Unit: 2 Software Project Planning

Objectives
The primary objectives of software project planning include:
 Defining Scope: Clearly outlining what the project will deliver.
 Resource Allocation: Identifying the necessary resources (human,
technical, financial) for project completion.
 Risk Management: Anticipating potential risks and developing mitigation
strategies.
 Timeline Development: Establishing a realistic schedule for project
milestones and deliverables.
 Budgeting: Estimating costs to ensure financial resources are available.
Decomposition Techniques
Decomposition techniques help in breaking down a project into smaller,
manageable components. This facilitates better estimation and management.
Key methods include:
1. Function Point (FP) Based Estimation:
 Measures functionality from the user's perspective.
 Considers inputs, outputs, user interactions, and data files.
 Useful for projects where requirements are well-defined.
2. Lines of Code (LOC) Based Estimation:
 Estimates based on the anticipated number of lines of code.
 Often used in environments where coding standards are
established.
 Provides a rough estimate but can be influenced by coding
practices.
Software Sizing
Software sizing is essential for accurate estimation. It involves quantifying the
expected size of the software using two main methods:
 Function Points (FP): A measure of software size based on functionality
delivered.
 Lines of Code (LOC): A direct measure of code volume.
Accurate sizing helps in determining effort estimates, resource needs, and
timelines.
Cost Estimation Models
1. COCOMO Model:
  Stands for Constructive Cost Model.
 Developed by Barry Boehm, it provides a systematic approach to
estimating software development costs based on project size and
complexity.
 Variants include COCOMO 81 and COCOMO II, which cater to
different project types and environments.
2. Software Equation:
 A mathematical formula that relates effort (in person-months), cost,
and various influencing factors (like complexity).
 Helps in understanding how changes in scope or requirements
affect overall project cost and effort.
System Analysis
Principles of Structured Analysis
Structured analysis is a methodology that emphasizes clear documentation and
systematic modeling. Key principles include:
 Top-Down Approach: Starting from a high-level overview and breaking
down into detailed components.
 Modularity: Designing systems in discrete modules that can be
developed and tested independently.
 Data Flow Orientation: Focusing on how data moves through the
system rather than just on processes.
Requirement Analysis
Requirement analysis involves:
 Stakeholder Engagement: Collaborating with users and stakeholders to
gather needs and expectations.
 Functional Requirements: Defining what the system should do
(features).
 Non-functional Requirements: Identifying system attributes such as
performance, security, usability, etc.
This phase is critical for ensuring that the final product meets user needs.
Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)
ERDs are graphical representations used to illustrate data relationships within a
system:
 Entities: Objects or concepts that have data stored about them (e.g.,
Customer, Order).
 Attributes: Characteristics or properties of entities (e.g., Customer Name,
Order Date).
  Relationships: Connections between entities that define how they
interact (e.g., a Customer places an Order).
ERDs help clarify data structure and relationships early in the design process.
Data Dictionary
A data dictionary serves as a comprehensive reference for all data elements
used within the system:
 Contains definitions of data elements, including names, types, formats,
and constraints.
 Helps maintain consistency across documentation and development
teams.
 Facilitates communication among stakeholders regarding data usage and
structure.
Self-Study: Data Flow Diagrams (DFD)
Data Flow Diagrams are visual tools used to represent how data flows through a
system:
 Processes: Activities that transform input data into output (e.g., Order
Processing).
 Data Stores: Repositories where data is held (e.g., Customer Database).
 External Entities: Outside systems or users that interact with the system
(e.g., Customers).
DFDs help identify inputs, outputs, processes, and storage elements within a
system, providing clarity on how information moves through various
components.
 Unit: 3 Software Design
Objectives
The objectives of software design encompass creating a blueprint for software
systems that are:
 Maintainable: Easy to modify and update.
 Scalable: Capable of handling growth in users or data.
 Efficient: Optimized for performance and resource usage.
 User-Friendly: Intuitive interfaces that meet user needs.
Principles of Software Design
Software design principles are essential guidelines that help in creating robust
and maintainable systems. Key principles include:
 Modularity: Dividing a system into smaller, independent modules that
can be developed and tested separately. This enhances maintainability
and reusability.
 Encapsulation: Hiding the internal state and behavior of an object to
protect it from unintended interference. This promotes a clear interface for
interaction.
 Abstraction: Simplifying complex reality by modeling classes based on
the essential properties and behaviors of objects. This helps in reducing
complexity.
