singh2019

Journal of Energy Storage 25 (2019) 100896
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est
Thermal performance of a fully developed serpentine wavy channel solar air T

heater
⁎
Satyender Singh , Ankit Singh, Subhash Chander
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Thermal performance of a fully-developed serpentine wavy channel solar air heater is investigated experi-
Fully developed flow mentally and numerically for the mass flow rate ranging from 0.01 kg/s to 0.04 kg/s. Solar air heater consists of
Serpentine channel three air heating channels. However, only serpentine wavy channel is operated for the forced convection to
Solar air heater provide the hot air at high flow rates. The natural convection incurred inside both the first and third closed
Thermal efficiency
channels. The first channel is utilized to reduce the top losses, while the thermal gain by air due to natural
convection in the third channel is examined to utilize for thermal applications. Experimental results revealed the
potential of the serpentine wavy channel in the thermal performance enhancement. Whereas, the maximum
outlet air temperature of 54 °C is obtained corresponding to solar radiations of about 831 W/m2 and mass flow
rate of 0.01 kg/s, while it is 52 °C in the third channel. Although, the maximum thermal efficiency and the
pressure drop of 66% and 3 Pa, respectively, is obtained at a mass flow rate of 0.04 kg/s. Moreover, numerical
results depict that the occurrence of flow circulation in the second and third channels is responsible for the high
thermal performance of the present solar air heater. Optimization of geometrical parameters is also presented in
the extent of the numerical investigation.
1. Introduction evolved in the fluid-structure interaction. One of the measures is to use

corrugated absorber plate that can render the wavy flow and increase
The research on solar air heaters has proved its potential in drying the thermal performance of solar air heaters by 65%, which is 12%
agricultural products and space heating [1]. However, the thermal higher compared to conventional flat plate solar air heater and ther-
performance of solar air heaters is the major concern for many decades. mohydraulic efficiency is obtained of the order of 57% [13]. Moreover,
With the continuous research and advancement in the technology re- the maximum pressure drop for flat plate solar air heater is obtained as
lated to solar air heaters, the thermal performance of solar air heaters 0.46 N/m2, while it is 0.9 N/m2 for corrugated plate solar air heater,
has been improved to a greater extent. Recent studies present various which is at a very small difference compared to flat plate one [13].
techniques for the thermal performance improvement of solar air hea- Other researchers that have employed the corrugated absorber plate to
ters using perforated plate [1], micro heat pipe array [2], artificial increase the thermal performance of solar air heaters evidenced the
roughness [3–5], conical surfaces, [6], baffles [7,8], fins [9,10], packed favorable air heating potential of the corrugated absorber plate solar air
bed [11] and winglets [12] and have proved the heating potential of heater for moderate temperature applications. Kabeel et al. [14] in-
solar air heaters for the requisite thermal needs. Though, all such dicated the thermal performance of V-corrugated absorber plate solar
techniques increase the heat transfer area to the flowing air that results air heater as 8–14.5% and 6–10.5% higher in comparison with flat plate
in the convective heat transfer enhancement accompanied by con- and finned plate solar air heaters for the mass flow rate of 0.062 kg/s to
siderable increase in the pumping power. Whereas, the thermal per- 0.009 kg/s. Whereas, the thermal efficiency of 70% is achieved for V-
formance of conventional flat plate solar air heaters is low due to the corrugated absorber plate at a mass flow rate and solar radiations of
use of smooth absorber plate that results in poor heat transfer to air and 0.062 kg/s and 1000 W/m2, respectively. Different corrugated geome-
originate almost negligible pressure drop. Hence, many researchers tries have been employed to increase the heat transfer in conventional
have contributed in this direction and revealed several measures to solar air heater designs such as rectangular [15], triangular (porous
increase the thermal performance of flat plate solar air heater by simply aluminum grid) [16], sinusoidal [17], V-shaped [14,18–20], and tra-
modifying the absorber plate in the view of utilizing the physics pezoidal [21].
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Singh).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2019.100896
Received 19 February 2019; Received in revised form 23 June 2019; Accepted 10 August 2019
2352-152X/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Singh, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 25 (2019) 100896
Nomenclature f Fluid, flow

