Phoenicia

Phoenicia - Wikipedia 31/12/2024, 23:26
Phoenicia
The Phoenicians were an ancient Semitic group
of people who lived in the Phoenician city-states Phoenicia
along a coastal strip in the Levant region of the 2500 BC[1]–64 BC
eastern Mediterranean, primarily modern
Lebanon.[5] They developed a maritime
civilization which expanded and contracted
throughout history, with the core of their culture
stretching from Arwad in modern Syria to Mount
Carmel.[6] The Phoenicians extended their
cultural influence through trade and colonization
throughout the Mediterranean, from Cyprus to Phoenician settlements and trade routes
the Iberian Peninsula, evidenced by thousands of across the Mediterranean starting from around
Phoenician inscriptions. 800 BC.[2]
Capital None; dominant cities
The Phoenicians directly succeeded the Bronze were Sidon, Byblos
Age Canaanites, continuing their cultural and Tyre[3]
traditions after the decline of most major Common languages Phoenician, Punic
Mediterranean basin cultures in the Late Bronze
Religion Canaanite religion
Age collapse and into the Iron Age without
interruption. They called themselves Canaanites Government City-states ruled by
and referred to their land as Canaan, but the kings, with varying
degrees of oligarchy
territory they occupied was notably smaller than or plutocracy;
that of Bronze Age Canaan.[7] The name oligarchic republic in
Phoenicia is an ancient Greek exonym that did Carthage after c. 480
BC[4]
not correspond precisely to a cohesive culture or
Major kings of
society as it would have been understood Phoenician cities
natively.[8][9] Therefore, the division between • c. 1800 BC Abishemu I
Canaanites and Phoenicians around 1200 BC is • 969–936 BC Hiram I
regarded as a modern and artificial • 820–774 BC Pygmalion of Tyre
[7][10]
construct. Historical era Classical antiquity
• Established 2500 BC[1]
The Phoenicians, known for their prowess in
• Tyre becomes 969 BC
trade, seafaring and navigation, dominated dominant city-
commerce across classical antiquity and state under the
developed an expansive maritime trade network reign of Hiram I
lasting over a millennium. This network • Carthage founded 814 BC
(in Roman
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia Page 1 of 36
facilitated cultural exchanges among major accounts by Dido)

cradles of civilization, such as Greece, Egypt, and • Disestablished 64 BC
Mesopotamia. The Phoenicians established
Preceded by Succeeded by
colonies and trading posts across the
Mediterranean; Carthage, a settlement in Canaanites Syria (Roman
Hittite province)
northwest Africa, became a major civilization in
Empire
its own right in the seventh century BC. Egyptian
Empire
The Phoenicians were organized in city-states,
similar to those of ancient Greece, of which the
most notable were Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos.[11] Each city-state was politically independent, and
there is no evidence the Phoenicians viewed themselves as a single nationality.[12] While most
city-states were governed by some form of kingship, merchant families probably exercised
influence through oligarchies. After reaching its zenith in the ninth century BC, the Phoenician
civilization in the eastern Mediterranean gradually declined due to external influences and
conquests. Yet, their presence persisted in the central and western Mediterranean until the
destruction of Carthage in the mid-second century BC.
The Phoenicians were long considered a lost civilization due to the lack of indigenous written
records; Phoenician inscriptions were first discovered by modern scholars in the 17th and 18th
centuries. Only since the mid-20th century have historians and archaeologists been able to
reveal a complex and influential civilization.[13] Their best known legacy is the world's oldest
verified alphabet, whose origin was connected to the Proto-Sinaitic script,[14] and which was
transmitted across the Mediterranean and used to develop the Arabic script and Greek alphabet
and in turn the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets.[15][16] The Phoenicians are also credited with
innovations in shipbuilding, navigation, industry, agriculture, and government. Their
international trade network is believed to have fostered the economic, political, and cultural
foundations of Classical Western civilization.[17][18]
Etymology
Being a society of independent city states, the Phoenicians apparently did not have a term to
denote the land of Phoenicia as a whole;[19] instead, demonyms were often derived from the
name of the city a person hailed from (e.g., Sidonian for Sidon, Tyrian for Tyre, etc.) There is no
evidence that the peoples living in the area denoted as Phoenicia identified as "Phoenicians" or
shared a common identity, although they may have referred to themselves as "Canaanites".[20]
Krahmalkov reconstructs the Honeyman inscription (dated to c. 900 BC by William F. Albright)
as containing a reference to the Phoenician homeland, calling it Pūt (Phoenician: !").[21][22]
Furthermore, as late as the first century BC, a distinction appears to have been made between
'Syrian' and 'Phoenician' people, as evidenced by the epitaph of Meleager of Gadara: 'If you are a
Syrian, Salam! If you are a Phoenician, Naidius! If you are a Greek, Chaire! (Hail), and say the
same yourself.'[23]
Obelisks at Karnak contain references to a "land of fnḫw", fnḫw being the plural form of fnḫ,
the Ancient Egyptian word for 'carpenter'. This "land of carpenters" is generally identified as
Phoenicia, given that Phoenicia played a central role in the lumber trade of the Levant.[24] As an
exonym, fnḫw was evidently borrowed into Greek as φοῖνιξ, phoînix, which meant variably
'Phoenician person', 'Tyrian purple, crimson' or 'date palm'. Homer used it with each of these
meanings.[25] The word is already attested in Linear B script of Mycenaean Greek from the 2nd
millennium BC, as po-ni-ki-jo. In those records, it means 'crimson' or 'palm tree' and does not
denote a group of people.[26] The name Phoenicians, like Latin Poenī (adj. poenicus, later
pūnicus), comes from Greek Φοινίκη, Phoiníkē. According to Krahmalkov, Poenulus, a Latin
comedic play written in the early 2nd century BC, appears to preserve a Punic term for the
Phoenician/Punic language which may be reconstructed as Pōnnīm,[22] a point disputed by
Joseph Naveh, a professor of West Semitic epigraphy and palaeography at the Hebrew
University,[27]
History
Since little has survived of Phoenician records or literature, most of what is known about their
origins and history comes from the accounts of other civilizations and inferences from their
material culture excavated throughout the Mediterranean. The scholarly consensus is that the
Phoenicians' period of greatest prominence was 1200 BC to the end of the Persian period (332
BC).[28]
It is debated among historians and archaeologists whether Phoenicians were actually distinct
from the broader group of Semitic-speaking peoples known as Canaanites.[29][30] Historian
Robert Drews believes the term "Canaanites" corresponds to the ethnic group referred to as
"Phoenicians" by the ancient Greeks;[31] archaeologist Jonathan N. Tubb argues that
"Ammonites, Moabites, Israelites, and Phoenicians undoubtedly achieved their own cultural
identities, and yet ethnically they were all Canaanites", "the same people who settled in farming
villages in the region in the 8th millennium BC".[32] Brian R. Doak states that scholars use
"Phoenicians" as a short-hand for "Canaanites living in a set of cities along the northern
Levantine coast who shared a language and material culture in the Iron I–II period and who
also developed an organized system of colonies in the western Mediterranean world".[33]
The Phoenician Early Bronze Age is largely unknown.[34] The two most important sites are
Byblos and Sidon-Dakerman (near Sidon), although, as of 2021, well over a hundred sites
remain to be excavated, while others that have been are yet to be fully analysed.[34] The Middle
Bronze Age was a generally peaceful time of increasing population, trade, and prosperity,
though there was competition for natural resources.[35] In the Late Bronze Age, rivalry between
Egypt, the Mittani, the Hittites, and Assyria had a significant impact on Phoenician cities.[35]
Origins
The Canaanite culture that gave rise to the Phoenicians apparently developed in situ from the
earlier Ghassulian chalcolithic culture. The Ghassulian culture itself developed from the
Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex, which in turn developed from a fusion of their
ancestral Natufian and Harifian cultures with Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) farming cultures.
These practiced the domestication of animals during the 8.2 kiloyear event, which led to the
Neolithic Revolution in the Levant.[36] The Late Bronze Age state of Ugarit is considered
Canaanite,[37] even though the Ugaritic language does not belong to the Canaanite languages
proper,[38][39] and some of the texts on clay tablets discovered there indicate that the
inhabitants of Ugarit did not consider themselves Canaanites.[40]
The fourth-century BC Greek historian Herodotus claimed that the Phoenicians had migrated
from the Erythraean Sea around 2750 BC and the first-century AD geographer Strabo reports a
claim that they came from Tylos and Arad (Bahrain and Muharraq).[41][42][43][44] Some
archaeologists working on the Persian Gulf have accepted these traditions and suggest a
migration connected with the collapse of the Dilmun civilization c. 1750 BC.[42][43][44] However,
most scholars reject the idea of a migration; archaeological and historical evidence alike
indicate millennia of population continuity in the region, and recent genetic research indicates
that present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a Canaanite-related
population.[45]
Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1479–1200 BC)