 Separation of Concerns: Dividing a program into distinct sections, each
addressing a separate concern. For example, separating business logic
from user interface code allows for easier updates without affecting other
components.
Design Methodologies
Design methodologies provide structured approaches to software design. Key
methodologies include:
1. Data Design:
 Focuses on how data is stored, retrieved, and manipulated.
  Involves creating data models (like ERDs) to define data structures
and relationships.
2. Architectural Design:
 Establishes the overall structure of the software system.
 Defines components, their interactions, and patterns used (e.g.,
client-server, microservices).
3. Procedural Design:
 Centers on defining procedures or functions that operate on data.
 Emphasizes control flow and the sequence of operations.
4. Object-Oriented Concepts:
 Utilizes objects as the fundamental building blocks of software.
 Emphasizes principles like inheritance, polymorphism, and
encapsulation to create flexible and reusable code.
Testing Fundamentals
Objectives
The primary objectives of software testing are to ensure that the software meets
its requirements, functions correctly, and is free from defects.
Principles
Key principles guiding testing include:
 Early Testing: Testing should start as early as possible in the
development lifecycle to identify defects quickly.
 Defect Clustering: A small number of modules often contain most
defects; focus testing efforts accordingly.
 Pesticide Paradox: Repeating the same tests will not find new bugs;
tests must be regularly reviewed and updated.
Testability
Testability refers to how easily software can be tested. Factors influencing
testability include:
 Clear requirements
 Modular design
 Proper documentation
Test Cases
Test cases are specific conditions under which a tester will determine whether an
application is working as intended. They can be categorized into:
1. White Box Testing:
  Tests internal structures or workings of an application.
 Requires knowledge of the codebase (e.g., unit tests).
2. Black Box Testing:
 Tests functionality without peering into internal structures.
 Focuses on input/output validation based on requirements.
Testing Strategies
Various strategies are employed in software testing:
 Verification and Validation (V&V):
 Verification ensures the product is built correctly (meets
specifications).
 Validation checks if the right product is built (meets user needs).
 Unit Testing:
 Tests individual components or modules for correctness.
 Integration Testing:
 Tests combined parts of an application to ensure they work
together.
 Validation Testing:
 Ensures that the system meets the business needs and
requirements.
Self-Study: System Testing
System testing involves evaluating the complete and integrated software
product to ensure it meets specified requirements. It includes functional and
non-functional testing aspects.
Types of Testing
1. Regression Testing:
 Ensures that new code changes do not adversely affect existing
functionalities.
2. Alpha Testing:
 Conducted by developers in a controlled environment before
releasing to external testers.
3. Beta Testing:
 Conducted by real users in a real environment after alpha testing;
aims to gather feedback before final release.
4. System Testing:
  Validates the complete system's compliance with specified
requirements.
5. Performance Acceptance Testing:
 Assesses how well the system performs under various conditions,
ensuring it meets performance criteria set by stakeholders.

Important Questions
1. How does prototyping work in software development?
Prototyping is a software development methodology where an initial, simplified
version of a software application is created to visualize and test the concepts
and features before developing the final system. The prototype is often iterated
upon, receiving feedback from stakeholders to improve functionality and design.
This approach helps clarify requirements and reduces misunderstandings.
2. What are some estimation techniques based on specific problems in
software projects?
Estimation techniques include:
 Expert Judgment: Relying on the expertise of experienced developers to
estimate the size, effort, and cost of a project.
 Function Point Analysis: Estimating based on the number and
complexity of functions the software must perform.
 COCOMO Model: A parametric model based on the size of the software to
estimate the effort, time, and cost.
 Story Points: Used in Agile development, estimating effort by using
points to represent the difficulty of implementing specific features.
 Use Case Points: Based on the use cases defined for the software.
3. What are the main objectives of software design?
The main objectives of software design are:
 Functional correctness: Ensuring the software performs as expected.
  Maintainability: Ensuring the software can be easily updated or modified
in the future.
 Scalability: Ensuring the software can handle increased loads or data as
necessary.
 Efficiency: Making sure the software performs tasks using optimal
resources.
 Usability: Creating a user-friendly interface and experience.
 Modularity: Breaking down the software into manageable, independent
modules.
4. What are the key features of architectural design in software
development?
Key features of architectural design include:
 Modularity: Decomposing the system into smaller, manageable
components.
 Separation of concerns: Dividing the software into distinct functional
areas to improve maintainability.
 Reusability: Designing components that can be reused in future projects.
 Scalability: Allowing the system to handle increased load.