g Glass cover
a Amplitude (m) i Inlet
Ac Collector surface area (m2) o Outlet
Cp Specific heat (kJ / kgK ) p Absorber plate
d Depth of the channel (m) r Wavy surface
D Hydraulic diameter (m) s Smooth surface
f Friction factor th Thermal
hc Convective heat transfer coefficient (W / m2K ) w Wind
I Global solar radiation (W / m2)
L Length of the heater (m) Greek symbols
ṁ Mass flow rate (kg / s )
Nu Nusselt number η Efficiency
P Pressure drop (N / m2) Δ Change
Qu Thermal power output (W ) ρ Density (kg / m3)
t Thickness μ Dynamic viscosity, (Nm / s 2)
T Temperature (oC) γ Aspect ratio (4a/ λ )
u Velocity, (m/s) λ Wavelength (m)
V Wind velocity, (m/s) δ Wave amplitude (m)
W Width of the collector (m )
Subscripts
exp Experimental
Moreover, the pressure drop penalty is the major concern employing cross sectioned duct, respectively.
extended surface area for the thermal performance improvement over In the present work, fully developed serpentine wavy channel solar
conventional flat plate solar air heaters. While, it is noticed that the air heater by utilizing two corrugated plates of sinusoidal shape is
pressure drop is very small and almost negligible in case of corrugated considered. Though, the serpentine wavy channels are already in-
absorber plate solar air heaters in comparison with the conventional vestigated for various thermal applications at micro and macro levels
ones [15]. As an example, the pressure drop of 5.4 Pa is observed across and result in high heat transfer and low-pressure drop [31–33]. The
a corrugated plate of 45 cm test section at a mass flow rate of 35 g/s reason is attributed to the formation of Dean Vortices and the avail-
[15]. Though, the effective thermal efficiency using corrugated ab- ability of high effective surface area density that results in high con-
sorber plate of 68.7% is achieved at a Reynolds number of 13500 [17]. vective heat transfer and low-pressure drop [31–33]. Moreover, Rush
Even, impinging jet corrugated absorber plate gives about 68% of et al. [34] experimentally evidenced the macroscopic mixing of fluid/
thermal efficiency at a Reynolds number corresponding to the mass air with changing Reynolds number and location of vortices in the flow
flow rate of 0.028 kg/s [22]. Hence, it has been proved that the cor- direction. Such wavy channels are mainly investigated with square
rugated absorber plate can be used for the significant thermal perfor- [35], circular [31] and semicircular [31,32] cross sections. Although,
mance improvement over conventional flat plate solar air heater at the the exploration of physics and heating potential at the macro level using
least expenditure on pressure drop penalty. Some investigations on a rectangular cross section is still limited. Benli [36] considered a re-
solar air heater presented in Refs. [23–30]. delineated the latest reversed corrugated channel and presented the experimental investiga-
search trends. Heydari et al. [23] investigated both experimentally and tion for solar air heating applications. The maximum thermal efficiency
numerically the thermal performance of solar air heater with helical of about 42% is reported for reversed corrugated design. However, the
flow. Thermal performance of 14.7% higher than simple duct is re- details of heat transfer and fluid flow characteristics of the serpentine
ported. Skullong et al. [24] investigated the thermal performance of a wavy (sinusoidal) channels for solar air heating applications are scar-
solar air heater with perforated winglet type vortex generator. It is cely reported in the literature. Based on the thermal performance of
reported that the perforation in winglets significantly reduces the serpentine wavy channels in the heat exchanger at micro and macro
pressure drop and increases the heat transfer to air. Abdullah et al. [25] scales, similar significant results can be expected for solar air heating
considered aluminium cans as tabulators on the upper and lower sides applications as well. Hence, due to the observed scarcity in the research
of the absorber plate in order to increase the thermal performance of related to the present field, following objectives are considered (a) to
solar air heater under counter air pass. The obtained results present the increase thermal performance of low-cost flat plate solar air heaters.
maximum daily thermal performance of 68% at a mass flow rate of Therefore, in the present experimental and numerical investigations,
0.05 kg/s for staggered arrangement. Abuska [26] investigated the heat transfer enhancement using fully developed serpentine wavy
thermal performance of a solar air heater having absorber plate with channel is considered in a single pass solar air heater. The idea of using
conical surface. Thermal efficiency of 74.6% is obtained at a mass flow serpentine wavy channel is to significantly improve the heat transfer
rate of 0.1 kg/s. Hernandez et al. [27] used porous matrix to enhance enhancement to air and simultaneously pressure drop. Ten-waves of
the thermal performance of solar air heater. The maximum thermo- 0.075 m are used over the length of 0.75 m. The present solar air heater
hydraulic efficiency of 63% is reported for a mass flow rate of 0.06 kg/s. consists of three channels; only the central one is operated. While the
Although, the thermal performance of solar air heater design presented natural convection heat transfer incurred inside the first and third
in Refs. [23–27] is high but the consequently development of pressure closed channels; (b) to investigate the thermal performance of solar air
drop is also very high. In this direction, to obtain high heat transfer heater for the range of mass flow rate from 0.01 kg/s to 0.04 kg/s; (c) to
enhancement and low pressure drop, Singh et al. [28], Jia et al. [29] study the effect of geometrical parameters such as hydraulic diameter
and Singh [30] presented new design configurations for smooth solar of the duct, and wavelength and amplitude of the serpentine channel on
air heater consist of the curved absorber plate, spiral and semicircular the thermal performance of solar air heater; (d) to check the
2
enhancement in the thermal performance by employing double glass the lower corrugated and back plates, respectively. Similarly, the air is
covers; (e) to investigate the heating potential of the third channel for trapped between the upper and lower glass covers by creating the
the simultaneous thermal applications under natural convection besides closed channel between them. Glass wool is used as an insulation ma-
the simultaneous operation of the second channels under forced con- terial to protect heat losses while the softwood is used to fabricate the
vection; and (f) to optimize the geometrical and flow parameters using side and bottom walls of solar air heaters. Fig. 2 also depicts the fab-
CFD tool on the basis of the thermohydraulic performance parameter rication details, size, and locations of thermocouples. To mix the heated
(THPP) and the exergy efficiency. Moreover, the exploration of the air layers wooden ribs are used in the remaining section after the exit
responsible physics that can indicate the effective measures to get the length of the solar air heater. Moreover, the remaining duct section
best thermal performance of the solar air heater using serpentine after the exit length is tapered to a cross-section of dimensions
channel; (g) to performance economic analyse to check the operating 0.1 m × 0.03 m, where the air flow rate is measured with the help of
cost of the present solar air heater design. anemometer [38,39]. A digital micromanometer is utilized to measure
the pressure drop across the wavy channel. Calibrated K-type thermo-
couples are used which are connected to a universal temperature in-
2. Description of the physical domain dicator to measure the temperature of solar air heater elements at
various locations and the flowing air at the inlet and outlet. The effect
2.1. Experimental setup of ambient wind is measured using Anemometer. A digital radiation
Pyranometer is utilized to measure the incident solar radiations. The
Fig. 1 presents the actual photograph of the serpentine wavy solar air heater is installed on a wooden stand inclined at an angle of
channel solar air heater. The experimental setup is designed and tested 45° and placed in the south facing direction. A blower of 620 W (Bosch)
as per the ASHRAE standard 93-77 [37]. All the experimental proce- connected to a voltage regulator is used to force the air in the solar air
dures are carried out in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr heater duct at the controlled flow rate. A flexible plastic pipe of dia-
B R Ambedkar NIT Jalandhar (31.3962 °N latitude, 75.5354 °E long- meter 0.03 m and thickness of 0.005 m is connected to the blower exit
itude). Clear sky days of July and August (2018) are selected for the and the wavy channel inlet. Leaks at the joints are detected at the time
experimentation, while the working temperature varied from 35 °C to of fabrication and sealing materials such as silicon and M-seal (general
42 °C. Entrance and exit sections are considered as ten and five times purpose epoxy compound) are used.
the hydraulic diameter of the duct, respectively [37]. Dimensions of the
test section are considered as 0.75 m × 0.45 m × 0.046 m 2.2. Performance parameters
(length × width × depth). Solar air heater consists of two glass covers
of thickness 4 mm, namely upper and lower glass covers; two wavy Thermal performance of solar air heater design is measured in terms
corrugated (sinusoidal) plates of thickness 0.5 mm also named as upper of thermal efficiency. Whereas, the thermal efficiency of solar air hea-
and lower absorber plates that create the serpentine wavy channel as ters directly depends on the thermal gain. Though, output parameters
shown in Fig. 2. Geometrical details of solar air heater are presented in also depend on the properties of the air that change with increasing or
Table 1. The serpentine wavy channel consists of 10 numbers of waves decreasing solar radiation flux. The output parameters to investigate
along the length of test sections. The value of amplitude, a and wave- the thermal performance of the wavy channeled solar air heater are
length, λ is selected as 4.6 cm and 7.5 cm, respectively. The natural calculated as:
convection is created by trapping the air over and under the wavy The useful thermal gain, Qu (W) is given as
channels by creating another two closed channels, one between the
lower glass cover and the upper corrugated plate, and other between ˙ p (Tfout − Tfin )
Qu = mC (1)
Fig. 1. Actual photographs of the solar air heater.