The first known account of the Phoenicians relates the conquests of Pharaoh Thutmose III
(1479–1425 BC), including the subjugation of those the Egyptians called Fenekhu
('carpenters').[46] The Egyptians targeted the coastal cities such as Byblos, Arwad, and Ullasa
for their crucial geographic and commercial links with the interior (via the Nahr al-Kabir and
the Orontes rivers). The cities provided Egypt with access to Mesopotamian trade and abundant
stocks of the region's native cedarwood, of which there was no equivalent in the Egyptian
homeland. [47] Thutmose IV himself visited Sidon, where the purchase of lumber from Lebanon
was arranged.[48]
By the mid-14th century BC, the Phoenician city-states were considered "favored cities" by the
Egyptians. Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos were regarded as the most important. The
Phoenicians had considerable autonomy, and their cities were reasonably well developed and
prosperous. Byblos was the leading city; it was a center for bronze-making and the primary
terminus of trade routes for precious goods such as tin and lapis lazuli from as far east as
Afghanistan. Sidon and Tyre also commanded the interest of Egyptian governmental
officials,[49] beginning a pattern of commercial rivalry that would span the next millennium.
The Amarna letters report that from 1350 to 1300 BC, neighboring Amorites and Hittites were
capturing Phoenician cities, especially in the north. Egypt subsequently lost its coastal holdings
from Ugarit[50] in northern Syria to Byblos near central Lebanon.
Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC)

Sometime between 1200 and 1150 BC, the Late Bronze Age collapse severely weakened or
destroyed most civilizations in the region, including those of the Egyptians and the Hittites. The
Phoenicians were able to survive and navigate the challenges of the crisis, and by 1230 BC city-
states such as Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos maintained political independence, asserted their
maritime interests, and enjoyed economic prosperity. The period sometimes described as a
"Phoenician renaissance" had begun, and by the end of the 11th century BC, an alliance formed
between Tyre and Israel had created a new geopolitical status quo in the Levant. Commercial
maritime activity now involved not just mercantilism, but colonization as well, and Phoenician
expansion into the Mediterranean was well under way.[51] The Phoenician city-states during
this time were Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, Aradus, Beirut, and Tripoli. They filled the power vacuum
caused by the Late Bronze Age collapse and created a vast mercantile network.[29]
The recovery of the Mediterranean economy can be credited to Phoenician mariners and
merchants, who re-established long-distance trade between Egypt and Mesopotamia in the 10th
century BC.[52]
Early in the Iron Age, the Phoenicians established ports, warehouses, markets, and settlements
all across the Mediterranean and up to the southern Black Sea. Colonies were established on
Cyprus, Sardinia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, and Malta, as well as the coasts of North Africa
and the Iberian Peninsula.[53] Phoenician hacksilver dated to this period bears lead isotope
ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain, indicating the extent of Phoenician trade
networks.[54]
By the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the richest and most powerful Phoenician city-
state, particularly during the reign of Hiram I (c. 969–936 BC). The expertise of Phoenician
artisans sent by Hiram I of Tyre in significant construction projects during the reign of
Solomon, the King of Israel, is alluded to in the Hebrew Bible,[7] although the reliability of this
biblical history is dismissed by scientific researchers in modern times.[55]
During the rule of the priest Ithobaal (887–856 BC), Tyre expanded its territory as far north as
Beirut and into part of Cyprus; this unusual act of aggression was the closest the Phoenicians
ever came to forming a unitary territorial state. Once his realm reached its largest territorial
extent, Ithobaal declared himself "King of the Sidonians", a title that would be used by his
successors and mentioned in both Greek and Jewish accounts.[56]
The Late Iron Age saw the height of Phoenician shipping, mercantile, and cultural activity,
particularly between 750 and 650 BC. The Phoenician influence was visible in the
"orientalization" of Greek cultural and artistic conventions.[29] Among their most popular goods
were fine textiles, typically dyed with Tyrian purple. Homer's Iliad, which was composed during
this period, references the quality of Phoenician clothing and metal goods.[29]
Foundation of Carthage
Carthage was founded by Phoenicians coming from Tyre, probably to provide an anchorage and
supplies to the Tyrian merchants in their voyages.[57] The city's name in Punic, Qart-Ḥadašt
(!#$% !'(), means 'New City'.[58] There is a tradition in some ancient sources, such as
Philistos of Syracuse, for an "early" foundation date of around 1215 BC—before the fall of Troy
in 1180 BC. However, Timaeus, a Greek historian from Sicily c. 300 BC, places the foundation of
Carthage in 814 BC, which is the date generally accepted by modern historians.[59] Legend,
including Virgil's Aeneid, assigns the founding of the city to Queen Dido. Carthage would grow
into a multi-ethnic empire spanning North Africa, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, the Balearic Islands,
and southern Iberia, but would ultimately be destroyed by Rome in the Punic Wars (264–146
BC). It was eventually rebuilt as a Roman city by Julius Caesar in the period from 49 to 44 BC,
with the official name Colonia Iulia Concordia Carthago.[60]
Vassalage under the Assyrians and Babylonians (858–538 BC)