 Interoperability: Ensuring different parts of the system can work
together smoothly.
 Performance: Ensuring the system meets speed and resource efficiency
requirements.
5. How would you describe black-box testing?
Black-box testing is a software testing method where the tester focuses on the
functionality of the software without knowing its internal structure. The test
cases are based on the software’s specifications and requirements, and the goal
is to check if the software behaves as expected in different scenarios.
6. In what ways are measurements important in software development?
Measurements in software development are essential for:
 Tracking progress: Monitoring the completion of tasks and overall
project health.
 Quality assurance: Identifying defects and potential improvements.
 Estimating cost and effort: Predicting project timelines and resource
needs.
 Improving performance: Optimizing the system for better efficiency and
scalability.
 Decision-making: Using data to make informed choices about software
design and architecture.
7. Why is requirement analysis critical in the software planning
process?
Requirement analysis is crucial because it ensures that the software meets the
needs of users and stakeholders. By gathering and analyzing requirements early,
the development team can create a system that addresses the correct problems,
preventing costly changes or redesigns later in the process.
8. What are the differences between procedural design and object-
oriented design?
 Procedural Design focuses on defining a sequence of actions or
procedures that manipulate data.
 Object-Oriented Design (OOD) focuses on organizing the software
around objects (data and behavior), promoting reusability and modularity.
OOD supports concepts like inheritance, encapsulation, and
polymorphism, while procedural design organizes code into functions or
procedures.
9. What is the role of test cases in software testing?
Test cases define specific conditions, inputs, and expected results used to verify
the functionality of the software. They ensure that the software works as
intended and helps identify defects. Well-designed test cases are essential for
verifying both individual components and the overall system.
10. What are the key characteristics of software?
Key characteristics of software include:
 Intangibility: Software is not a physical entity; it exists as code and data.
 Complexity: Software can have complex structures, making it difficult to
design and maintain.
 Flexibility: Software can be modified, updated, and extended.
 Reliability: Well-designed software is expected to function correctly
under specified conditions.
 Scalability: Software should accommodate growth in terms of users or
data.
 Maintainability: Software must be easy to update and fix over time.
11. What are two important factors to consider in cost estimation?
 Size of the project: The number of features or lines of code required
impacts both time and cost.
 Complexity: More complex features and integration requirements often
increase cost.
12. What is the objective of white-box testing?
The objective of white-box testing is to examine the internal workings of a
software system, such as its code structure, algorithms, and logic. It ensures that
all code paths are tested, and that there are no logical errors or inefficiencies.
13. What are the main features of performance acceptance testing?
Performance acceptance testing verifies that the software meets performance
requirements, including:
 Response time: Ensuring that the system responds within an acceptable
time frame.
 Throughput: Measuring the system's ability to handle a large volume of
data or users.
 Scalability: Ensuring the system can handle increased load without
performance degradation.
 Stability: Verifying the system’s reliability under normal and peak loads.
14. What are the applications of data design?
Data design is used to define how data will be structured, stored, and managed
within a system. Applications include:
 Database design: Creating efficient and normalized database schemas.
 Data flow diagrams: Representing how data moves within the system.
 Data modeling: Defining data relationships using techniques like Entity-
Relationship diagrams.
15. How does prototyping influence user satisfaction?
Prototyping improves user satisfaction by providing early feedback from
stakeholders. Users can interact with a working model, suggest changes, and
ensure that the final product meets their needs. This iterative process helps
refine the design based on actual user input.
16. What role does the data dictionary play in system analysis?
A data dictionary defines and documents the data elements within the system. It
ensures consistency in data usage across different components of the system,
providing a clear reference for developers and analysts.
17. What are the differences between alpha and beta testing?
 Alpha Testing is performed by internal testers before releasing the
software to external users. It focuses on finding bugs in the system's
functionality.
 Beta Testing is done by a selected group of external users to provide
feedback on user experience, performance, and potential issues before
the final release.
18. What are the objectives and features of procedural design?
Objectives of procedural design include:
  Defining clear, reusable, and efficient procedures for accomplishing tasks.
 Ensuring that the software is easy to understand and maintain.
 Creating a flow of operations that will execute the required actions in the
system.
19. How do the Waterfall, Spiral, and Prototyping models compare in
terms of features, advantages, and limitations?
 Waterfall is a sequential approach where each phase follows the previous
one. It’s well-suited for projects with clear requirements but is inflexible to
change.