(1) Glass cover, (2) Corrugated plate, (3) Back plate, (4) Soft wood, (5) Glass wool, (6) Entrance section, (7) Test section, (8) Exit section, (9) Pressure taps.
3
Fig. 2. Experimental setup schematic diagram (a) side view (b) front view.
Where, ṁ is the air mass flow rate, Cp is the specific heat of the air, Tfout Where, ΔPwavy is the pressure drop across the wavy channel and mea-
and Tfin are the outlet and inlet air temperatures, respectively. sured with the help of digital manometer.
The thermal efficiency of the solar air heater is calculated as:
Qu 2.3. Uncertainties in experimental measurements
ηth =
IAC (2)
In order to present uncertainty in the measurement, uncertainty for
The fan power that gives the estimate of the utilization of energy to the entire independent and dependent variables are required to be ac-
force the air through the wavy channel is calculated as counted for. As the thermal efficiency of the solar air heater includes
Pflow dependent as well as independent variables, therefore, uncertainty in
Pfan = term of the precision index for thermal efficiency is presented as given
ηfan ηmotor (3) in Refs. [41,42]. The fractional uncertainty in mass flow rate, ωṁ is
where fan (ηfan ) and electric motor (ηmotor ) efficiency are assumed to be obtained as follows
70% and 90%, respectively [40]. The flow pumping power, Pflow re- 1
2 2 2 2
quired to force the air through the wavy channels is calculated as ⎡ ∂m˙ ∂m˙ ∂m˙ ⎤
ωm˙ = ⎢ ⎛
⎜ ωTa ⎞ + ⎜⎛
⎟ ωp ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ ωuair ⎞ ⎥
⎟
∂T ⎝ ∂p ⎠ ⎝ ∂uair
m˙ ΔPwavy ⎣⎝ a ⎠ ⎠⎦ (5)
Pflow =
ρ (4) where, ṁ is a function of u, Ta and p of the air.
4
Table 1 • The flow is incompressible, steady and turbulent

Design and operation parameters. • No-slip boundary conditions at the walls
Heater dimensions • Air properties as per the experimental observation
Length of solar air heater, L 0.75 m
• Inlet air at the ambient temperature
Width of solar air heater, W 0.45 m Moreover, temperature as a boundary condition (Dirichlet) is ap-
Distance between glass covers, dg 0.02 m
plied on the corrugated plates and the value corresponding to measured
Depth of the second channel, dp 0.03 m (minimum) and 0.046 m
(maximum)
thermocouples reading is used. Velocity and pressure (gauge pressure of
Depth of the third channel, db 0.03 m zero Pa) as inlet and outlet boundary conditions are employed. The
Number of amplitude, n 10 structured mesh is generated employing edge sizing by selecting edges
Thickness of absorber plate/back plate, ta / b 0.0005 m of the computational domain. The appropriate biasing and the biasing
Thickness of glass cover, tg 0.004 m
factor are used to generate fine mesh near the walls with an increasing
Insulation type Glass wool
growth rate up to the approximate height of the boundary layer. Details
Casing material Softwood
Units and resolution of instrumentation of the generated mesh are shown in Fig. 3. The height of the first layer is
Parameters Range Resolution Accuracy calculated as instructed in the literature [43]. However, the grid size is
Thermocouples 0-400 °C 1 °C ± 1.0 °C finalized by conducting a grid independence test to best predict the
Pyranometer 0-2000 W/m2 0.1 W/m2 ± 10 W/m2
computational results. Grid independence test involves few steps.
Anemometer 0-30 m/s 0.01 m/s ± 5%
Digital Micro manometer ± 4000 KPa ± 1 Pa ± 1%
Likewise, initial steps involved to create a coarse mesh, then medium
Uncertainty in Uncertainty and finally a fine mesh. Final selection of the mesh size depends on the
measurement [34] difference in the values of the measuring variable with each time
Mass flow rate, m˙ (kg / s ) ± 0.003 change in the mesh size. Results of the grid independence test are
Thermal efficiency, η (%) ± 0.15
presented in Table 2. The final number of nodes selected for the ser-
pentine channel is 545054 that render the relative percentage change of
about 0.4% compared to 735540 numbers of elements. The con-
The fractional uncertainty in thermal efficiency, ωnth is calculated as
vergence criterion of 10−6 was set for continuity equation.
per the below-given equation
Moreover, k− ε turbulence model is employed with standard, RNG
1 and Realizable groups, while k− ω in conjunction with standard and
ωnth ω 2 ω 2 ω 2 2
= ⎡ ⎛ m˙ ⎞ + ⎛ Δ T ⎞ +⎛ I ⎞ ⎤ SST is also employed to effectively measure the turbulence in the
nth ⎢
⎣ ⎝ m˙ ⎠ ⎝ ΔT ⎠ ⎝ I ⎠ ⎥ ⎦ (6)
computational model. Results of the validation of different turbulence
The values of the uncertainty for various independent and depen- models are presented in Fig. 4. It can be observed from the figure that
dent parameters are presented in Table 1. for the investigated range of mass flow rates, k− ε with RNG group
predicts more close results in validation with the experimental results.
Hence, k− ε with RNG group is finally selected for the demonstration of
3. Description of computational domain
physics involved in the computational domain. Though, for the dis-
cretization of flow governing equations, the upwind scheme is em-
3.1. Computational methodology
ployed on the basis of the finite volume method (FVM). The pressure
and velocity coupled equations are solved simultaneously using nu-
In the present work, the numerical investigation is carried out using
merical procedure i.e., Semi-implicit method for pressure linked equa-
Ansys-Fluent commercial software [43]. The software solves governing
tions (SIMPLE). Table 3 shows the results of validation of the present
conservation equations (Continuity, energy, and momentum) implying
numerical simulation with experimental results and an excellent
the finite volume method presented in Eqs. ((7)–(9)) [43,44].
agreement can be noticed.
Continuity equation
∂ (ρuj ) 4. Results and discussion