As mercantile city-states concentrated along a narrow
coastal strip of land, the Phoenicians lacked the size and
population to support a large military. Thus, as neighboring
empires began to rise, the Phoenicians increasingly fell
under the sway of foreign rulers, who to varying degrees
circumscribed their autonomy.[61]
The Assyrian domination of Phoenicia began with King

Shalmaneser III. He rose to power in 858 BC and began a Two bronze fragments from an
Assyrian palace gate depicting the
series of campaigns against neighboring states. Although he
collection of tribute from the
did not invade Phoenicia and maintained good relations Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon
with the Phoenician cities,[62] he demanded tribute from the (859–824 BC). British Museum.
"kings of the seacoast", a group which probably included the
Phoenician city-states.[63] According to Aubet, Tyre, Sidon,
Arwad and Byblos paid tribute in bronze and bronze vessels, tin, silver, gold, ebony and
ivory.[62] Initially, they were not annexed outright—they were allowed a certain degree of
freedom.[64] This changed in 744 BC with the ascension of Tiglath-Pileser III. By 738 BC, most
of the Levant, including northern Phoenicia, were annexed;[65][66] only Tyre and Byblos, the
most powerful city-states, remained tributary states outside of direct Assyrian control.[67]
Tyre, Byblos, and Sidon all rebelled against Assyrian rule. In 721 BC, Sargon II besieged Tyre
and crushed the rebellion. His successor Sennacherib suppressed further rebellions across the
region. During the seventh century BC, Sidon rebelled and was destroyed by Esarhaddon, who
enslaved its inhabitants and built a new city on its ruins. By the end of the century, the
Assyrians had been weakened by successive revolts, which led to their destruction by the
Median Empire.
The Babylonians, formerly vassals of the Assyrians, took advantage of the empire's collapse and
rebelled, quickly establishing the Neo-Babylonian Empire in its place. Phoenician cities revolted
several times throughout the reigns of the first Babylonian King, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC),
and his son Nebuchadnezzar II (c. 605 – c. 562 BC). Nebuchadnezzar besieged Tyre, his siege
commonly having been thought to have lasted thirteen years, although the city was not
destroyed and suffered little damage. The consensus opinion in contemporary Phoenician
historiography is that the thirteen-year siege began soon after the conquest of Jerusalem in 587
BC, and lasted from 585 BC through 573 BC. Among the writings of ancient historians, this
detail about the length of the Nebuchadnezzar II's supposed thirteen-year siege of Tyre in the
early sixth century BC can be found only in Josephus' first century writings, recorded almost
700 years after the date of the purported event. Helen Dixon proposes that the putative
'thirteen-year' siege was more likely several small-scale interventions in the region, or a limited
blockade between the land-side city and its port.[68]
Persian period (539–332 BC)

In 539 BC, Cyrus the Great, king and founder of the Persian
Achaemenid Empire, took Babylon.[69] As Cyrus began
consolidating territories across the Near East, the
Phoenicians apparently made the pragmatic calculation of "
[yielding] themselves to the Persians".[70] Most of the
Levant was consolidated by Cyrus into a single satrapy
(province) and forced to pay a yearly tribute of 350 talents,
which was roughly half the tribute that was required of Phoenicians build pontoon bridges
Egypt and Libya.[71] for Xerxes I of Persia during the
second Persian invasion of Greece in
The Phoenician area was later divided into four vassal 480 BC (1915 drawing by A. C.
Weatherstone).
kingdoms—Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, and Byblos—which were
allowed considerable autonomy. Unlike in other areas of the
empire, there is no record of Persian administrators governing the Phoenician city-states. Local
Phoenician kings were allowed to remain in power and given the same rights as Persian satraps
(governors), such as hereditary offices and minting their coins.[69][72]
The Phoenicians remained a core asset to the Achaemenid Empire, particularly for their
prowess in maritime technology and navigation;[69] they furnished the bulk of the Persian fleet
during the Greco-Persian Wars of the late fifth century BC.[73] Phoenicians under Xerxes I built
the Xerxes Canal and the pontoon bridges that allowed his forces to cross into mainland
Greece.[74] Nevertheless, they were harshly punished by the Persian King following his defeat at
the Battle of Salamis, which he blamed on Phoenician cowardice and incompetence.[75]
In the mid-fourth century BC, King Tennes of Sidon led a

failed rebellion against Artaxerxes III, enlisting the help of
the Egyptians, who were subsequently drawn into a war
with the Persians.[76] The resulting destruction of Sidon led
to the resurgence of Tyre, which remained the dominant
Phoenician city for two decades until the arrival of Achaemenid-era coin of Abdashtart I
Alexander the Great.
of Sidon, who is seen at the back of
the chariot, behind the Persian King
Hellenistic period (332–152 BC)
Phoenicia was one of the first areas to be conquered by Alexander the Great during his military
campaigns across western Asia. Alexander's main target in the Persian Levant was Tyre, now
the region's largest and most important city. It capitulated after a roughly seven month siege,
during which some of its non-combatant citizens were sent to Carthage.[77] Tyre's refusal to
allow Alexander to visit its temple to Melqart, culminating in the killing of his envoys, led to a
brutal reprisal: 2,000 of its leading citizens were crucified and a puppet ruler was installed. The
rest of Phoenicia easily came under his control, with Sidon surrendering peacefully.[78]
Alexander's empire had a Hellenization policy, whereby

