etc. All these efforts were targeted to de-
ible packaging concept is evolved as an efficient strategy to enhance the velop biopolymers having properties par with conventional synthetic
storage stability of fish (Günlü & Koyun, 2013). Successful application polymers and their economic production by utilizing agricultural by-
of several polysaccharides such as chitosan (Remya et al., 2016), sodium products as raw material. The development of active films has been iden-
alginate-carboxy methylcellulose (Rezaei & Shahbazi, 2018), whey pro- tified as one of the primary focus areas in packaging research in the last
tein (Seyfzadeh et al 2013), etc., which various researchers have already decades, which enable the shelf-life extension of perishable fruits and
explored. Some of the recent progress and their major findings are given vegetables by the addition of various antimicrobial and antioxidant com-
in Table 3 (C). ponents into their base polymer matrix (Deng et al., 2020; Nair et al.,
The edible film/coatings, which are primarily chitosan-gelatin based, 2020; Orozco-Parra et al., 2020). Active edible films have active inter-
effectively preserve the desired quality, extend the shelf life, and im- action with contained food and contribute health benefits to consumers
prove the texture and color of sea and meat products by reducing (Moradi et al., 2021). For example, Orozco-Parra et al. (2020) devel-
spoilage, reducing the accumulation of volatile compounds and oxida- oped a synbiotic film from cassava starch with the incorporation of in-
tion substances, and minimizing weight loss. Castro et al., (2019), veri- sulin as a prebiotic molecule and L.casei as the probiotic bacteria. The
fied the potential of whey protein concentrate film in combination with developed film has shown decreased viability loss of probiotic bacteria
green tea extract applied on fresh salmon and found that their combi- during simulated gastric condition study.
nation effectively delayed the lipid oxidation of fresh salmon until the Similarly, the successful use of edible film for the transport of pro-
fourteen days of storage. The incorporation of essential oils into edible biotic bacteria was also reported by other authors (Ebrahimi et al.,
films due to their antioxidant and antimicrobial activity has been more 2018; Soukoulis et al., 2017). In recent years food-processing by-
documented in the past few years. Ginger essential oil incorporated with products-based edible films are gaining popularity. It allows the val-
fish sarcoplasmic protein and chitosan applied to red sea bream signifi- orization of industrial by-products, and their low-cost helps develop
cantly reduced the oxidation, protected from microbial degradation, and edible film economically. By-products of fruits and vegetable pro-
extended shelf life of the red sea bream (Cai et al., 2020). cessing, marine food processing, and edible oil processing industries
proved the promising potential for the film preparations (Aloui et al.,
5. Safety and regulation for edible films 2019; Benbettaïeb et al., 2019; Hromiš et al., 2022; Moghadam et al.,
2020; Shroti and Saini, 2022 Valdés et al., 2020). As explained in
Food safety and regulation vary from country to country. Accord- the section 2.4 & 2.5, the edible films with tailored properties have
ing to EU and US regulations, edible film and coating can be consid- been experimented with composite film formulation and nanotechnol-
ered food ingredients, additives, contact materials, or packaging mate- ogy application. Moreover, several attempts were also made to achieve
rials. As a result, the constituents used for its formulation should have this goal by cross-linking various biopolymers (Peng et al., 2021;
Generally Recommended As Safe (GRAS) status as per the regulations Yerramathi et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2022).