=0
∂x j (7)
A fully developed serpentine wavy channel solar air heater is in-
Momentum equation vestigated to explore the heat transfer and fluid dynamics character-
istics. The present solar air heater design consists of three channels as
∂ ∂p ∂ ⎡ ⎛ ∂ui ∂uj ⎞ ⎤ ∂ ⎡ ⎛ ∂ui ∂uj ⎞ ⎤ discussed earlier. Only the second wavy channel is selected for the in-
(ρui uj ) + = μ⎜ + ⎟ + μ ⎜ + ⎟
∂x j ∂x i ∂x j ⎢ ⎝ ∂x j ∂x i ⎠ ⎥ ∂x j ⎢ t ⎝ ∂x j ∂x i ⎠ ⎥ (8) vestigation under forced convection heat transfer with the idea of
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
providing high thermal output potentially for the applications that re-
Energy Equation quire the hot air at high flow rates. While, the third channel is examined
under the natural convection heat transfer in order to accomplish the
∂ ∂ ⎡ ∂T ⎤ hot air requirements to support the appropriate thermal applications.
(ρuj T ) − (Γ + Γt ) =0
∂x i ∂x j ⎢
⎣ ∂xj ⎥
⎦ (9) All the values of temperatures presented in the current experimental
work are the average temperatures. In the present section, the detailed
where, Γt = μt / Pr is the turbulent thermal diffusivity, Γ = μ/ Pr is the discussion of our observations from the present experimental and nu-
molecular thermal diffusivity, Pr is the Prandtl number, μ and μ t is the merical investigations is delineated. Moreover, the scope for future
viscosity (Ns/m2) and thermal viscosity, respectively, ρ is the density, P work is also outlined based on the obtained results.
is the pressure (Pascal), u is the velocity (m/s), and T is the temperature
(K). 4.1. Experimental investigation
3.2. Details of mesh generation Results of the experimental investigation are presented in Tables
4–7. All measurements are performed on the clear sunny days of July
A 3-Dimensional model of the serpentine wavy channel is con- and August 2018. Each reading is recorded manually at the one-hour
sidered for computational heat transfer and fluid dynamics investiga- interval. It can be noticed that the maximum solar radiations are ob-
tion. CFD modeling is carried out based on the following assumptions: tained as 897 W/m2, at about 1:00 PM. The results of experimentation
5
Fig. 3. Details of grid generation on the serpentine and entrance sections of the computational domain, (a) Number of nodes = 545054, (b) Number of
nodes = 735540, and (c) Number of nodes = 924140.
depict that about the same time, the maximum temperature rise is flow rate of 0.04 kg/s and found to be about 66%, which is about 57%
obtained at a mass flow rate of 0.01 kg/s which is about 54 °C. While, and 15.7% higher than the reversed and cross-corrugated solar air
the minimum temperature rise of about 47 °C is obtained, at a mass flow heater designs investigated by Benli [36] and Lin et al. [46], respec-
rate of 0.04 kg/s. The experimental thermal efficiencies calculated tively. Horever, a comparision of the thermal perforance of the present
using Eq. (2) are about 47%, 56%, 60%, and 66% at the mass flow rates work with that of the work of Lin et al. [46] and Benli [36] relative to
of 0.01 kg/s, 0.02 kg/s, 0.03 kg/s, and 0.04 kg/s, respectively. The the mass flow rate of 0.01 kg/s to 0.04 kg/s is presented in Table 8.
maximum thermal efficiency of solar air heater is obtained at a mass Moroever, the percentage enhancement in the thermal performance of
6
Table 2
Details of the grid independence test.
RNG (k-ε) Turbulence Model (ṁ = 0.02 kg/s)
Nodes Elements Exp. Results Numerical Results Difference REP (%)
ΔT (Co) ΔP (Pa) ΔT (Co) ΔP (Pa) Texp. − Tnum. Pexp. − Pnum. Temp. % Pressure %
356454 338400 7 ± 1.0 1 ± 1 6.98 1.07 0.02 −0.07 – –

545054 518400 7 ± 1.0 1 ± 1 7.2 1.07 −0.2 −0.07 3.1519 0.00000
735540 700200 7 ± 1.0 1 ± 1 7.23 1.08 −0.23 −0.08 0.4167 0.93458
924140 880200 7 ± 1.0 1 ± 1 7.25 1.09 −0.25 −0.09 0.2766 0.92593
the present work is also delineated in Table 8. The maximum percen-

tange enhancement of about 45% and 145% is obtained compared to
the work of Lin et al. [46] and Benli [36], respectively, at a mass flow
rate of 0.02 kg/s. The reason is attributed to the use of double glass
covers, and the selection of appropriate geometrical parameters in the
present collector design. Although, the thermal performance of present
single pass serpentine wavy solar air heater design is obtained high
compared to other single pass designs reported in the Refs. [50–52].
The results of the cost analysis for the present solar air heater design as
a function of mass flow rate are delineated in Table 8 as per the Ref.
[47].
Whereas, the cost per unit energy delivered by solar air system
(₹/kWh) is calculated as [47]:
Cu = Csa E (10)
where, Csa is the annual cost of delivering solar heat and is calculated as
Csa = (Cc A c + Ce ) Ii + Pa CP + Cmm + Cml (11)
and E is the annual heat energy delivered by the solar air heater is given
as
E = Qu × annual running hours (kWh/year) (12)
The life span of the proposed solar air heater is estimated as 10

years [47,49]. Whereas, the capital cost of collector, Cc = ₹ 6150,
capital cost of other equipments, Ce = ₹ 650, Annual running hours
were considered as 2400 h, interest rate, i = 10%, Cmm = ₹ 150 and
Cml = ₹ 150. It is obtained that the operation cost (₹/kWh) increases
with increase in the mass flow rate. This is due to the increase in the
pressure drop with increasing mass flow rate. The operation cost of ₹
0.141 per kWh is obtained at the mass flow rate of 0.04 kg/s.
As reported in Ref. [40], a transverse swirl flow occurred inside
wavy channel depending upon the Reynolds number and the aspect
ratio of corrugation, which is mainly responsible for the heat transfer
enhancement in the wavy channel. Moreover, Tables 4–7 delineate the
temperature of solar air heater elements, which are obtained maximum
Fig. 4. Results of validation of turbulence models with experimental results at about 1:00 PM. The temperatures of upper and lower corrugated
(12:00 PM), (a) Temperature and (b) Pressure drop. plates are obtained as 70 °C and 55 °C, respectively, at a mass flow rate
of 0.01 kg/s. It is reported in the literature that thermal performance of
reversed corrugated solar air heater is higher than flat plate solar air
Table 3
Results of the validation of the numerical model with experimental one.
Mass flow Experimental Results (Time 12:00 PM) Numerical Results
rate
Radiation Plate's temperature Temperature rise Heat Gain Efficiency (ηth ) Temperature rise Heat Gain Efficiency (ηth )
(Co ± 1.0) (Co) (Co)
ṁ (kg/s) W/m2 Tpu Tpl ΔT Q (Experimental ΔT Q ηth (Numerical RPE%

± 0.003 ( ± 10) Results) Results) (±)
0.01 767 69 53 12 120.6 46.60 12.28 123.4 47.69 2.33