Hellenic culture, religion, and sometimes language were
spread or imposed across conquered peoples. However,
Hellenisation was not enforced most of the time and was
just a language of administration until his death. This was
typically implemented in other lands through the founding
of new cities, the settlement of a Macedonian or Greek
urban elite, and the alteration of native place names to
Greek. However, there was no organized Hellenization in
Phoenicia, and with one or two minor exceptions, all
Phoenician city-states retained their native names, while
Greek settlement and administration appear to have been
very limited.[79]
The Phoenicians maintained cultural and commercial links

with their western counterparts. Polybius recounts how the
Seleucid King Demetrius I escaped from Rome by boarding A naval action during Alexander the
a Carthaginian ship that was delivering goods to Tyre.[77] Great's Siege of Tyre (332 BC).
Drawing by André Castaigne, 1888–
The adaptation to Macedonian rule was probably aided by 89.
the Phoenicians' historical ties with the Greeks, with whom
they shared some mythological stories and figures; the two
peoples were even sometimes considered "relatives".
When Alexander's empire collapsed after his death in 323 BC, the Phoenicians came under the
control of the largest of its successors, the Seleucids. The Phoenician homeland was repeatedly
contested by the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt during the forty-year Syrian Wars, coming under
Ptolemaic rule in the third century BC. The Seleucids reclaimed the area the following century,
holding it until the mid-first 2nd century BC. Under their rule, the Phoenicians were allowed a
considerable degree of autonomy and self-governance.
During the Seleucid Dynastic Wars (157–63 BC), the Phoenician cities were mainly self-
governed. Many of them were fought for or over by the warring factions of the Seleucid royal
family. Some Phoenician regions were under Jewish influence, after the Jews revolted and
succeeded in defeating the Seleucids in 164 BC. A significant portion of the Phoenician diaspora
in North Africa thus converted to Judaism in the late millennium BC.[80][81][82] The Seleucid
Kingdom was seized by Tigranes the Great of Armenia in 74/73 BC, ending the Hellenistic
influence on the Levant.[83][84]
Demographics
The people now known as Phoenicians were a group of ancient Semitic-speaking peoples that
emerged in the Levant in at least the third millennium BC.[29] Phoenicians did not refer
themselves as "Phoenicians" but rather are thought to have broadly referred to themselves as
"Kenaʿani", meaning 'Canaanites'. Phoenicians identified themselves specifically with the name
of the city they hailed from (e.g., Sidonian for Sidon, Tyrian for Tyre, etc.).
Genetic studies
A 2008 study led by Pierre Zalloua found that six subclades
of Haplogroup J-M172 (J2)—thought to have originated
between the Caucasus Mountains, Mesopotamia and the
Levant—were of a "Phoenician signature" and present
amongst the male populations of coastal Lebanon as well as
the wider Levant (the "Phoenician Periphery"), followed by
other areas of historic Phoenician settlement, spanning Skull of King Tabnit of Sidon (reigned
Cyprus through to Morocco. This deliberate sequential c. 549 BC – c. 539 BC), now in the
Istanbul Archaeology Museums
sampling was an attempt to develop a methodology to link
the documented historical expansion of a population with a
particular geographic genetic pattern or patterns. The researchers suggested that the proposed
genetic signature stemmed from "a common source of related lineages rooted in Lebanon".[85]
Another study in 2006 found evidence for the genetic persistence of Phoenicians in the Spanish
island of Ibiza.[86]
In 2016, the rare U5b2c1 maternal haplogroup was identified in the DNA of a 2,500-year-old
male skeleton excavated from a Punic tomb in Tunisia. The lineage of this "Young Man of
Byrsa" is believed to represent early gene flow from Iberia to the Maghreb.[87]
According to a 2017 study published by the American Journal of Human Genetics, present-day
Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a Canaanite-related population, which therefore
implies substantial genetic continuity in the Levant since at least the Bronze Age.[88][89] More
specifically, the research of geneticist Chris Tyler-Smith and his team at the Sanger Institute in
Britain, who compared "sampled ancient DNA from five Canaanite people who lived 3,750 and
3,650 years ago" to modern people, revealed that 93 percent of the genetic ancestry of people in
Lebanon came from the Canaanites (the other 7 percent was of a Eurasian steppe
population).[89]
One 2018 study of mitochondrial lineages in Sardinia concluded that the Phoenicians were
"inclusive, multicultural and featured significant female mobility", with evidence of indigenous
Sardinians integrating "peacefully and permanently" with Semitic Phoenician settlers. The
study also found evidence suggesting that south Europeans may have likewise settled in the area
of modern Lebanon.[90]
In a 2020 study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, researchers have shown
that there is substantial genetic continuity in Lebanon since the Bronze Age interrupted by three
significant admixture events during the Iron Age, Hellenistic, and Ottoman period. In
particular, the Phoenicians can be modeled as a mixture of the local Bronze Age population
(63–88%) and a population coming from the North, related to ancient Anatolians or ancient
South-Eastern Europeans (12–37%). The results show that a Steppe-like ancestry, typically
found in Europeans, appears in the region starting from the Iron Age.[91]
Economy
Trade
The Phoenicians served as intermediaries between the
disparate civilizations that spanned the Mediterranean and
Near East, facilitating the exchange of goods and knowledge,
culture, and religious traditions. Their expansive and
enduring trade network is credited with laying the
foundations of an economically and culturally cohesive Major Phoenician trade networks
Mediterranean, which would be continued by the Greeks (c. 1200–800 BC)
and especially the Romans.[52]
Phoenician ties with the Greeks ran deep. The earliest verified relationship appears to have
begun with the Minoan civilization on Crete (1950–1450 BC), which together with the
Mycenaean civilization (1600–1100 BC) is considered the progenitor of classical Greece.[92]
Archaeological research suggests that the Minoans gradually imported Near Eastern goods,
artistic styles, and customs from other cultures via the Phoenicians.
To Egypt the Phoenicians sold logs of cedar for significant

sums,[93] and wine beginning in the eighth century. The
wine trade with Egypt is vividly documented by shipwrecks
discovered in 1997 in the open sea 50 kilometres (30 mi)
west of Ascalon, Israel.[94] Pottery kilns at Tyre and Sarepta
produced the large terracotta jars used for transporting
wine. From Egypt, the Phoenicians bought Nubian gold.
From elsewhere, they obtained other materials, perhaps the

most crucial being silver, mostly from Sardinia and the
Iberian Peninsula. Tin for making bronze "may have been
acquired from Galicia by way of the Atlantic coast of
southern Spain; alternatively, it may have come from
northern Europe (Cornwall or Brittany) via the Rhone valley
Phoenician faces. Glass from Olbia,
and coastal Massalia".[97] Strabo states that there was a 4th century BC. The bold pools of
highly lucrative Phoenician trade with Britain for tin via the color and detailed hair give a Greek
Cassiterides, whose location is unknown but may have been impression.
off the northwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula.[98]
Industry
Phoenicia lacked considerable natural resources other than
its cedar wood. Timber was probably the earliest and most
lucrative source of wealth; neither Egypt nor Mesopotamia
had adequate wood sources. Unable to rely solely on this
limited resource, the Phoenicians developed an industrial
base manufacturing a variety of goods for both everyday and
luxury use.[29] The Phoenicians developed or mastered Phoenician sarcophagi found in
Cádiz, Spain, thought to have been
techniques such as glass-making, engraved and chased
imported from the Phoenician
metalwork (including bronze, iron, and gold), ivory carving,
homeland around Sidon.[95][96]
and woodwork.[99] Archaeological Museum of Cádiz.
The Phoenicians were early pioneers in mass production,

