CBCS THIRD SEM GENERAL

UNIT1:NERVE AND MUSCLE:

STRUCTURE OF A NEURON ,RESTING
MEMBRANE POTENTIAL,GRADED
POTENTIAL,ORIGIN OF ACTION POTENTIAL AND
ITS PROPAGATION IN MYELINATED AND NON
MYLINATED NERVE FIBER, ULTRA STRUCTURE OF
SKELETAL MUSCLE, MOLECULAR AND CHEMICAL
BASIS OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

BY: DR. LUNA PHUKAN

The neuron is the basic working unit of the brain, a
specialized cell designed to transmit information to other
nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells.

Neurons are cells within the nervous system that

transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle, or
gland cells. Most neurons have a cell body, an axon,
and dendrites.
 dendrite
Axon terminal

Node of ranvier

soma

Schwann cell

Myelin sheath
nucleus
NEURON STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION
Neurons have four specialized structures that allow for the
sending and receiving of information: the cell body (soma),
dendrites, axon and axon terminals .

Cell body or soma: The cell body is the portion of the cell that
surrounds the nucleus and plays a major role in synthesizing
proteins.

Dendrites: Dendrites are short, branched processes that extend

from the cell body. Dendrites function to receive information, and
do so through numerous receptors located in their membranes
that bind to chemicals, called neurotransmitters.
Axon: An axon is a large process that extends from the cell body
at a point of origin-called the axon hillock-and functions to send
information. In contrast to the shorter dendrites, the axon can
extend for more than a meter. Because of this length, the axon
contains microtubules and is surrounded by myelin. Microtubules
are arranged inside the axon as parallel arrays of long strands
that act as highways for the movement of materials to and from
the soma. potential propagation.
Specialized motor proteins "walk" along the microtubules,
carrying material away from the soma (anterograde transport) or
back to the soma (retrograde transport). This system can move
materials down the axon at rates of 400mm/day (see lowest
figure).
Myelin consists of totally separate cells that coil and wrap their
membranes around the outside of the axon. These are essential
for electrical insulation and to speed up action potential
propagation.
Axon terminals: Once an axon reaches a target, it terminates into
multiple endings, called axon terminals. The axon terminal is
designed to convert the electrical signal into a chemical signal in
a process called synaptic transmission (further explained in the
section "Physiology of the Neuron").

Most neurons are amitotic or lose their ability to divide.

Exceptions to this rule are found in olfactory neurons (those
associated with smell) and hippocampal regions of the brain.
Fortunately, lifespans of amitotic neurons is near 100 years. Still,
if a neuron is damaged or lost, it is not easily replaced. For this
reason, there is usually limited recovery from serious brain or
spinal cord injuries.
Perhaps the slow recovery rate or lack of regeneration is
to ensure that learned behavior and memories are
preserved throughout life. Neurons also have exceptionally
high metabolic rates and subsequently require high levels
of glucose and oxygen.

The body will go to great lengths to ensure that neurons

are adequately fed; in fact, if for some reason the brain
detects that it is not receiving adequate amounts of
nutrition, the body will shut down immediately (i.e., faint).
Classification of Neurons
Structural classification of neurons is based upon the
number of processes that extend out from the cell body.
Three major groups arise from this classification:
multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar neurons.

Multipolar neurons are defined as having three or more

processes that extend out from the cell body. They
comprise of more than 99% of the neurons in humans,
and are the major neuron type found in the CNS and the
efferent division of the PNS
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Structural classification of neurons.
1) Bipolar; 2) Multipolar and 3) Unipolar.

Bipolar neurons have only two processes that extend in opposite

directions from the cell body. One process is called a dendrite,
and another process is called the axon. Although rare, these are
found in the retina of the eye and the olfactory system.
Unipolar neurons have a single, short process that extends from
the cell body and then branches into two more processes that
extend in opposite directions. The process that extends
peripherally is known as the peripheral process and is associated
with sensory reception. The process that extends toward the CNS
is the central process. Unipolar neurons are found primarily in the
afferent division of the PNS.
Functional Classification of Neurons
Neurons are classified functionally according to the direction in
which the signal travels, in relation to the CNS. This classification
also results in three different types of neurons: sensory neurons,
motor neurons, and interneurons.