of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulation (Dhall, 2013). Despite all advantages, like all other newly developed technologies,
Nevertheless, there are chances for the transformation of FFS into toxic edible films also face great challenges that need to be overcome to
substances due to changes that occur during the film development pro- make them a commercial success. Even though a number of ways are
cess (Giteru et al., 2020). Different cross-linking agents used for en- experimented to improve the properties of the film to make it on par
hancing the film properties and interaction with gastrointestinal sub- with petroleum-based polymers, poor mechanical properties, weak re-
stances can also trigger the formation of toxic materials (Chiralt et al., sistance against water and gases, and insufficient physical properties
2018). In one study (Roșu et al., 2017), the effect of graphene oxide are the hurdle for its use in various food applications. Investigations
and its derivatives on the cytotoxicity of the methylcellulose-based film were carried out to address these challenges by developing composite
on human lungs was investigated, and lower toxicity was reported for films and nanocomposite films. However, composite film production by
reduced graphene oxide compared to graphene oxide. The effect of multilayer approach tends to fail by delamination of layers, and time,
modification techniques and ingredient selection plays a critical role energy, and cost requirement for the formation of the multilayer film
in edible film safety but is rarely reported in edible film studies. More- are high. Another crucial property of films is their heat sealability. The
over, the addition of nanomaterials in the film may cause several tox- range of optimum sealing temperature is narrow for biobased films. So,
icological effects on human bodies, as explained in section 2.5. At chances of undersealing and charring due to overheating are higher for
present, there is no specific legislation for nanomaterial use in food these films. This negatively affects its applications in the formation of
packaging, and the recommendations differ by nation. As per the guide- pouches and covers. The main reason restricting the commercial appli-
lines of the Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST) in the cation of edible film technology is the inability to make large-sized films
United Kingdom, nanomaterials should be considered hazardous un- (>25cm), difficulties in maintaining the thickness, and a long-time re-
less clear safety proof is available (Jeevahan et al., 2020). Accord- quirement for drying (2-3 days). Application of nanotechnology is con-
ing to EU and Switzerland legislation, information on nanomaterial sidered a trending area for edible films. Still, practical difficulties in
risk and/or legally binding definitions of nanomaterial need to be pro- isolation and homogeneous dispersion of nanomaterials in matrix poly-
duced. Labeling the presence of nanomaterials in a specific film is crit- mers and economic aspects always create a challenge. Moreover, a lack
ical for communicating risk elements to consumers. In EU definitions, of information on the toxicological effect of nanomaterial and other film-
size is used as an identifier for nanomaterials in regulatory purposes forming components generates fear and reluctance in consumers. Only
(Bizymis & Tzia, 2021). The USFDA publishes a list of food ingredients limited studies were reported on the evaluation of how the aging of
and contact substances and advises manufacturers to research and de- the film affects its properties. Since the primary intended use of pack-
velop a toxicological profile for each container containing nanomaterial aging material is to contain the food and extend its shelf life during
(USFDA 2014). Most countries, presently, do not have any regulations storage, thus this factor needs to be considered (Jeevahan et al., 2020).
for the use of nanotechnology. More research on the nanomaterial’s tox- Among the reported research on edible film, emphasis on sensory anal-
icological effects can help formulate new safety and regulations for its ysis is relatively low. The sensory attributes of the film are the first
application. and foremost important factor that decides the acceptance of the edible

12
A.K. V, M. Hasan, S. Mangaraj et al. Applied Food Research 2 (2022) 100118

packaging film. Ultimately consumer acceptance is the only deciding Askari, F., Sadeghi, E., Mohammadi, R., Rouhi, M., Taghizadeh, M., Hosein Shirgar-
factor in changing our packaging concept. For achieving its commer- doun, M., & Kariminejad, M. (2018). The physicochemical and structural properties
of psyllium gum/modified starch composite edible film. Journal of Food Processing and
cial success, complete study and documentation are required to prove Preservation, 42(10), 1–9. 10.1111/jfpp.13715.
its biodegradability, organoleptic aspects, safety and security, and le- Bagheri, F., Radi, M., & Amiri, S. (2019). Drying conditions highly influence the char-
gal confirmation. In order to overcome these challenges, considerable acteristics of glycerol-plasticized alginate films. Food Hydrocolloids, 90, 162–171.