0.02 781 62 48 7 140.7 53.38 7.23 145.3 55.13 3.29
0.03 767 61 47 5 150.75 58.25 5.05 152.2 58.83 1.00
0.04 774 59 46 4 160.8 61.56 4.02 161.6 61.87 0.50
7
Table 4
Results of the experimental measurement for different variables at.ṁ = 0.01 kg/s .
Mass flow rate, ṁ ( ± 0.003) Measured Variables Time of the day
09:00 AM 10:00 AM 11:00 AM 12:00 PM 1:00 PM 2:00 PM 3:00 PM 4:00 PM 5:00 PM
ṁ = 0.01 kg/s I (W / m2) ± 10 451 540 591 767 880 639 551 291 232
Tgu (C o) ± 1.0 45 49 49 55 58 53 53 45 39
Tgl (C o) 52 56 57 68 69 62 65 54 47
Tpu (C o) 53 56 57 69 70 65 63 54 48
Tpl (C o) 42 46 47 53 55 52 52 48 46
Tpb (C o) 37 41 44 48 50 48 49 47 45
Tin (C o) 38 38 38 39 40 40 40 40 39
Tout (C o) 44 46 47 51 54 50 48 44 42
Tlower (C o) 40 44 46 51 52 51 50 46 45
ΔP (Pa ± 1) – – – – – – – – –
Pfan (W) ± 1.01 – – – – – – – – –
Thermal Efficiency, (%ηth) ± 0.15 39.63 44.09 45.37 46.60 47.35 46.60 43.24 40.92 38.60
Wind Velocity, (m/ s ) ± 0.01 0.1 0.1 1.1 2.3 2 13 1.2 0.5 1.8
heater [36]. Therefore, in the present solar air heater design flat ab- roughness, fins and packed bed on the absorber plate [40,44,45].
sorber plate is not considered for evaluation. Moreover, literature also The maximum temperature of glass covers is also obtained high
evident that onset of swirl flow inside the wavy channel result in higher ranging from 69 °C to 60 °C for lower glass cover and 58 °C to 53 °C for
thermal performance than that of straight duct [48]. upper (top) glass cover. That means solar flux incident on the top ab-
In the present research, the solar air heater is investigated to serve sorber plate is also radiated back to glass covers and results in top
simultaneous thermal energy requirements as well. Therefore, three losses. That gives further scope to utilize this thermal potential to heat
channels are formed in the present design as mentioned before. The first the air and to increase the thermal performance of such solar air heaters
which is formed between the lower glass cover and the upper absorber by employing some other techniques. Moreover, alternative can be used
plate is not operated and remained closed. Hence, it serves under the in the wavy channel as well so that the temperature of the upper ab-
natural convection and accountable for the reduction in thermal losses sorber plate can be lowered that can result in a reduction in the top
to ambient. Whereas, the second channel which is created between two losses. Although, enhancement in the thermal performance of the pre-
absorber plates i.e. wavy channel is operated for the forced convection sent solar air heater is expected to be more in the winter season when
heat transfer and provides the hot air at high flow rates. While, the hot the inlet air temperature will be low and the high-temperature gradient
air at a temperature ranging from 54 °C to 47 °C for a range mass flow will be available.
rate from 0.01 kg/s to 0.04 kg/s, respectively, can be obtained from this
channel. Moreover, the third channel which is formed between the 4.2. CFD investigation
lower absorber and back plates concomitant natural convection heat
transfer inside the well-insulated closed channel. The maximum tem- In this section, line graphs, velocity and temperature contours, and
perature which is evolved for the range of mass flow rate ranging from vector plots are presented to reveal the physics involved in the heat
0.01 kg/s to 0.05 kg/s is 55 °C to 45 °C, respectively. Hot air inoccured transfer enhancement of wavy channel solar air heater. Three-dimen-
in the third closed channel simultaneously beside the operation of sional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model is considered for the
second wavy channel can be utilized for various thermal energy re- simulation. The constant wall temperature is used as a boundary con-
quirements. The pressure drop which is the penalty arises due to fric- dition. Experimentally measured temperatures of the corrugated plates
tional forces and mixing of fluid layer is obtained maximum at a mass are used as a temperature boundary condition. While, velocity corre-
flow rate of 0.04 kg/s and is found to be 3 Pa. However, the obtained sponds to mass flow rate as an inlet and pressure as an outlet boundary
value for the pressure drop is very less for the present solar air heater condition are employed. As evident in the literature that high aspect
design compared to other solar air heater designs consisting of artificial ratio which represents high amplitude and low wavelength of the wavy
Table 5
ṁ = 0.02 kg/s I (W / m2) ± 10 519 596 699 781 845 652 575 369 266
Tgu (C o) ± 1.2 44 46 49 52 51 52 48 43 40
Tgl (C o) 52 54 59 62 64 63 58 52 46
Tpu (C o) 51 52 59 62 61 59 55 49 46
Tpl (C o) 41 42 45 48 48 48 47 44 43
Tpb (C o) 38 39 42 45 45 46 45 43 41
Tin (C o) 39 40 39 39 41 41 39 39 39
Tout (C o) 43 45 45 46 49 47 44 42 41
Tlower (C o) 40 41 44 46 47 47 46 43 42
ΔP (Pa ± 1) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Pfan (W) ± 1.01 0.089 0.089 0.089 0.089 0.089 0.089 0.089 0.089 0.089
Wind Velocity, (m/ s ) ± 0.01 1.8 1.3 1.7 1.3 2 2.7 3.2 3.3 1.8
8
Table 6
ṁ = 0.03 kg/s I (W / m2) ± 10 498 533 657 767 888 604 504 342 184
Tgu (C o) ± 1.2 49 51 55 56 55 54 51 47 41
Tgl (C o) 57 57 63 64 62 63 60 55 46
Tpu (C o) 52 57 60 61 62 58 54 51 46
Tpl (C o) 43 45 46 47 47 48 47 45 44
Tpb (C o) 39 41 43 44 44 45 44 44 42
Tin (C o) 39 40 40 41 41 41 41 41 41
Tout (C o) 42 43 44 46 47 45 44 43 42
Tlower (C o) 42 43 44 45 46 47 46 45 43
ΔP (Pa ± 1) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Pfan (W) ± 1.01 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26
Wind Velocity, (m/ s ) ± 0.01 0.5 0.2 1 1 1.5 1 1.5 1 0.8
channel, and high Reynolds number can best result in high heat transfer temperature distribution similarly across the wavy section at the inlet,
in the wavy channel [40]. Therefore, in the present work, high aspect middle, and exit. Results revealed the high-temperature gradient across
ratio and range of Reynolds number are selected accordingly. the wavy section at the inlet section, however, small temperature gra-
Fig. 5 demonstrates the velocity distribution at the entrance, inlet, dient is observed about the middle section, while contours present al-
middle, and exit sections of the solar air heater. Velocity distribution in most uniform temperature distribution at the exit section. This is due to
the entrance section reveals the fully developed flow before the inlet the mixing of the fluid that helps to attain uniform temperature across
section (x = 0.5 m). That means entrance length which is used for ex- the wavy channel. The analogous trends are observed for all the mass
perimental as well as CFD solution is appropriate in length to fully flow rates as shown in Fig. 7(a)–(c). The reason is attributed to the
develop the flow. Whereas, the velocity distribution at the inlet, middle, mixing of the fluid layers about the crest and trough regions. Moreover,
and exit sections is analogous and symmetrical. While, the formation of the contour of temperature and velocity also indicate fluid separation in
a very thin boundary layer is observed in the contact regions with the the crest and trough regions as clearly evident in Figs. 8 and 9.
upper and lower absorber plates, especially in the region against the Fig. 9(a)–(c) show the contour of turbulent kinetic energy, which re-
crest and trough regimes. Moreover, the maximum velocity is obtained veals the maximum turbulence intensity in the trough and crest regions.
in the center of the channel. Fig. 6 presents the velocity distribution at Whereas, the magnitude of turbulent kinetic energy is increasing with
various locations near the middle section. Velocity profiles are shown increase in mass flow rate from 0.02 kg/s to 0.04 kg/s. Whereas, no
for all upstream and downstream locations for two waves. However, the change in the location of the occurrence of maximum turbulent kinetic
trends of the velocity are synonymous and present periodic flow in all energy is observed relative to the increase in mass flow rate.
waves. Similarly, the figure revealed the maximum velocity at the Fig. 10(a)–(c) present the vectors plot corresponding to mass flow
centre of the channel. Figs. 5–6 depict the formation of wavy motion of rate ranging from 0.02 kg/s to 0.04 kg/s. As figures present the mixing
the flow at the investigated range of mass flow rate. Maximum wavy of air layers near the crest and trough regime that have significant
motion is observed at a low mass flow rate as the reason is attributed to importance in the heat transfer enhancement. Moreover, the formation
the less widen vortex size at a low mass flow rate. of secondary (swirl) flow can be clearly noticed in Fig. 10. The figure
Fig. 7 shows the contours of the velocity across the wavy section at revealed the occurrence of flow separation in both the trough and the
the inlet, middle and exit. It can be noticed from the figure that max- crest regimes. Separation and the reattachment occurred near the
imum velocity is attained at the centre and bulk fluid is flowing in the downstream and upstream sides of the wave, respectively [48]. It is also
core region of the channel. While, velocity contours present very low noticed from the figure that negative gradient is formed due to the
velocity near to the walls. Fig. 8 illustrates the contours of the separation of the flow; however, flow velocity in the recirculation
Table 7
ṁ = 0.04 kg/s I (W / m2) ± 10 440 596 645 774 897 598 440 311 209
Tgu (C o) ± 1.2 44 47 48 51 53 54 50 44 39
Tgl (C o) 52 57 59 60 60 62 58 53 45
Tpu (C o) 51 56 58 59 60 57 53 48 46
Tpl (C o) 42 43 44 46 46 47 46 45 44
Tpb (C o) 41 42 41 42 42 43 43 42 41
Tin (C o) 39 40 41 41 42 42 41 41 40
Tout (C o) 41 43 44 45 47 45 43 42 41
Tlower (C o) 40 41 42 44 45 44 44 44 43
ΔP (Pa ± 1) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Pfan (W) ± 1.01 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53
Wind Velocity, (m/ s ) ± 0.01 1.2 0.1 0.4 2 1.4 1.1 1.3 1.3 1
9
Table 8
Results of the present work in comparison with other reported work on single pass solar air heater, percentage increment in comparison with the theoretical and
experimental works of Lin et al. [46] and Benli [36], respectively and cost analysis.
Mass flow rate, ṁ (kg/s) Lin et al. [46] Benli [36] Mahmood et al. [50] Omojaro et al. [51] Aldabbagh et al. [52] Present work %I1 %I2 Cost, Cu (₹/kWh)
ηth1 (%) ηth2 (%) ηth3 (%) ηth4 (%) ηth5 (%) ηth (%)
0.01 35 – 28 27 19 47.35 35.29 – 0.003

