Diffraction

1
 Ray concept
Diffraction
Geometrical
shadow
“Any deviation of light rays from
rectilinear path which is neither
reflection nor refraction is known S
as diffraction.” (Sommerfeld)
Geometrical
shadow
Types or kinds of diffraction:

1. Fraunhofer (1787-1826) Wave concept

2. Fresnel (1788-1827)

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 Fraunhofer Diffraction Fresnel Diffraction

S S

Both source and screen are Either the source or the screen
in infinity- Fraunhofer class (or both) are at finite distance -
Fresnel class

3
 Interference Vs Diffraction

Interference
Diffraction

1. Two separate wave fronts originating from two coherent sources

produce interference. Secondary wavelets originating from different
parts of the same wave front constitute diffraction. Thus the two are
entirely different in nature.
2. The region of minimum intensity is perfectly dark in interference. In
diffraction they are not perfectly dark.
3. Width of the fringes is equal in interference. In diffraction they are never
equal.
4. The intensity of all positions of maxima are of the same intensity in
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interference. In diffraction they do vary.
 Single slit diffraction pattern
N coherent oscillator model
The sum of the interfering wavelet at P is

r1 P E  E0ei (kr1  t)  E0ei (kr2  t)  E0ei (kr3  t)  ...  E0ei (krN  t)

r2
r3  E0ei (kr1  t) 1  ei k(r2 r1 )  ei k(r3 r1 ) ...  ei k(rN r1 ) 
a
Phase difference between the adjacent source   k   ka sin 
b
E  E0 ei (kr1  t) 1  ei  e 2i ...  ei (N 1) 
rN  eiN  1 
i (kr1  t)
 E0 e  i 
 e  1 
N 
r1  sin  
 E0 e  i t e
i [kr1  (N 1) ]
2 2 
a   
sin  
2 N 
r2 sin    2

IA 2 
  a sin  2  
sin  
b   N 1 a  Slit width 2
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We have........
N    k   ka sin 
sin 2   
IA 2 
  b   N 1 a  Slit width
sin 2  
2 N   b 
sin 2  ka sin   sin 2  sin  
IA 2   nA   
In the limit...... N  a0
21  
2
sin  ka sin    b 
 sin  
2    
b
Now if I 0  nA  sin 

Principal
maxima
sin 2 
I  I0 Secondary
2 maxima

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Condition of maxima and minima

sin 2 
I  I0   m , (m  0) Condition of minima
 2

b
 sin 

sin 
For Principal maxima   0;  1, I ( )  I (0)


dI 2sin  (  cos   sin  ) tan   

For secondary maxima  I (0) 0
d  3

For secondary maxima

  1.4303 , 2.4590 , 3.470 ,.....

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Angular width of central maximum

  m , (m  0)

 b
 sin 

For first minima m 1  
b 
 sin    sin  
 b
 2
 is small sin     Angular width 2 
b b

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 Two slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern
We have so far…….

 i t
i[kr1  (N 1) ] sin 
E1  E0e e 2

P
b   k   ka sin 
 sin 
d  b   N 1 a  Slit width
 ka sin   b sin 
 N  1   N  1  
2 2 
Total field at P
E  E1  E2
sin  sin   i 2 
i 
E1  E0ei t ei[kr1   ] (Field due to 1st slit)
E  E0 e i (kr1  t    /2)
e  e 
2
   
 i t i[kr1    ] sin  sin   
E2  E0e e (Field due to 2nd slit)
E  2 E0 ei (kr1  t    /2) cos  
  2
2
 d sin  Phase difference

sin 2 
 
 d sin   
I  I0 cos 2 
2  2
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 Condition for Missing orders

Diffraction Minima at

b sin θ = m λ m=0

Interference Maxima at

d sin θ = n λ
When the above two equations
are satisfied at the same point
in the pattern (same θ),
dividing one equation by the
other gives the condition for
missing orders.

n
d   b
m
sin 2 
I  I0 cos 2 
2 10
Polarization of light
 Basic Information:

Light
a transverse electromagnetic wave

Unpolarised Light Polarised light

oscillations of electric oscillations of electric

fields are occurring in fields are occurring in
all possible directions a particular direction

Unpolarised light Polarised light

Polarizer
 Polarization of EM wave
Direction of E-polarization

Polarizer or polaroid:
A system that allows one direction
• Light is considered polarized along Electric field of E-vibration unperturbed.
Allows other polarizations as well,
• Unpolarized light has random polarization direction but with reduced intensity