Sensory neurons, or afferent neurons transmit information from

sensory receptors in the skin, or the internal organs toward the
CNS for processing. Almost all sensory neurons are unipolar.

Motor, or efferent neurons transmit information away from the

CNS toward some type of effector. Motor neurons are typically
multipolar.
Interneurons are located between motor and sensory
pathways and are highly involved in signal integration. The
vast majority of interneurons are confined within the CNS.
 RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL,
Resting membrane potentials are maintained by two
different types of ion channels: the sodium-potassium
pump and the sodium and potassium leak channels.
Firstly, there is a higher concentration of thepotassium
ions inside the cell in comparison to the outside of the
cell.
The resting membrane potential of a neurone is the electrical
potential, or voltage, across the plasma membrane of an
unstimulated nerve cell
It occurs when the net flow of ions across the plasma
membrane equals zero. In humans this is said to be around -70
Mv
This means that the inside of the cell is negatively charged in
comparison to the outside.

Resting membrane potentials are maintained by two different

types of ion channels: the sodium-potassium pump and the
sodium and potassium leak channels
Firstly, there is a higher concentration of thepotassium ions inside the cell
in comparison to the outside of the cell.

This creates an unequal distribution of potassium ions, or more accurately,

a potassium ion gradient is created.

Therefore, following the concentration gradient, the potassium ions will

diffuse from the inside of the cell to outside of the cell via its leaky
channels.
As the potassium ions leave the cell, it increases the number of anions
trapped inside the cell, hence accumulating the negative charges and the
positive charges are accumulated outside of the cell.
Therefore more positively charged ions are being removed from the cell
than are entering it making the inside environment of the cell
comparatively negative to the outside.
The sodium-potassium pump moves three sodium ions out of the cell for
every two potassium ions it moves into the cell continuously. It, therefore,
maintains the large potassium ion gradient across the membrane, which in
turn provided the basis for resting membrane potential.

The negatively charged macromolecules or ions, usually chloride ions,

cannot pass through the plasma membrane as they are too large to be
moved in or out of the cell via the chloride channels. This is due to the
channels being too large and bulky, hence anions remain trapped inside
the cell.

The resting membrane potential can be measured by placing one

microelectrode inside the cell and another outside the cell. The values are
generated in millivolts (mV). The ratios of the negative charges and positive
charges between inside and outside of the cells are compared
Graded potentials
are brought about by external stimuli (in sensory neurons) or by
neurotransmitters released in synapses, where they cause graded
potentials in the post-synaptic cell. Action potentials are triggered by
membrane depolarization to threshol
Graded potentials are changes in membrane potential
that vary in size, as opposed to being all-or-none. They
include diverse potentials such as receptor potentials,
electrotonic potentials, subthreshold membrane potential
oscillations, slow-wave potential, pacemaker potentials,
and synaptic potentials, which scale with the magnitude
of the stimulus.
They arise from the summation of the individual actions of
ligand-gated ion channel proteins, and decrease over time and
space. They do not typically involve voltage-gated sodium and
potassium channels.These impulses are incremental and may
be excitatory or inhibitory.

They occur at the postsynaptic dendrite in response to

presynaptic neuron firing and release of neurotransmitter, or
may occur in skeletal, smooth, or cardiac muscle in response to
nerve input. The magnitude of a graded potential is determined
by the strength of the stimulus.
Examples of graded potentials
EPSPs
Graded potentials that make the membrane potential less negative or
more positive, thus making the postsynaptic cell more likely to have an
action potential, are called excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs).
Depolarizing local potentials sum together, and if the voltage reaches the
threshold potential, an action potential occurs in that cell.

