ELECTRICITY – CHAPTER -12

ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ITS PROPERTIES

➢ Electric charge, like mass, is a fundamental property of matter.

➢ Two types of charges- positive and negative
➢ Like charges repel each other & unlike charges attract each other.
➢ Electric charges are conserved, i.e., it can neither be created or destroyed, but
can be transferred from one body to another. This means that the total charges
in an isolated system remains the same.
➢ The SI unit of charge is Coulomb (C).
Charge on one electron is -1.6x10-19 C
Charge on one proton is 1.6x 10-19 C
➢ One Coulomb of charge is the charge carried by 6.25x1018 electrons.

ELECTRIC CURRENT

Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charges through any section of a
conductor.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
Electric current = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

If a charge of ‘Q’ flows through a conductor in time ‘t’, then the current flowing through it is
given by

𝑄
I= 𝑡
Electric current is a scalar quantity. Its unit is Ampere(A)

1A=1C/1t

IMPORTANT: One ampere is the amount of current passing, when one coulomb of charge
flows through any cross section of a conductor in one second.

The instrument used for measuring electric current in a circuit is called Ammeter. An
ammeter is always connected in series in a circuit.

Smaller units of current are

I. 1mA(milliampere) = 10-3 A
II. 1μA(microampere)= 10-6 A

The bigger units of current are

 I. 1KA ( Kilo ampere) = 103A
II. 1MA (Mega ampere) = 106 A

IMP Note : Calculate the number of electrons constituting one coulomb of charge.( charge
on 1 electron =1.6 x 10-19 C)

n= q/e = 1/ 1.6x10-19 = 6.25x1018 electrons

This means that flow of 6.25x1018 electrons produce a net charge of one coulomb.

Electric circuit: A continuous and closed path of electric current is called an electric
circuit. An electric circuit consists of various components like cell ( or battery) , switch,
ammeter, voltmeter etc.
A simple electric circuit (schematic diagram) refer pg 200 fig12.1 ( text book)

Conventional Direction of electric current: In a cell or battery electrons flow from

negative terminal to positive terminal of the cell. However, the conventional direction of
current is taken as opposite to the direction of actual flow of electrons, that is from positive
to negative terminal of the cell.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL: Electric potential at a point is defined as the amount of

work done to move a unit charge (1 coulomb) from infinity to that point.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE: Electric potential difference between two

points in an electric field is defined as the amount of work done to move unit charge (
one coulomb) from one point to other.

Potential difference (V) = work done (W)/ charge (Q)

𝑾
V= 𝑸

The SI unit of potential difference is volt (V), named after Alessandro Volta.

Definition of one volt: One volt is the potential difference between two points in a current
carrying conductor when 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one
point to other.

1 volt = 1 joule / 1 coulomb

1V= 1J/1C
Potential difference is a scalar quantity.
The potential difference is measured by a voltmeter and it is always connected parallel
across the points between which the potential difference is to be measured.
QUESTION:
*Electric current flows through a metallic conductor from one end A to other end B. Which
end of the conductor is at a higher potential? Why?
 Ans:- Current always flows from higher potential to lower potential end of the conductor,
So end A of the conductor is at a higher potential.

OHM’S LAW ( Relation between electric current and potential difference)

Ohm’s law states that at constant temperature, the electric current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends.

If ‘I’ is the current flowing through a conductor and ‘V’ is the potential difference across its
ends, then according to ohm’s law:

I∞ V, at constant temperature

Or V∞ I or V/I = Constant say R

 V = IR , where ’R’ is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given
temperature and is called the resistance of the conductor.

V-I graph : A graph plotted between the potential difference(V) and current (I) is found to
be a straight line passing through the origin of the graph. The slope of this graph gives the
value of electric resistance.

Q. With the help of a circuit diagram, describe to verify Ohm’s law. Include observation
column and V-I graph in your answer.

Refer pg 203 Activity 12.1

ELECTRIC RESISTANCE : Resistance is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of

electric charges through it.

Resistance = potential difference/ current

𝑽
ie, R=
𝑰
The current through a resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance. If the current
gets doubled, resistance gets halved.

A device used for regulating current without changing the voltage is called variable
resistance. In a circuit, a device called rheostat is often used to change the resistance.

Unit of resistance : SI unit of resistance is Ohm (𝛺). We have,

1𝛺 = 1V/1A

1 Ohm is defined as the resistance of a conductor when the potential difference across
its ends is 1V and the current flowing through it is 1 ampere.

FACTORS ON WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS

Resistance of a conductor is :

➢ Directly proportional to the length ie, R𝛼 𝑙→①

1
➢ Inversely proportional to the area of cross section ie, R𝛼 →②
𝐴
➢ On the nature of material of the conductor.
➢ Directly proportional to temperature ie, R 𝛼 T

From ① &②

𝑙 𝝆𝒍
R𝛼 or 𝑹 =
𝐴 𝑨

Where rho (𝜌 ) is a constant called resistivity (or specific resistance) of the

material of the conductor.
 RESISTIVITY (𝝆 ): Resistivity of a conductor is defined as the resistance of a
conductor having unit length and unit area of cross-section.