An unpolarized light is polarized

by a polaroid

The polarised wave may be

blocked by making pass-axis of
the polaroid perpendicular to
direction of polarization
 Malus’ Law
(=I/2)
I

1) The 1st polarizer is used to polarize unpolarised light in a plane

2) The 2nd polarizer (analyzer) is rotated w.r.t. the 1st polarizer by an angle 

Unloparised light through polariser

The intensity of an unpolarized light across a plane polarizer also reduces
following the relation 𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 , I is the intensity before polarizer

When averaged over all possible angles, the total intensity reduces by half
𝐼
𝐼0 = 𝐼 < 𝑐𝑜𝑠  > =
2
2
 Polarization by reflection
Unpolarized incident light on the
surface of a material

Dipoles oscillate
with the E-field
and emits radiation
 Polarization by reflection: Brewster’s law

n1

r
n2 
r   B 
2
At this angle of incidence, a
plane π-polarized light has
zero reflection coefficient.
So, for unpolarized incident
n1 sin  B  n2 sin r light, the reflected ray will be
plane polarized and refracted
  ray will be partially polarized
n1 sin  B  n2 sin    B   n2 cos  B
2 
n1
tan  B 
n2
 Polarization by reflection: Brewster’s law

Brewseter’s angle
n1 𝑛2
𝐵 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
𝑛1
 rr
n2 
r   B 
2
At this angle of incident, a
plane polarized light has zero
reflection coefficient. So, for
unpolarized incident light, the
n1 sin  B  n2 sin r reflected ray will be plane
polarized and refracted ray
  will be partially polarized
n1 sin  B  n2 sin    B   n2 cos  B
2 
n1
tan  B 
n2
Superposition of two plane polarized wave

ˆ x  ˆjE y E2y Ex E y Ex 2
E  iE 2 cos    sin 2 
E 2 y0 Ex 0 E y 0 Ex 0 2

Ex  Ex 0 cos(kz  t)
This is an equation of ellipse whose
E y  E y 0 cos(kz  t   ) major axis is making an angle say α

Ey 2 Ex 0 E y 0 cos 
 cos(kz   t) cos   sin(kz   t) sin  tan 2 
Ey0 Ex 0 2  E 2 y 0

Ey Ex Ex 2
 cos   1  2
sin  y
Ey 0 Ex 0 Ex 0
E
2
 Ey  Ex 2
 
Ex
cos    sin  
2
sin 2
  x
 2
 E y 0 Ex 0  Ex 0

E2y Ex E y Ex 2
2 cos    sin 2

E 2 y0 Ex 0 E y 0 Ex 0 2
 Linearly polarized
Ex  Ex 0 cos(kz  t)
E y  E y 0 cos(kz  t   )
  2m m  0,1, 2,3....
y E y  E y 0 cos(kz  t  2m )
Ey Ey 0
 E y  Ey 0 cos(kz  t)
Ex Ex 0
x
 Ey 0 
  tan  1

 x0 
E

  (2m  1) m  0,1, 2,3....

y Ey Ey 0 E y  E y 0 cos(kz  t  2m   )

Ex Ex 0 E y   E y 0 cos(kz  t)
x
 Ey 0 
   tan  1

 x0 
E
 Elliptically polarized At z 0
 E2y Ex 2 Ex  Ex 0 cos( t)
  (2m  1) m  0,1, 2,3....  1
E2 y0 E y  Ey 0 cos( t   )
2
2 Ex 0
y y
For   
 ; 5 ;9 ........
2 2 2
Ex  Ex 0 cos( t) x x
E y  E y 0 sin( t)

Counter-clock wise rotation

with time
Ex 0  E y 0
For    y y
  3 ; 7 ;11 ........
2 2 2

Ex  Ex 0 cos( t) x x
E y   E y 0 sin( t)

Clock wise rotation with time Ex 0  E y 0

 Optical Activity
A substance is optically
active if it rotates the
plane of polarized light.

Dextrorotatory Substance Levorotatory Substance

• Rotation is clockwise • Rotation is counterclockwise

• Example: Glyceraldehyde • Example: D-fructose

Specific rotation [S] of a chiral substance

the rotation produced by a column of solution of length L decimeter and containing 1

gm of the active substance per cm3 of the solution at a particular temperature,
wavelength, and concentration (c)

• Length (L) measured in cm. 𝟏𝟎

•  is the angle of rotation. 𝑺=
𝑳𝒄
 Experimental Setup

Unpolarized Light

Polarized Light

Monochromatic Polarimeter tube

Light Source (optically active substance)

Polarizer 𝛩

Half-shade Plate
Viewer

Plane of polarization rotated

by an angle 𝛩
Analyzer