0.02 39 23 38 39 30 56.39 44.59 145.17 0.031
0.03 45 28 55 49 42 60.39 34.20 115.68 0.078
0.04 50 40 _ 60 52 66.36 32.72 65.90 0.141
Fig. 5. Velocity profile in the entrance, inlet, middle, and the exit sections (a) ṁ = 0.02 kg/s, (b) ṁ = 0.03 kg/s, and (c) ṁ = 0.04 kg/s.
Fig. 6. Velocity profile at different locations of the central amplitude for (a) ṁ = 0.02 kg/s, (b) ṁ = 0.03 kg/s, and (c) ṁ = 0.04 kg/s.
region is very low compared to mean stream or bulk flow and increases separation from the wall. While minor changes in the vortex size are
with increasing mass flow rate. The line graph as a part of Fig. 10, noticed with increasing mass flow rate and along the length of the
demonstrates the direction and the strength of the flow circulation. It is collector. As evident in the literature, the formation of the vortex
worth to be mentioned here that recirculation and reattachment of the mainly depends upon the aspect ratio and Reynolds number [48],
flow increases the heat transfer due to the mixing of the fluid layers or therefore, results of the present study proved that the aspect ratio and
by high momentum transfer and consequently increases pressure drop. the range of mass flow rate selected are appropriate for the thermal
This increase in pressure drop is also due to an increase in wall shear performance improvement.
stress as a result of high surface area available at a high aspect ratio. As delineated earlier, solar air heater is tested for simultaneous
The pressure drop penalty is not significant compared to heat transfer thermal applications by utilizing the third channel for natural convec-
enhancement. Moreover, re-circulation or swirl flow near to the wavy tion heat transfer. As the evident above, wavy channel is capable en-
wall regime supports diffusion heat transfer and increases heat ex- ough to provide hot air at high flow rates, while the numerical simu-
traction of the air from the heated walls. Moreover, fluid acceleration lation is also carried out to check the heating potential of the third
on the oblique plane near to the flow separation and the wall opposite channel which is formed between lower corrugated and back plates.
to swirl regime also encompasses convective heat transfer. In other Hence, simulations are performed similarly by using temperature as a
ways, re-circulation of air at particular velocity sustains the bulk flow boundary condition on the plates which are measured experimentally.
10
Fig. 7. Contour of velocity distribution at inlet, middle, and the exit sections (a) ṁ = 0.02 kg/s, (b) ṁ = 0.03 kg/s, and (c) ṁ = 0.04 kg/s.
11
Fig. 8. Contour of temperature distribution at inlet, middle, and exit sections (a) ṁ = 0.02 kg/s, (b) ṁ = 0.03 kg/s, and (c) ṁ = 0.04 kg/s.
12
Fig. 9. Contours of turbulence kinetic energy at inlet, middle, and the exit sections (a) ṁ = 0.02 kg/s, (b) ṁ = 0.03 kg/s, and (c) ṁ = 0.04 kg/s.
13
Fig. 10. Vector plot and line graph presenting velocity distribution in the vortex region for (a) ṁ = 0.02 kg/s, (b) ṁ = 0.03 kg/s, and (c) ṁ = 0.04 kg/s.
14
Fig. 11. Contours of temperature distribution inside the third channel due to natural convection heat transfer, for the plates temperature at (a) mass flow rate of
0.02 kg/s and (b) mass flow rate of 0.04 kg/s.
For the natural convection heat transfer in the third channel, contours on the absorber plate raise its temperature which is extracted by the
of the temperature are presented for a mass flow rate of 0.02 kg/s and flowing air in the solar air heater ducts. Similarly, a computational
0.04 kg/s and shown in Fig. 11. Interesting results are noticed in domain (serpentine channel) is designed as that of the experimental one
Fig. 12, which represents the vector plots at the same mass flow rates of and the heat flux of 800 W/m2 on the basis of average flux value ob-
0.02 kg/s and 0.04 kg/s. It is noticed that buoyancy-driven recirculation tained in the experimental data is applied on the absorber plate. THPP
of air is generated in the solar air heater channel, that also have the is calculated as given below [44]
synonymous effect of temperature enhancement in the channel. Even
this recirculation is important in support of various thermal applica-
tions. Line graphs as part of Fig. 12, delineated the strength as well as
⎛
THPP = ⎜ ( )()
Nur
Nus fr
fs
1
3⎞
⎟
⎝ ⎠ (13)
the direction of flow circulation, while the magnitude of the velocity of
very small value is noticed. Moreover, vector plots represent the dis- Where, subscript, r and s presents the Nusselt number corresponds to
tribution and concentration of air across the channel section, though the corrugated wavy plate and smooth flat plate, respectively.
asymmetric air flow structure can be noticed. Nusselt number is calculated as
hc
4.3. Optimization of geometrical parameters Nur = D
k (14)
In the present work, geometrical parameters are optimized on the Average convective heat transfer coefficient, hc is calculated as
basis of thermohydraulic performance parameter (THPP) and exergy
Qu ˙ p (Tout − Tin )
mc
efficiency as per Eqs. (10) and (11), respectively, using the CFD tool. hc = =
During the actual operation of solar air heater, solar radiations incident Ap (Tp − Tf ) Ap (Tp − Tf ) (15)
15
Fig. 12. Vector plots presenting air circulation inside the third channel due to natural convection heat transfer, for the plates temperature at (a) ṁ = 0.02 kg/s and
(b) ṁ = 0.04 kg/s .
Where, Ap is the surface heat transfer area, Tp absorber plate tem- considered at the inlet and outlet of the computational domain, re-
(T +T )
perature, Tf = out 2 in is the film temperature. spectively. Geometrical parameters such as wavelength, λ (0.075 m and
The friction factor is as given below 0.05 m), wave amplitude, δ (0.012 m, 0.016 and 0.02 m) and hydraulic
diameter, Dh (0.0835 m and 0.025 m) are considered for the CFD in-
1 ΔP
fr = ×D× vestigation. Table 9 summarized the results of THPP and ηII as a
2μ2 ρ Ltest (16) function of mass flow rate, ṁ and wave amplitude, δ, when the hy-
Exergy efficiency is calculated as given below [49] draulic diameter and wavelength is 0.0835 m and 0.075 m, respec-
tively. It is obtained from the results that THPP is increasing with in-
Ex u, p Ex u, p
ηII = = crease in mass flow rate and decreasing with increase in wave
IAp ψ Ta 4 amplitude, δ. The maximum value of THPP is obtained for δ = 0.012 m.
IAp ⎛1 −
⎝
4
3 ( ) + ( ) ⎞⎠
Ta
Ts
1
3 Ts (17) That means, the pumping power presents less dominancy on the
Velocity inlet and pressure outlet boundary conditions are thermal gain for δ = 0.012 m. As it is proved that pumping power
16
Table 9
Results of the thermohydraulic performance parameters (THPP) and exergy efficiency (ηII ) as a function of wave amplitude, δ and mass flow rate, ṁ , when
wavelength, λ is 0.075 m.
Dh = 0.0835 m
THPP ηII
ṁ δ = 1.2 cm δ = 1.6 cm δ = 2 cm δ = 1.2 cm δ = 1.6 cm δ = 2 cm
λ = 0.075 m 0.01 1.468 1.424 1.334 4.65 4.81 5.01