and sold a variety of items in bulk. They set up trade networks to market their glassware and
became its leading source in antiquity, shipping flasks, beads, and other glass objects across the
Mediterranean in their vessels.[100] Excavations of colonies in Spain suggest they also used the
potter's wheel.[101] Their exposure to a wide variety of cultures allowed them to manufacture
goods for specific markets.[99] The Iliad suggests Phoenician clothing and metal goods were
highly prized by the Greeks.[29] Specialized goods were designed specifically for wealthier
clientele, including ivory reliefs and plaques, carved clam shells, sculpted amber, and finely
detailed and painted ostrich eggs.
Tyrian purple
The most prized Phoenician goods were fabrics dyed with
Tyrian purple, which formed a major part of Phoenician
wealth. The violet-purple dye derived from the
hypobranchial gland of the Murex marine snail, once
profusely available in coastal waters of the eastern
Mediterranean Sea but now exploited to local extinction.
Phoenicians may have discovered the dye as early as 1750
BC.[102] The Phoenicians established a second production
center for the dye in Mogador, in present-day Morocco.[103]
The Phoenicians' exclusive command over the production

and trade of the dye, combined with the labor-intensive
extraction process, made it very expensive. Tyrian purple
subsequently became associated with the upper classes. It
soon became a status symbol in several civilizations, most
notably among the Romans. Assyrian tribute records from
the Phoenicians include "garments of brightly colored stuff"
that most likely included Tyrian purple. While the designs,
ornamentation, and embroidery used in Phoenician textiles
were well-regarded, the techniques and specific descriptions
are unknown.[99]
Phoenician metal bowl with hunting
scene (8th century BC). The clothing
Mining and hairstyle of the figures are
Egyptian. At the same time, the
Mining operations in the Phoenician homeland were subject matter of the central scene
limited; iron was the only metal of any worth. The first conforms with the Mesopotamian
large-scale mining operations by Phoenicians probably theme of combat between man and
occurred in Cyprus, principally for copper. Sardinia may beast. Phoenician artisans frequently
have been colonized almost exclusively for its mineral adapted the styles of neighboring
cultures.
resources; Phoenician settlements were concentrated in the
southern parts of the island, close to sources of copper and
lead. Piles of scoria and copper ingots, which appear to predate Roman occupation, suggest the
Phoenicians mined and processed metals on the island. The Iberian Peninsula was the richest
source of numerous metals in antiquity, including gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead.[104]
The output of silver during the Phoenician and Carthaginian occupation there was
enormous.[105] The Carthaginians relied on slave labor almost exclusively in their mining
operations, and according to Rawlinson, because they likely continued the established practices
of their predecessors in Iberia, the Phoenicians themselves probably also used slave labor.[106]
Viticulture
The most notable agricultural product was wine, which the

Phoenicians helped propagate across the Mediterranean.[107] The
common grape vine may have been domesticated by the Phoenicians
or Canaanites, although it most likely arrived from Transcaucasia via
trade routes across Mesopotamia or the Black Sea. Vines grew readily
in the coastal Levant, and wine was exported to Egypt as early as the
Old Kingdom period (2686–2134 BC). Wine played an important part
in Phoenician religion, serving as the principal beverage for offerings
and sacrifice.[107] An excavation of a small Phoenician town south of
Sidon uncovered a wine factory used from at least the seventh century
BC, which is believed to have been aimed for an overseas market.[107]
To prevent oxidation of their contents, amphorae were sealed with a
disk plug made of pinewood and a mixture of resin and clay.[108]
The Phoenicians established vineyards and wineries in their colonies

in North Africa, Sicily, France, and Spain,[107] and may have taught
winemaking to some of their trading partners. The ancient Iberians
began producing wine from local grape varieties following their
encounter with the Phoenicians. Iberian cultivars subsequently
formed the basis of most western European wine.[109]
Shipbuilding
As early as 1200 BCE, texts from Ugarit suggest that Canaanite
merchant ships were capable of carrying cargoes weighing up to 450
An Etruscan tomb (c. 350
tons. During the first millennium BCE, the cargo capacity of
BC) depicting a man
Phoenician merchant ships ranged between 100 and 500 tons.[110] wearing an all-purple
The Phoenicians pioneered the use of locked mortise and tenon joints, toga picta
known as Phoenician joints, to secure the planking of ship hulls
underwater.[111][112] This method involved cutting mortises into
adjoining planks and inserting wooden tenons to join them, which were then secured with
dowels. Examples of this technique include the Uluburun shipwreck (c. 1320 BCE)[113][114] and
the Cape Gelidonya shipwreck (c. 1200 BCE).[115][116] The innovation spread across the
Mediterranean and influenced Greek and Roman shipbuilding,[117][118] with the Romans
referring to it as coagmenta punicana.[119][120]
The Phoenicians were possibly the first to introduce the bireme. Fernand Braudel cites the bas-
relief carvings on the walls of the palace of Nineveh which depict the Tyrian fleet fleeing the port
of Tyre before the city was attacked by Sennacherib c. 700 BC. The Phoenicians sailed their
biremes close to shore and only in fair weather.[121] They have also been credited with
developing the trireme by scholars such as Lucien Basch. Referring to archaeological evidence
of ships depicted in the Nineveh relief, cylinder seals, and Phoenician coins, he argues that the
trireme was invented in Sidon around 700 BC and later adopted by the Greeks.[122] The
classicist J. S. Morrison, a student of the trireme, quotes

Thucydides' statement that triereis, or triemes, were said to
have been built first at Corinth in Greece. Although he
allows that Phoenicians of 701 BC were credited by the
sculptor of the Nineveh relief with one type of the vessel,
interpreted by Morrison as having three banks of oarsmen
on each side in three tiers with the uppermost tier
unmanned,[123] he argues that there is no good reason why
Thucydides' account should not be believed.[124] The trieme Mortise and tenon joinery in the
was regarded as the most advanced vessel in the ancient Mazarron 1 Phoenician shipwreck.
Mediterranean world.[125] Phoenicians pioneered the pegged
mortise and tenon joinery, which
The Phoenicians developed several other maritime came to be known as Phoenician
inventions. The amphora, a type of container used for both joints
dry and liquid goods, was an

ancient Phoenician invention that
became a standardized
measurement of volume for close
to two thousand years. The
remnants of self-cleaning
artificial harbors have been
discovered in Sidon, Tyre, Atlit,
and Acre.[126] The first example
Warship with two rows of oars, in The Timber Transportation relief
of admiralty law also appears in relief from Nineveh (c. 700 BC) at the Louvre
the Levant.[127] The Phoenicians
Two Assyrian representations of ships, which could represent
continued to contribute to
Phoenician vessels
cartography into the Iron
Age.[128]
In 2014, a 12 metres (39 ft) long Phoenician trading ship was found near Gozo island in Malta.
Dated 700 BC, it is one of the oldest wrecks found in the Mediterranean. Fifty amphorae, used
to contain wine and oil, were scattered nearby.[129][130][131]
Important cities and colonies