EPSPs are caused by the influx of Na+ or Ca2+ from the extracellular space
into the neuron or muscle cell. When the presynaptic neuron has an action
potential, Ca2+ enters the axon terminal via voltage-dependent calcium
channels and causes exocytosis of synaptic vesicles, causing
neurotransmitter to be released. The transmitter diffuses across the
synaptic cleft and activates ligand-gated ion channels that mediate the
EPSP. The amplitude of the EPSP is directly proportional to the number of
synaptic vesicles that were released.
If the EPSP is not large enough to trigger an action potential, the
membrane subsequently repolarizes to its resting membrane potential.
This shows the temporary and reversible nature of graded potentials

IPSPs
Graded potentials that make the membrane potential
more negative, and make the postsynaptic cell less likely
to have an action potential, are called inhibitory post
synaptic potentials (IPSPs). Hyperpolarization of
membranes is caused by influx of Cl− or efflux of K+. As
with EPSPs, the amplitude of the IPSP is directly
proportional to the number of synaptic vesicles that were
released.
Summary
The resting membrane potential is usually around –70 mV. The
typical neuron has a threshold potential ranging from –40 mV to
–55 mV. Temporal summation occurs when graded potentials
within the postsynaptic cell occur so rapidly that they build on
each other before the previous ones fade.

Spatial summation occurs when postsynaptic potentials from

adjacent synapses on the cell occur simultaneously and add
together. An action potential occurs when the summated EPSPs,
minus the summated IPSPs, in an area of membrane reach the
cell's threshold potential.
What is action potential
An action potential (AP) is the mode through which a
neuron transports electrical signals. It is defined as
a brief change in the voltage across the membrane
due to the flow of certain ions into and out of the
neuron,
 Origin of action potential
An action potential begins at the axon hillock as a result of depolarisation.
During depolarisation voltage gated sodium ion channels open due to an
electrical stimulus. As the sodium rushes back into the cell the positive
sodium ions raise the charge inside the cell from negative to positive.

In physiology, an action potential (AP) occurs when the membrane potential

of a specific cell location rapidly rises and falls:this depolarization then
causes adjacent locations to similarly depolarize. Action potentials occur in
several types of animal cells, called excitable cells, which include neurons,
muscle cells, endocrine cells, glomus cells, and in some plant cells.
The Resting Membrane Potential
The resting membrane potential of cells varies depending on the
cell type, the resting potential for neurons typically sits between -
50 and -75mV. This value depends on the types of ion channels
that are open and the concentrations of different ions in the
intracellular and extracellular fluids.

In neurons K+ and organic anions are typically found at a higher

concentration within the cell than outside, whereas Na+ and Cl-
are typically found in higher concentrations outside the cell.
This difference in concentrations provide a concentration gradient for ions
to flow down when their channels are open. At rest, most neurons are
permeable to K+, Na+ and Cl-, as such they will all readily flow down their
concentration gradients, with K+ moving out of the cells and Na+ and Cl-
moving in to the cell.

However the cell is most permeable to K+, as such this exerts the greatest
influence on the resting membrane potential – and the value is closest to
the equilibrium potential of K+ (the membrane potential at which the
concentration gradient for an ion is balanced) out of the three ions.

These concentration gradients are maintained by the action of the Na+/K+

ATPase via active transport, which in turn allows the membrane potential to
be maintained.
Differences in the concentrations of ions on
opposite sides of a cellular membrane lead to
a voltage called the membrane potential.
Typical values of membrane potential are in
the range –40 mV to –70 mV. Many ions have
a concentration gradient across the
membrane, including potassium (K+), which is
at a high concentration inside and a low
concentration outside the membrane. Sodium
(Na+) and chloride (Cl−) ions are at high
concentrations in the extracellular region, and
low concentrations in the intracellular regions.
These concentration gradients provide the
potential energy to drive the formation of the
membrane potential.