0.02 1.333 1.22 1.062 2.38 2.46 2.56
0.03 1.225 1.092 0.986 1.58 1.62 1.67
0.04 1.147 1.012 0.911 1.16 1.16 1.16
Table 10
Results of the thermohydraulic performance parameters (THPP) and exergy efficiency (ηII ) as a function of wave amplitude, δ and mass flow rate, ṁ , when
wavelength, λ is 0.05 m.
Dh = 0.0835 m
THPP ηII
ṁ δ = 0.012 m δ = 0.016 m δ = 0.02 m δ = 0.012 m δ = 0.016 m δ = 0.02 m
λ = 0.05 m 0.01 1.459 1.417 1.293 4.91 5.25 5.66

0.02 1.331 1.193 1.062 2.51 2.69 2.9
0.03 1.183 1.057 0.943 1.66 1.76 1.88
0.04 1.088 0.974 0.871 1.19 1.24 1.28
Table 11
Results of the thermohydraulic performance parameters (THPP) and exergy efficiency (ηII ) as a function of two different hydraulic diameters, Dh and mass flow rate,
ṁ , when wavelength, λ is 0.075 m.
Dh = 0.0835 m Dh = 0.0474 m
THPP ηII THPP ηII

ṁ δ = 1.2 cm δ = 1.2 cm δ = 1.2 cm δ = 1.2 cm I% (THPP)
λ = 7.5 cm 0.01 1.468 4.65 1.312 4.62 11.89