The Phoenicians were not a nation in the political sense. However, they were organized into
independent city-states that shared a common language and culture. The leading city-states
were Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos. Rivalries were expected, but armed conflict was rare.
Numerous other cities existed in the Levant alone, many probably unknown, including Beiruta
(modern Beirut) Ampi, Amia, Arqa, Baalbek, Botrys, Sarepta, and Tripolis. From the late tenth
century BC, the Phoenicians established commercial outposts throughout the Mediterranean,
with Tyre founding colonies in Cyprus, Sardinia, Iberia, the

Balearic Islands, Sicily, Malta, and North Africa. Later
colonies were established beyond the Straits of Gibraltar,
particularly on the Atlantic coast of Iberia. The Phoenicians
may have explored the Canary Islands and the British
Isles.[29] Phoenician settlement was primarily concentrated
in Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, northwest Africa, the
Map of Phoenician (yellow labels)
Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia. and Greek (red labels) colonies
around 8th to 6th century BC (with
German legend)
Phoenician colonization
To facilitate their commercial ventures, the Phoenicians
established numerous colonies and trading posts along the
coasts of the Mediterranean. Phoenician city states generally
lacked the numbers or even the desire to expand their
territory overseas. Few colonies had more than 1,000
inhabitants; only Carthage and some nearby settlements in
the western Mediterranean would grow larger.[132] A major
motivating factor was competition with the Greeks, who
began expanding across the Mediterranean during the same Ruins of the ancient Phoenician city
period.[133] Though largely peaceful rivals, their respective of Motya, Sicily, present-day Italy
settlements in Crete and Sicily did clash intermittently.[134]
The earliest Phoenician settlements outside the Levant were on Cyprus and Crete, gradually
moving westward towards Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, and Sicily, as well as on the
European mainland in Cádiz and Málaga.[135] The first Phoenician colonies in the western
Mediterranean were along the northwest African coast and on Sicily, Sardinia and the Balearic
Islands.[136] Tyre led the way in settling or controlling coastal areas.[137]
Phoenician colonies were fairly autonomous. At most, they were expected to send annual tribute
to their mother city, usually in the context of a religious offering. However, in the seventh
century BC the western colonies came under the control of Carthage,[138][139] which was
exercised directly through appointed magistrates.[140] Carthage continued to send annual
tribute to Tyre for some time after its independence.
Society and culture

Since very little of the Phoenicians' writings have survived, much of what is known about their
culture and society comes from accounts by contemporary civilizations or inferences from
archaeological discoveries. The Phoenicians had much in common with other Canaanites,
including language, religion, social customs, and a monarchical political system centered
around city-states. Their culture, economy, and daily life were heavily centered on commerce
and maritime trade. Their propensity for seafaring brought them into contact with many other
civilizations.[141]
Politics and government

The Phoenician city-states were highly independent,
competing with each other. Formal alliances between city-
states were rare. The relative power and influence of city-
states varied over time. Sidon was dominant between the
12th and 11th centuries BC and influenced its neighbors.
However, by the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the
most powerful city.
Tomb of King Hiram I of Tyre, located
At least in its earlier stages, Phoenician society was highly
in the village of Hanaouay, in
stratified and predominantly monarchical. Hereditary kings southern Lebanon
usually governed with absolute power over civic,
commercial, and religious affairs. They often relied upon
senior officials from the noble and merchant classes; the priesthood was a distinct class, usually
of royal lineage or leading merchant families. The King was considered a representative of the
gods and carried many obligations and duties concerning religious processions and rituals.
Priests were thus highly influential and often became intertwined with the royal family.
Phoenician kings did not commemorate their reign through sculptures or monuments. Their
wealth, power, and accomplishments were usually conveyed through ornate sarcophagi, like
that of Ahiram of Byblos. The Phoenicians kept records of their rulers in tomb inscriptions,
which are among the few primary sources still available. Historians have determined a clear line
of succession over centuries for some city-states, notably Byblos and Tyre.
Starting as early as 15th century BC, Phoenician leaders were "advised by councils or assemblies
which gradually took greater power".[78] In the sixth century BC, during the period of
Babylonian rule, Tyre briefly adopted a system of government consisting of a pair of judges with
authority roughly equivalent to the Roman consul, known as sufetes (shophets), who were
chosen from the most powerful noble families and served short terms.[142][78]
In the fourth century BC, when the armies of Alexander the Great approached Tyre, they were
met not by its King but by representatives of the commonwealth of the city. Similarly, historians
at the time describe the "inhabitants" or "the people" of Sidon making peace with Alexander.[78]
When the Macedonians sought to appoint a new king over Sidon, the citizens nominated their
candidate.[78]
Law and administration
After the King and council, the two most important political
positions in virtually every Phoenician city-state were
governor and commander of the army. Details regarding the
duties of these offices are sparse. However, it is known that
the governor was responsible for collecting taxes,
implementing decrees, supervising judges, and ensuring the
administration of law and justice. As warfare was rare
among the most mercantile Phoenicians, the army's
commander was generally responsible for ensuring the 19th-century depiction of Phoenician
defense and security of the city-state and its hinterlands. sailors and merchants. The
importance of trade to the
The Phoenicians had a system of courts and judges that Phoenician economy led to a gradual
resolved disputes and punished crimes based on a semi- sharing of power between the King
codified body of laws and traditions. Laws were and assemblies of merchant families.
implemented by the state and were the responsibility of the
ruler and certain designated officials. Like other Levantine
societies, laws were harsh and biased, reflecting the social
stratification of society. The murder of a commoner was
treated as less severe than that of a nobleman, and the upper
classes had the most rights; the wealthy often escaped
punishment by paying a fine. Free men of any class could
represent themselves in court and had more rights than
women and children, while slaves had no rights. Men could
Stela from Tyre with Phoenician
often deflect punishment to their wives, children, or slaves,
inscriptions (c. 4th century BC).
even having them serve their sentence in their place. National Museum of Beirut.
Lawyers eventually emerged as a profession for those who
could not plead their case.
As in neighboring societies at the time, penalties for crimes were often severe, usually reflecting
the principle of reciprocity; for example, the killing of a slave would be punished by having the
offender's slave killed. Imprisonment was rare, with fines, exile, punishment, and execution the
main remedies.
Military
As with most aspects of Phoenician civilization, there are few records of their military or
approach to warfare. Compared to most of their neighbors, the Phoenicians generally had little
interest in conquest and were relatively peaceful.[143] The wealth and prosperity of all their city-
states rested on foreign trade, which required good relations and a certain degree of mutual
trust. They also lacked the territory and agricultural base to support a population large enough
to raise an army of conquest. Instead, each city had an army commander in charge of a
defensive garrison. However, the specifics of the role, or city defense, are unknown.
Language
The Phoenician language was a member of the Canaanite branch of the Northwest Semitic
languages. Its descendant language spoken in the Carthaginian Empire is termed Punic. Punic
was still spoken in the fifth century AD and known to St. Augustine of Hippo.
Alphabet
Around 1050 BC,[39] the Phoenicians developed a script for
writing their own language. The Canaanite-Phoenician
alphabet consists of 22 letters, all consonants (and is thus
strictly an abjad).[144] It is believed to be a continuation of
the Proto-Sinaitic (or Proto-Canaanite) script attested in the
Sinai and in Canaan in the Late Bronze Age.[145][146]
Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the
use of the alphabet to Anatolia, North Africa, and Sarcophagus of Ahiram, which bears
Europe.[29][147] The name Phoenician is by convention the oldest inscription of the
given to inscriptions beginning around 1050 BC, because Phoenician alphabet. National
Phoenician, Hebrew, and other Canaanite dialects were Museum of Beirut.
largely indistinguishable before that time.[39][15] Phoenician