Membrane potential
Generation of Action Potentials
During the resting state the membrane potential arises because
the membrane is selectively permeable to K+. An action potential
begins at the axon hillock as a result of depolarisation. During
depolarisation voltage gated sodium ion channels open due to an
electrical stimulus. As the sodium rushes back into the cell the
positive sodium ions raise the charge inside the cell from
negative to positive.

If a threshold is reached, then an action potential is produced.

Action potentials will only occur if a threshold is reached, as such
they are described as “all or nothing“. If the threshold is reached
then the maximum response will be elicited.
Once the cell has been depolarised the voltage gated sodium ion
channels close. The raised positive charge inside the cell causes
potassium channels to open, K+ ions now move down their
electrochemical gradient out of the cell. As the K+ moves out of
the cell the membrane potential falls and starts to approach the
resting potential.

Typically, repolarisation overshoots the resting membrane

potential, making the membrane potential more negative. This is
known as hyperpolarisation. It is important to note that the
Na+/K+ ATPase is not involved in the repolarisation process
following an action potential.
Every action potential is followed by a refractory period. This
period can be further divided into the absolute refractory period
and the relative refractory period. This period occurs as once the
sodium channels close after an AP, they enter an inactive state
during which they cannot be reopened regardless of the
membrane potential. This is known as the absolute refractory
period.
Slowly the sodium channels come out of inactivation. This is
known as the relative refractory period. During this period the
neuron can be excited with stimuli stronger than one normally
needed to initial an AP. Early on in the relative refractory period
the strength of the stimulus required is very high and gradually it
becomes smaller throughout the relative refractory period as
more sodium channels recover from inactivation.
Fig 2 – Diagram showing
the phases of an action
potential in relation to
the membrane voltage
over time.
 Propagation of Action Potentials
Action potentials are propagated along the axons of neurons via
local currents. Local current flow following depolarisation results
in depolarisation of the adjacent axonal membrane and where
this reaches threshold, further action potentials are generated.
The areas of membrane that have recently depolarised will not
depolarise again due to the refractory period – meaning that the
action potential will only travel in one direction.

These local currents would eventually decrease in charge until

threshold is no longer reached. The distance that this would take
depends on the membrane capacitance and resistance:
Membrane capacitance – the ability to store charge, lower
capacitance results in a greater distance before threshold
is no longer reached

Membrane resistance – depends on the number of ion

channels open, the lower the number the more channels
are open. A higher membrane resistance results in a
greater distance before threshold is no longer reached
Myelinated Axons
In order to allow rapid conduction of electrical signals through a neuron
and make them more energy efficient certain neuronal axons are covered
by a myelin sheath. The myelin sheath surrounds the axon to form an
insulating layer. Further information on the myelin sheath can be found
here.

Myelination improves conduction by increasing the membrane resistance

and decreasing the membrane capacitance.

There are periodic gaps along a myelinate axon where there is no myelin
and the axonal membrane is exposed. This gaps are called Nodes of
Ranvier. Myelinated sections of the axon lack voltage gated ion channels
where as there is a high density of ion channels in the Nodes of Ranvier.
For this reason, action potential can only occur at the nodes.
The myelin sheath acts as good insulator so the action
potential is able to propagate along the neurone at a
higher rate than would be possible in unmyelinated
neurons.

The electrical signals are rapidly conducted from one

node to the next, where is causes depolarisation of the
membrane above the threshold and initiates another
action potential which is conducted to the next node. In
this manner an action potential is rapidly conducted down
a neuron. This is known as saltatory conduction.
Saltatory conduction
(from the Latin saltare, to hop or leap) is the propagation of
action potentials along myelinated axons from one node of
Ranvier to the next node, increasing the conduction velocity of
action potentials.