0.02 1.333 2.38 1.203 2.34 10.81
0.03 1.225 1.58 1.141 1.48 7.36
0.04 1.147 1.16 1.096 0.97 4.65
Fig. 13. Results of convective heat transfer coefficient, hc as a function of mass Fig. 14. Nusselt Number, Nur as a function of mass flow rate.
flow rate for different geometrical configuration.
when λ = 0.05 m. Similar trends as in the the case when λ = 0.075 m
increases with mass flow rate and hence, the trend of THPP values w. r. for both THPP and ηII are observed. The maximum THPP and ηII is
t. mass flow rate is decreasing. While, ηII is maximum for δ = 0.02 m obtained as 1.459 and 5.66, while it is 1.468 and 5.01 for λ = 0.075 m
and mass flow rate of 0.01 kg/s. The exergy efficiency results indicate and mass flow rate of 0.01 kg/s. Table 11 presents the results of THPP
all positive values for the range of mass flow rate that means solar air and ηII w. r. t. mass flow rate and two different hydraulic diameters,
heater can be operated for the selected range of mass flow rate. when λ = 0.075 m and δ = 0.012 m. It is obtained that THPP and ηII is
Table 10 delineated the results of THPP and ηII as a function of δ and ṁ , obtained maximum for the hydraulic diameter of 0.0835 m for all the
ranges of mass flow rate. The maximum percentage enhancement in the
17
Fig. 15. Results of friction factor, fr as a function of mass flow rate.
Fig. 18. Results of local Nusselt number (a) for λ = 0.075 m, δ = 0.012 m and
Dh = 0.0835 m (b) λ = 0.075 m, δ = 0.012 m and Dh = 0.0474 m.
Fig. 16. Nur/Nus as a function of mass flow rate.
convective heat transfer coefficient, hc is obtained as 30.95 W/m2K, for
λ = 0.075 m, δ = 0.016 m and Dh = 0.025 m. While it is less for the
geometrical configuration of λ = 0.075 m, δ = 0.012 m and
Dh = 0.0835 m. The trends of the convective heat transfer coefficient
are increasing with increasing mass flow rate, for the entire geometrical
configuration. This is because hc directly depends on the velocity of the
air, that means heat removal rate, which is high for low hydraulic
diameter. Though, the highest convective heat transfer coefficient is not
an optimization criterion but presents the rate of heat transfer from the
absorber surface to air. Fig. 14 depicts the result of Nusselt number, Nu
and indicates the maximum value for λ = 0.05 m, δ = 0.02 m and
Dh = 0.0835 m, at all the values of mass flow rate. That means the
convective heat transfer relative to hydraulic diameter of the duct is
high for this configuration. Fig. 15 shows the effect of mass flow rate on
the friction factor as a function of different geometrical parameters. It is
observed that the maximum value of friction factor is obtained for
λ = 0.05 m, δ = 0.02 m and Dh = 0.0835 m. That means more ob-
struction to the flow of air takes place for this configuration at all mass
Fig. 17. Results of fr/fs as a function of mass flow rate. flow rates. The friction factor indicates pumping power utilization that
overcomes the thermal gain of the collector. The results of Nusselt
number enhancement, Nur/Nus and friction factor enhancement, fr/fs as
THPP for Dh = 0.0835 m is obtained about 11. 89% compared to
a function of mass flow rate and geometrical configurations (Figs. 16
Dh = 0.0474 m, when δ = 0.012 m, λ = 0.075 m and ṁ = 0.01 kg/s.
and 17) indicate the maximum enhancement of about 3.88 and 27,
While, the percentage enhancement is obtained less with increasing
respectively, corresponding to mass flow rate of 0.01 kg/s, and
mass flow rate. This can be attributed due to the reason that at high
λ = 0.05 m, δ = 0.02 m and Dh = 0.0835 m. Fig. 18(a) and (b) show
mass flow rate pumping power utilization is more and heat extraction of
the local Nusselt number for the range of mass flow rate and geome-
air is less. More details about the performance enhancement and opti-
trical configuration of Dh = 0.0835 m and 0.025 m, respectively, when
mization of operating geometrical and flow parameters can be obtained
λ = 0.075 m and δ = 0.012 m. It can be noticed from the figures that
from Figs. 13–19. As can be seen from the Fig. 13 that the maximum
the highest values are obtained for the mass flow rate of 0.04 kg/s in
18
Fig. 19. Velocity vectors for (a) Dh = 0.025 m (b) Dh = 0.0835 m when δ = 0.012 m, λ = 0.075 m and ṁ = 0.04 kg/s.
both of the cases. Concluding from the results of the investigation channel, while it is observed in the case of hydraulic diameter of
carried out for the optimization of operational flow and geometrical 0.0835 m (Fig. 19b), when δ = 0.012 m and λ = 0.075 m. Fig. 20 pre-
parameters, it is attributed that decreasing the wavelength increases sents the contours of the turbulent kinetic energy for the both cases of
number of waves (15) in the test section length and the velocity of the hydraulic diameters. The maximum value is obtained for the case of
secondary flow. Consequently, the increasing number of waves in- hydraulic diameter, Dh = 0.025 m due to high air velocity available at
creases the heat transfer area and the fluid mixing that results in heat the lower hydraulic diameter and causes more turbulence compared to
transfer enhancement to air, but conversely attributed to more pressure Dh = 0.0835 m relative to the same value of the mass flow rate in both
drop. While, increase in the wave amplitude results in an increase in the the cases. Because of the same reason, the turbulent kinetic energy in
height of the secondary flow region and slowness in the secondary flow the regions of the crest and trough seems to be more static at the
reattachment and increases the pressure drop by increasing fluid mixing Dh = 0.0835 m (Fig. 20b). Considering the Nu for increasing wave
as attributed in sections 4.1 and 4.2. Decrease in the hydraulic diameter amplitude, δ and wavelength, λ, it is obtained that both of these in-
increases the convective heat transfer by increasing the velocity crease the heat transfer area but increasing wave amplitude increases
(Figs. 19 and 20) but also increases pressure drop subsequently. the pressure drop as well. Hence, optimum results of wave amplitude
Therefore, THPP is low for this case. As shown in Fig. 19(a), the case of are obtained at 0.012 m, due to the existence of lower pressure drop and
serpentine channel with small hydraulic diameter, the secondary flow significant heat transfer. Moreover, small height of amplitude decreases
does not occur in the crust region and flow is almost wavy across the the height of the secondary flow region, which appropriately increases
19
Fig. 20. Contours of turbulent kinetic energy

for (a) Dh = 0.025 m and (b) Dh = 0.0835 m,
when δ = 0.012 m, λ = 0.075 m and
ṁ = 0.04 kg/s.
the velocity of reattachment, fluid mixing and heat transport to bulk optimum values, while the range of mass flow rate from 0.02-
fluid flow. While, the optimum value of Dh is obtained as 0.0835 m, due 0.03 kg/s is recommended for the appreciable thermohydraulic
to the occurrence of high pressure drop at a low value of hydraulic performance on the basis of THPP and exergy efficiency. The op-
diameter. In case of wavelength, 0.075 m is obtained as an optimum erating cost of the present solar air heater design is 0.141₹/kWh at a
value because it provides less obstruction to flow and provides appro- mass flow rate of 0.04 kg/s.
priate heat transfer area to fluid flow.
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Journal of Energy Storage 25 (2019) 100896

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Energy Storage

Thermal performance of a fully developed serpentine wavy channel solar air T

1. Introduction evolved in the ﬂuid-structure interaction. One of the measures is to use

Nomenclature f Fluid, ﬂow

Fig. 1. Actual photographs of the solar air heater.

Table 1 • The ﬂow is incompressible, steady and turbulent

∂ (ρuj ) 4. Results and discussion

Nodes Elements Exp. Results Numerical Results Diﬀerence REP (%)

356454 338400 7 ± 1.0 1 ± 1 6.98 1.07 0.02 −0.07 – –

the present work is also delineated in Table 8. The maximum percen-

E = Qu × annual running hours (kWh/year) (12)

The life span of the proposed solar air heater is estimated as 10

ṁ (kg/s) W/m2 Tpu Tpl ΔT Q (Experimental ΔT Q ηth (Numerical RPE%

0.01 767 69 53 12 120.6 46.60 12.28 123.4 47.69 2.33

Mass ﬂow rate, ṁ ( ± 0.003) Measured Variables Time of the day

09:00 AM 10:00 AM 11:00 AM 12:00 PM 1:00 PM 2:00 PM 3:00 PM 4:00 PM 5:00 PM

Mass ﬂow rate, ṁ ( ± 0.003) Measured Variables Time of the day

09:00 AM 10:00 AM 11:00 AM 12:00 PM 1:00 PM 2:00 PM 3:00 PM 4:00 PM 5:00 PM

Mass ﬂow rate, ṁ ( ± 0.003) Measured Variables Time of the day

09:00 AM 10:00 AM 11:00 AM 12:00 PM 1:00 PM 2:00 PM 3:00 PM 4:00 PM 5:00 PM

Mass ﬂow rate, ṁ ( ± 0.003) Measured Variables Time of the day

09:00 AM 10:00 AM 11:00 AM 12:00 PM 1:00 PM 2:00 PM 3:00 PM 4:00 PM 5:00 PM

0.01 35 – 28 27 19 47.35 35.29 – 0.003

ṁ δ = 1.2 cm δ = 1.6 cm δ = 2 cm δ = 1.2 cm δ = 1.6 cm δ = 2 cm

λ = 0.075 m 0.01 1.468 1.424 1.334 4.65 4.81 5.01

ṁ δ = 0.012 m δ = 0.016 m δ = 0.02 m δ = 0.012 m δ = 0.016 m δ = 0.02 m

λ = 0.05 m 0.01 1.459 1.417 1.293 4.91 5.25 5.66

THPP ηII THPP ηII

λ = 7.5 cm 0.01 1.468 4.65 1.312 4.62 11.89

Fig. 15. Results of friction factor, fr as a function of mass ﬂow rate.

Fig. 20. Contours of turbulent kinetic energy

• The experimental results reveal the maximum thermal performance

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