inscriptions are found in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Cyprus and other locations, as late as
the early centuries of the Christian era.
The alphabet was adopted and modified by the Greeks probably in the eighth century BC. This
most likely did not occur in a single instance but the process of commercial exchange.[148]
According to Alessandro Pierattini, the Apollo sanctuary at Eretria is considered one of the
places where the Greeks might have first adopted the Phoenician alphabet.[149] The legendary
Phoenician hero Cadmus is credited with bringing the alphabet to Greece, but it is more
plausible that Phoenician immigrants brought it to Crete,[150] whence it gradually diffused
northwards.
Art
Phoenician art was largely centered on ornamental objects, particularly jewelry, pottery,
glassware, and reliefs. Large sculptures were rare; figurines were more common. Phoenician
goods have been found from Spain and Morocco to Russia and Iraq; much of what is known
about Phoenician art is based on excavations outside Phoenicia proper. Phoenician art was
highly influenced by many cultures, primarily Egypt, Greece, and Assyria. Greek inspiration was
particularly pronounced in pottery, while Egyptian themes were most reflected in bronze and
ivory work.[151]
Phoenician art also differed from its contemporaries in its continuance of Bronze Age
conventions well into the Iron Age, such as terracotta masks.[152] Phoenician artisans were
known for their skill with wood, ivory, bronze, and textiles.[153] In the Old Testament, a
craftsman from Tyre is commissioned to build and decorate the legendary Solomon's Temple in
Jerusalem, which "presupposes a well-developed and highly respected craft industry in
Phoenicia by the mid-tenth century BC".[152] The Iliad mentions the embroidered robes of
Priam's wife, Hecabe, as "the work of Sidonian women" and describes a mixing bowl of chased
silver as "a masterpiece of Sidonian craftsmanship".[154][155] The Assyrians appeared to have
valued Phoenician ivory work in particular, collecting vast quantities in their palaces.[156]
Phoenician art appears to have been indelibly tied to Phoenician commercial interests.[99] They
have crafted goods to appeal to particular trading partners, distinguishing not only different
cultures but even socioeconomic status classes.[99]
Decorative plaque which Oinochoe; 800–700 BC; Face bead; mid-4th–3rd

depicts a fighting of man and terracotta; height: 24.1 cm; century BC; glass; height:
griffin; 900–800 BC; Nimrud Metropolitan Museum of Art 2.7 cm; Metropolitan
ivories; Cleveland Museum of (New York City, US) Museum of Art
Art (Ohio, US)
Earring from a pair, each with

four relief faces; late fourth–
3rd century BC; gold; overall:
3.5 x 0.6 cm; Metropolitan
Museum of Art
Women
Women in Phoenicia took part in public events and religious
processions, with depictions of banquets showing them
casually sitting or reclining with men, dancing, and playing
music.[157] In most contexts, women were expected to dress
and behave more modestly than men; female figures are
almost always portrayed as clothed from head to feet, with
the arms sometimes covered as well.
Although they rarely had political power, women took part Female figurines from Tyre
in community affairs, including in the popular assemblies (c. 1000–550 BC). National Museum
that emerged in some city-states.[158] At least one woman, of Beirut.
Unmiashtart, is recorded to have ruled Sidon in the fifth

century BC. The two most famous Phoenician women are political figures: Jezebel, portrayed in
the Bible as the wicked princess of Sidon, and Dido, the semi-legendary founder and first queen
of Carthage. In Virgil's epic poem, the Aeneid, Dido is described as having been the co-ruler of
Tyre, using cleverness to escape the tyranny of her brother Pygmalion and to secure an ideal site
for Carthage.
Religion
The religious practices and beliefs of Phoenicians were generally common to those of their
neighbors in Canaan, which in turn shared characteristics common throughout the ancient
Semitic world.[159][160] Religious rites were primarily for city-state purposes; payment of taxes
by citizens was considered in the category of religious sacrifices.[161] The Phoenician sacred
writings known to the ancients have been lost.[162]
Several Canaanite practices are alleged in ancient sources and mentioned by scholars, such as
temple prostitution[163] and child sacrifice.[164] Special sites known as "Tophets" were allegedly
used by the Phoenicians "to burn their sons and their daughters in the fire", and are condemned
in the Hebrew Bible, particularly in Jeremiah 7:30–32, and in 2nd Kings 23:10 and 17:17.
Notwithstanding differences, cultural and religious similarities persisted between the ancient
Hebrews and the Phoenicians. [165] Biblical traditions state that the Tribe of Asher lived
amongst local Phoenicians,[166][167] and that David and Solomon gave Phoenicia full political
autonomy due to their supremacy in shipping and trade.[168]
Canaanite religious mythology does not appear as elaborate as their Semitic cousins in
Mesopotamia. In Canaan the supreme god was called El ()*, 'god').[169] The son of El was Baal
()+,, 'master', 'lord'), a powerful dying-and-rising thunder god.[170] Other gods were called by
royal titles, such as Melqart, meaning 'king of the city',[171] or Adonis for 'lord'.[172] Such
epithets may often have been merely local titles for the same deities.[173]
The Semitic pantheon was well-populated; which god

became primary evidently depended on the exigencies of a
particular city-state.[174][175] Melqart was prominent
throughout Phoenicia and overseas, as was Astarte, a
fertility goddess with regal and matronly aspects.
Religious institutions in Tyre called marzeh (-.'/, 'place