The uninsulated nodes of Ranvier are the only places along the
axon where ions are exchanged across the axon membrane,
regenerating the action potential between regions of the axon
that are insulated by myelin, unlike electrical conduction in a
simple circuit.
 Propagation of action potential along myelinated nerve fibe

Propagation of action potential along myelinated nerve fiber

Image description: Schematic representation of the action potential
propagation through myelinated nerve fiber of peripheral nervous system.
From axon hillock of neuron body (soma) action potential propagates from
one unmyelinated fiber part to the next one.
The unmyelinated parts of the nerve fiber are nodes of Ranvier. This way
of action potential propagation is called saltatory conduction (red arrows in
the diagram)
Ion channels open, allow sodium ions to enter the cell leading to
membrane depolarization and generation of action potential.

Myelination of nerve fibers in the peripheral nervous system is achieved by

Schwann cells wrapping around an axon part (cross section). The nucleus
and most of the Schwan cell cytoplasm are contained in the outer most
layer called neurilemma.
 PROPAGATION OF IMPULSE IN NON MYELINATED NERVE

In neurons, action potentials play a central role in cell-to-cell

communication by providing for—or with regard to saltatory
conduction, assisting—the propagation of signals along the
neuron's axon toward synaptic boutons situated at the ends of an
axon; these signals can then connect with other neurons at
synapses, or to motor cells or glands. In other types of cells, their
main function is to activate intracellular processes.
As an action potential (nerve impulse) travels down an axon there is a change in polarity across the
membrane of the axon. In response to a signal from another neuron, sodium- (Na+) and potassium- (K+)
gated ion channels open and close as the membrane reaches its threshold potential. Na+ channels open
at the beginning of the action potential, and Na+ moves into the axon, causing depolarization.
Repolarization occurs when the K+ channels open and K+ moves out of the axon, creating a change in
polarity between the outside of the cell and the inside. The impulse travels down the axon in one direction
only, to the axon terminal where it signals other neurons.
Action potentials are generated by special types of voltage-gated ion
channels embedded in a cell's plasma membrane.

These channels are shut when the membrane potential is near the
(negative) resting potential of the cell, but they rapidly begin to open if the
membrane potential increases to a precisely defined threshold voltage,
depolarising the transmembrane potential.When the channels open, they
allow an inward flow of sodium ions, which changes the electrochemical
gradient, which in turn produces a further rise in the membrane potential
towards zero.
This then causes more channels to open, producing a greater electric
current across the cell membrane and so on. The process proceeds
explosively until all of the available ion channels are open, resulting in a
large upswing in the membrane potential.

The rapid influx of sodium ions causes the polarity of the plasma
membrane to reverse, and the ion channels then rapidly inactivate. As the
sodium channels close, sodium ions can no longer enter the neuron, and
they are then actively transported back out of the plasma membrane.

Potassium channels are then activated, and there is an outward current of

potassium ions, returning the electrochemical gradient to the resting state.
After an action potential has occurred, there is a transient negative shift,
called the afterhyperpolarization.
An action potential propagates along
the cell membrane of an axon until it
reaches the terminal button. ... Action
potentials are propagated faster
through the thicker and myelinated
axons, rather than through the thin
and unmyelinated axons.
Mechanism

As sodium rushes into the node it creates an electrical force which pushes on the ions
already inside the axon. This rapid conduction of electrical signal reaches the next node
and creates another action potential, thus refreshing the signal.

In this manner, saltatory conduction allows electrical nerve signals to be propagated

long distances at high rates without any degradation of the signal. Although the action
potential appears to jump along the axon, this phenomenon is actually just the rapid,
almost instantaneous, conduction of the signal inside the myelinated portion of the
axon.

If the entire surface of an axon were insulated, there would be no place for current to
flow out of the axon and action potentials could not be generated
 ULTRASTRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
Muscle tissue has a unique histological appearance which enables it to
carry out its function. There are three main types of muscle:

Skeletal – striated muscle that is under voluntary control from the somatic
nervous system. Identifying features are cylindrical cells and multiple
peripheral nuclei.
Cardiac – striated muscle that is found only in the heart. Identifying
features are single nuclei and the presence of intercalated discs between
the cells.
Smooth – non-striated muscle that is controlled involuntarily by the
autonomic nervous system. The identifying feature is the presence of one
spindle-shaped central nucleus per cell.
In this article, we will look at the histology of skeletal muscle – its
composition, histological appearance and clinical correlations.
Composition of Skeletal Muscle
A muscle cell is very specialised for its purpose. A single cell forms one muscle fibre,
and its cell surface membrane is known as the sarcolemma.