10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.12.001.
research efforts need to concentrate on the following essential aspects. Baldwin, E. A., Burns, J. K., Kazokas, W., Brecht, J. K., Hagenmaier, R. D., Bender, R. J.,
A detailed toxicological study of the film-forming components by em- & Pesis, E. (1999). Effect of two edible coatings with different permeability charac-
phasizing nanoparticles is required to be carried out. Any technology teristics on mango (Mangifera indica L.) ripening during storage. Postharvest Biology
and Technology, 17(3), 215–226. 10.1016/S0925-5214(99)00053-8.
on a laboratory scale cannot benefit the consumers. So, the method for
Bamdad, F., Goli, A. H., & Kadivar, M. (2006). Preparation and characterization of pro-
the production of the continuous edible film with consistent properties teinous film from lentil (Lens culinaris): Edible film from lentil (Lens culinaris). Food
needs to be developed. Change in properties of edible film during ag- Research International, 39(1), 106–111. 10.1016/j.foodres.2005.06.006.
Belyamani, I., Prochazka, F., & Assezat, G. (2014). Production and characterization of
ing and under different temperature and relative humidity conditions is
sodium caseinate edible films made by blown-film extrusion. Journal of Food Engi-
also essential to confirm its utility in food storage purposes. Consumer neering, 121(1), 39–47. 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2013.08.019.
awareness programs and advertisements of edible films can also increase Benabbou, R., Subirade, M., Desbiens, M., & Fliss, I. (2018). The impact of chitosan-
their acceptability. divergicin film on growth of listeria monocytogenes in Cold-smoked salmon. Frontiers
in Microbiology, 9 NOV. 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02824.
Benbettaïeb, N., O’Connell, C., Viaux, A., Bou-Maroun, E., Seuvre, A.-M., Brachais, C.-H.,
7. Conclusion & Debeaufort, F. (2019). Sorption kinetic of aroma compounds by edible bio-based
films from marine-by product macromolecules: Effect of relative humidity conditions.
Food Chemistry, 298, Article 125064. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125064.
Edible films have been identified as a healthy source of food protec- Bharti, S. K., Pathak, V., Arya, A., Alam, T., Rajkumar, V., & Verma, A. K. (2020). Packag-
tion from various elements, as they are naturally occurring, inexpensive, ing potential of Ipomoea batatas and 𝜅-carrageenan biobased composite edible film:
and renewable. The possibility of incorporating functional ingredients Its rheological, physicomechanical, barrier and optical characterization. Journal of
Food Processing and Preservation, 1–11 June. 10.1111/jfpp.15153.
and excellent biodegradability further glorifies its attraction. Extensive Bhartiya, A., Aditya, J. P., Pal, R. S., Chandra, N., Kant, L., & Pattanayak, A. (2020).
research has been conducted to determine the best outcome and min- Bhat (Black soybean): A traditional legume with high nutritional and nutraceutical
imize drawbacks with new concepts such as composite film approach properties from nw himalayan region of india. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge,
19(2), 307–319.
and nanotechnology application. More research on important aspects Bizymis, A.-P., & Tzia, C. (2021). Edible films and coatings: Properties for the
like property improvement, implementation of safety and regulation, selection of the components, evolution through composites and nanomateri-
exploration of new and economic sources, and commercial scale-up by als, and safety issues. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 1–16.
10.1080/10408398.2021.1934652.
continuous production is essential to its successful adoption. Bonilla, J., & Sobral, P. J. A. (2016). Investigation of the physicochemical, antimicrobial
and antioxidant properties of gelatin-chitosan edible film mixed with plant ethanolic
Conflict of Interest Form extracts. Food Bioscience, 16, 17–25. 10.1016/j.fbio.2016.07.003.
Bourtoom, T. (2008). Edible films and coatings: Characteristics and properties. Interna-
tional Food Research Journal, 15(3), 237–248.
The following authors have declared that there is no conflict of inter- Bourtoom, T. (2009). Edible protein films: Properties enhancement. International Food Re-
est in publishing manuscript entitled “Trends in Edible Packaging Films search Journal, 16(1), 1–9.
Bumbudsanpharoke, N., Choi, J., & Ko, S. (2015). Applications of nanomaterials in
and its Prospective Future in Food: A Review” food packaging. Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 15(9), 6357–6372.
10.1166/jnn.2015.10847.
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