of reunion'), did much to foster social bonding and "kin"
loyalty. Marzeh held banquets for their membership on
festival days, and many developed into elite fraternities.
Each marzeh nurtured congeniality and community through
a series of ritual meals shared among trusted kin in honor of
deified ancestors.[176] In Carthage, which had developed a
complex republican system of government, the marzeh may
have played a role in forging social and political ties among
citizens; Carthaginians were divided into different
institutions that were solidified through communal feasts
and banquets. Such festival groups may also have composed
the voting cohort for selecting members of the city-state's
Assembly.[177][178]
Figure of Ba'al with raised arm, 14th–
The Phoenicians made votive offerings to their gods, namely 12th century BC, found at ancient
[179]
in the form of figurines and pottery vessels. Figurines Ugarit (Ras Shamra site), a city at
and votive fragments have been found in ceremonial the far north of the Phoenician coast.
favissae, underground storage spaces for sacred objects, in Musée du Louvre.
the temples grounds of the Temple of the Obelisks in
Byblos,[180] the Phoenician sanctuary of Kharayeb in the hinterland of Tyre,[181] and the Temple
of Eshmun north of Sidon,[182] among others. Votive gifts were also recovered all over the
Mediterranean, often spanning centuries between them, suggesting they were cast into the sea
to ensure safe travels.[179] Since the Phoenicians were predominantly a seafaring people, some
sources have speculated that many of their rituals were performed at sea or aboard ships.
However, the specific nature of these practices is unknown. On land they were renowned temple
builders, perhaps inspiring elements of the architecture of the First Temple, the Temple of
Solomon. According to William G. Dever, an archaeologist and scholar of the Old Testament,
described features of the Solomonic Temple such as its longitudinal tripartite plan, fine
furnishings, and elaborate decorative motifs were clearly inspired by Phoenician examples [183]
Votive deposit from Iron Age terracotta Fourth century BC The Baalshillem
the Temple of the figurines from the votive figurine from Temple Boy, a 5th
Obelisks, a Bronze Phoenician sanctuary the Phoenician century BC royal
Age temple in the of Kharayeb sanctuary of votive gift from the
World Heritage Site of Kharayeb Temple of Eshmun
Byblos
A head of a child, fifth Phoenician prayer to

century BC, from the Isis on papyrus with
Temple of Eshmun illustration, from
Rabat, Malta.
See also
Maronites
Names of the Levant
Phoenicianism
Punic people
Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas
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Further reading
Carayon, Nicolas, Les ports phéniciens et puniques (http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/
28/32/10/PDF/3vol.pdf), PhD Thesis, 2008, Strasbourg, France.
Cioffi, Robert L., "A Palm Tree, a Colour and a Mythical Bird" (review of Josephine Quinn, In
Search of the Phoenicians, Princeton, 2017, 360 pp., ISBN 978 0 691 17527 0), London
Review of Books, vol. 41, no. 1 (3 January 2019), pp. 15–16.
Cross, Frank M. (1973). Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic (https://books.google.com/books
?id=-eOycxXAoHMC). Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674091764.
Thiollet, Jean-Pierre, Je m'appelle Byblos, foreword by Guy Gay-Para, H & D, Paris, 2005,
ISBN 2-914266-04-9.
Todd, Malcolm; Andrew Fleming (1987). The South West to AD 1,000 (Regional history of
England series No.:8). Harlow, Essex: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-49274-5., for a critical
examination of the evidence of Phoenician trade with the South West of the U.K.
Silva, Diógenes. "La literatura sobre fenicios en el territorio brasileño: orígenes y razones",
PhD Thesis, Madrid - 2016. Available in https://eprints.ucm.es/39468/
Soren, David; Khader, Aicha B.; Slim, Hedi (1990). Carthage (https://archive.org/details/cart
hageuncoveri00sore). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9780671669027.
External links
BBC Radio4 – In Our Time: The Phoenicians (audio archive) (https://www.bbc.co.uk/progra
mmes/b03szw8l)
The quest for the Phoenicians in South Lebanon (https://web.archive.org/web/20090110073
346/http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArticleDetails.aspx?ID=69741&MID=123&PID=2)
(archived 10 January 2009)
Phoenician Alphabet (https://www.omniglot.com/writing/phoenician.htm)
Sam Haselby (ed.). "Phoenicia: An imaginary friend to nations in need of ancestors" (https://
aeon.co/essays/phoenicia-an-imaginary-friend-to-nations-in-need-of-ancestors). Josephine
Quinn, associate professor in ancient history at Worcester College, University of Oxford.
Aeon.
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Phoenicia - Wikipedia 31/12/2024, 23:26

facilitated cultural exchanges among major accounts by Dido)

Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1479–1200 BC)

Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC)

Vassalage under the Assyrians and Babylonians (858–538 BC)

The Assyrian domination of Phoenicia began with King

Persian period (539–332 BC)

In the mid-fourth century BC, King Tennes of Sidon led a

Alexander's empire had a Hellenization policy, whereby

The Phoenicians maintained cultural and commercial links

To Egypt the Phoenicians sold logs of cedar for significant

From elsewhere, they obtained other materials, perhaps the

The Phoenicians were early pioneers in mass production,

The Phoenicians' exclusive command over the production

The most notable agricultural product was wine, which the

The Phoenicians established vineyards and wineries in their colonies

classicist J. S. Morrison, a student of the trireme, quotes

dry and liquid goods, was an

Important cities and colonies

with Tyre founding colonies in Cyprus, Sardinia, Iberia, the

settlements in Crete and Sicily did clash intermittently.[134]

Society and culture

Politics and government

Law and administration

largely indistinguishable before that time.[39][15] Phoenician

Decorative plaque which Oinochoe; 800–700 BC; Face bead; mid-4th–3rd

Earring from a pair, each with

Unmiashtart, is recorded to have ruled Sidon in the fifth

The Semitic pantheon was well-populated; which god

Religious institutions in Tyre called marzeh (-.'/, 'place

A head of a child, fifth Phoenician prayer to

27. Naveh, Joseph (2001). "Review of A Phoenician–Punic Grammar (Handbook of Oriental

73. Herodotus, The Histories, V.109 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Her

Lebanese, genetic analysis shows" (https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-

Greek World (https://books.google.com/books?id=yyrao0dadqAC). Infobase Publishing.

stable/1357205). Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (279): 13–26.

181. Khalil & Oggiano 2021, p. 332.

Diplomacy: The Beginnings of International Relations. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6199-4.

uk/en/publications/a-phoenician-past-and-present). Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-

ca.6873). London, England: Elek Books.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&oldid=1265567576"

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