T tubules are unique to muscle cells. These are invaginations of the sarcolemma that
conduct charge when the cell is depolarised.

Muscle cells also have a specialised endoplasmic reticulum – this is known as the
sarcoplasmic reticulum and contains a large store of calcium ions.

Muscles also have an intricate support structure of connective tissue. Each muscle fibre
is surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissue known as endomysium.

These fibres are then grouped into bundles known as fascicles, which are surrounded
by a layer of connective tissue known as perimysium. Many fascicles make up a muscle,
which in turn is surrounded by a thick layer of connective tissue known as the
epimysium.
Fig 1 – Ultrastructure of a skeletal muscle fibre
Ultrastructural Appearance of Skeletal Muscle
The striated appearance of skeletal muscle fibres is due to the organisation of two
contractile proteins: actin (thin filament) and myosin (thick filament).

The functional unit of contraction in a skeletal muscle fibre is the sarcomere, which runs
from Z line to Z line. A sarcomere is broken down into a number of sections:
Z line – where the actin filaments are anchored.
M line – where the myosin filaments are anchored.
I band – contains only actin filaments.
A band – the length of a myosin filament, may contain overlapping actin filaments.
H zone – contains only myosin filaments.
A useful acronym is MHAZI – the M line is inside the H zone which is inside the A band,
whilst the Z line is inside the I band.

Adapted from work by OpenStax [CC BY 4.0], via Wikimedia Commons

Fig 2 – A sarcomere is measured from Z line to Z line
MOLECULAR AND CHEMICAL BASIS OF MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
Sliding Filament Model
The sliding filament model describes the mechanism of skeletal muscle
contraction
Actin and Myosin
Muscle fibres are formed from two contractile proteins – actin and myosin.
Myosin filaments have many heads, which can bind to sites on the actin
filament. Actin filaments are associated with two other regulatory proteins,
troponin and tropomyosin. Tropomyosin is a long protein that runs along the
actin filament and blocks the myosin head binding sites.

Troponin is a small protein that binds the tropomyosin to the actin. It is

made up of three parts:
Sliding Filament Model
The sliding filament model describes the mechanism of skeletal muscle contraction

Actin and Myosin

Muscle fibres are formed from two contractile proteins – actin and myosin.

Myosin filaments have many heads, which can bind to sites on the actin filament. Actin
filaments are associated with two other regulatory proteins, troponin and tropomyosin.
Tropomyosin is a long protein that runs along the actin filament and blocks the myosin
head binding sites.

Troponin is a small protein that binds the tropomyosin to the actin. It is

made up of three parts:
Troponin I – binds to the actin filament.
Troponin T – binds to tropomyosin.
Troponin C – can bind calcium ions.
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
The unique structure of troponin is the basis of excitation-
contraction coupling:
When depolarisation occurs at a neuromuscular junction, this is
conducted down the t-tubules, causing a huge influx of calcium
ions into the sarcoplasm from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
This calcium binds to troponin C, causing a change in
conformation that moves tropomyosin away from the myosin
head binding sites of the actin filaments.
This allows the myosin head to bind to the actin, forming a cross-
link. The power stroke then occurs as the myosin heads pivots in
a ‘rowing motion’, moving the actin past the myosin towards the
M line.
ATP then binds to the myosin head, causing it to uncouple
from the actin and allowing the process to repeat.
Hence in contraction, the length of the filaments does not
change.

However, the length of the sarcomere decreases due to

the actin filaments sliding over the myosin.

The H zone and I band shorten, whilst the A band stays

the same length. This brings the Z lines closer together
and causes overall length of the sarcomere to decrease.
Fig 3 – The
sliding filament
model of muscle
contraction
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