 Spiral is an iterative model with risk management at its core, making it
suitable for large, complex projects. It allows for flexibility and adapts to
changes, but it can be costly and time-consuming.
 Prototyping focuses on creating early versions of the system for user
feedback. It’s highly flexible but may lead to incomplete or inefficient
solutions without careful planning.
20. What is the importance of Data Flow Diagrams in software analysis,
and how are they used? Provide examples.
Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs) help visualize how data moves through a system.
They are used to:
 Illustrate data inputs and outputs.
 Identify processes that manipulate data.
 Show data storage locations. For example, in an online order processing
system, a DFD would show the flow from customer orders to inventory
management and billing.
21. Provide a detailed analysis of testing strategies, including both
verification and validation.
 Verification ensures that the software is built according to specifications
and design. It includes activities like code reviews, static analysis, and unit
testing.
 Validation ensures that the software meets the user’s needs and works
as expected. It involves testing in real-world conditions, such as system
testing, user acceptance testing, and beta testing.
22. Compare white-box and black-box testing techniques, outlining
their benefits and drawbacks.
 White-box testing allows for thorough examination of the internal code
structure, ensuring complete code coverage. However, it can be complex
and time-consuming.
 Black-box testing focuses on the functionality and user experience,
making it easier to test without knowledge of the internal code. However,
it may miss certain internal defects.
23. What are the limitations of the Waterfall Model?
 It is inflexible and doesn’t accommodate changes well.
 It assumes that all requirements are known upfront, which is often not the
case.
 Testing starts late in the development cycle, making it harder to address
defects.
24. What are two levels of the COCOMO Model?
The two levels of the COCOMO (Constructive Cost Model) are:
 Basic COCOMO: Provides a rough estimate based on the project’s size
(lines of code).
 Intermediate COCOMO: Considers additional factors like software
reliability, platform complexity, and personnel experience.
25. What is one advantage of object-oriented design?
One advantage of object-oriented design is reusability. By creating classes and
objects, developers can reuse code across different systems, reducing the need
for rewriting code and making maintenance easier.
26. What are the key characteristics of validation testing?
Validation testing ensures that the software meets user requirements and
performs as expected in real-world scenarios. Key characteristics include user
acceptance testing, integration testing, and system testing.
27. What are the benefits of regression testing?
Regression testing ensures that new code changes haven’t negatively impacted
existing functionality. It helps maintain the stability of the software and ensures
that previously fixed bugs do not reappear.
28. How is software applied in modern industries?
Software is used in various industries for:
 Automation: Streamlining processes in manufacturing, finance,
healthcare, and logistics.
 Data analysis: Leveraging software tools for big data and machine
learning to extract insights.
 Communication: Enabling seamless interaction via messaging,
collaboration tools, and social media.
 Customer service: Using software for CRM, helpdesk, and ticketing
systems.
29. How are Entity Relationship diagrams used? Provide an example.
Entity Relationship (ER) diagrams are used in database design to visually
represent the relationships between different entities. For example, in a library
management system, an ER diagram could show how "Books" are related to
"Authors" and how "Members" borrow "Books."
30. What is the relationship between verification and validation in
testing?
 Verification ensures the software is being built correctly according to
specifications.
 Validation ensures the software meets the actual user requirements and
works as expected in real-world conditions.
31. What are the main objectives of unit testing in software
development?
The main objectives of unit testing are to verify that individual components of
the software work correctly in isolation, ensuring that each function or method
produces the expected output for given inputs.
32. How are fourth-generation techniques transforming software
development?
Fourth-generation techniques, such as code generators, visual programming, and
low-code/no-code platforms, simplify and accelerate software development by
reducing the need for manual coding and enabling users with little programming
experience to build applications.
33. What are the strengths and weaknesses of software estimation
techniques in real-world applications?
Strengths of software estimation techniques include providing guidance for
project planning, resource allocation, and budgeting. Weaknesses include their
reliance on assumptions and available data, which can lead to inaccuracies in
complex or uncertain projects.
34. What are the challenges and best practices for designing test cases
for complex systems?
Challenges include handling system complexity, maintaining test coverage, and
accounting for integration issues. Best practices include clear test objectives,
test case prioritization, modular test design, and using automated testing tools
when applicable.
35. What are the principles, objectives, and applications of integration
testing?
Principles of integration testing involve verifying that different modules or
components of a system work together as expected. Objectives include detecting
interface defects, ensuring data flow between modules is correct, and validating
the interactions between different subsystems. It’s commonly used in large
software systems and for ensuring proper communication between external APIs.