SI UNIT of resistivity is ‘Ohm-metre’ (𝜴𝒎 )

Refer note book for numericals

NUMERICALS FOR PRACTISE

1. A charge of 150 C flows through a wire in one minute. Find the electric current
flowing through it.
2. Calculate the resistance of a metal wire of length 2m and area of cross section 1.55x
10-6m2, if the resistivity of the metal be 2.8x10-8𝛺𝑚?
3. Two copper wires A and B of length 30m and 10m have radii 2cm and1cm
respectively. Compare the resistance of the two wires. Which will have less
resistance?
4. A resistance wire made from German silver has a resistance of 4.25𝛺. Calculate the
resistance of another wire, made of the same material, such that its length increases by
4 times and area of cross section decreases by 3 times.
5. Calculate the resistivity of the material of a wire 1m long,0.4mm in diameter and
having a resistance of 2.0𝛺.

IMPORTANT BOARD QUESTIONS

1. Why is tungsten used almost exclusively for filament of electric lamps?

Ans) Tungsten is used almost exclusively because-

• High Melting Point

• High Resistance
• Highly Ductile

- Tungsten has a high value of electrical resistivity. Due to this, the amount of heat
and light produced is large.
- Tungsten has a high melting point (about 3380oC) due to which it produces an
incandescent light.
- Tungsten can be drawn into thin wires which in turn offers high resistance.

2. Why are the coils of electric toasters and electric irons made up of an alloy
(nichrome) rather than a pure metal?

Ans) Alloys have-

- Much higher electrical resistivity than that of their constituent metals. Due to
this, the amount of heat and energy produced in the heating coil is more.
- Alloys do not oxidise (or burn) readily at high temperatures.
- The resistance of an alloy does not change considerably with rise in
temperature.

3. Why are copper and aluminium wires usually used for electricity transmission?
 Ans) Metals like copper and aluminium have very low electrical resistance. Due to this,
they are good conductors of electricity and can transfer electrical energy from one place
to another easily.

4. Let the resistance of an electrical component remain constant while the p.d across the
two ends of the component decreases to half of its former value. What change will
occur in the current passing through it? Why?

Ans) Where the p.d is halved, then current also will get halved. This is because current
is directly proportional to the potential difference at constant temperature (by Ohm’s
law).

5. Will current flow more easily through a thick wire or a thin wire of the same
material, when connected to the same force? Why?

Ans) Current will flow more easily through a thick wire. Since the area of cross-section
of a thick wire is more, it offers less resistance to the passage of current. Due to this,
current will flow more easily through it than a thin wire.

6. Under what condition charges flow through a conductor? How is the condition
achieved in a metallic conductor?

Ans) Electric charges flow through a conductor only when there is a constant p.d
between the ends of the conductor. A constant p.d is maintained across a conductor by
connecting a battery across the ends of the conductor. The chemical reaction within the
battery generates a p.d across its terminals which sets the charges in motion in the
conductor and produces an electric current.

7. (HW) The values of current I flowing in a given resistor for the corresponding values
of potential difference V across the resistor are given below-

I (Amperes) 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

V (Volts) 1.6 3.4 6.7 10.2 13.2

Plot a graph between V and I and calculate the resistance of that resistor.

COMBINATION OF RESISTORS:

i) Series combination of resistors-

(Derive an expression for the equivalent resistance when 3 resistors are connected in
series)

Consider 3 resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in series with a battery and plug key/switch. Let
‘I’ be the main current (total current) in the circuit and ‘V’ be the voltage of the battery
applied. Let the P.D across R1, R2 and R3 be V1, V2 and V3 respectively, whereas the current
flowing through each resistance remains the same.

(Draw figure 12.8, textbook pg 211)

By Ohm’s law,

V1= IR1, V2= IR2, V3= IR3

⸫ Total P.D (V) = V1+ V2+ V3

= IR1+ IR2+ IR3
i.e, V= I(R1+ R2+ R3) →①

Let the 3 resistors in series, be replaced by an equivalent single resistor ‘Rs’ so that the
current ‘I’ passes through the circuit and the potential difference ‘V’ across it remains the
same.

i.e, V= IRs →②

From ① and ②,
I.Rs = I (R1+ R2+ R3)

⸫ Rs = R1+ R2+ R3

Thus, when a number of resistors are connected in series, the effective/total resistance is
equal to the sum of individual resistances. This is called the law of series combination of
resistors.

ii) Parallel combination of resistors-

( Derive an expression for effective resistance when three resistors are connected in
parallel.)

Consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel to one another, between the
common points ‘A’ and ‘B’. Let ‘I’ be the main current in the circuit and ‘V’ be the voltage
of the battery applied. In a parallel circuit, the potential difference remains the same across all
the 3 resistors while the current gets split up. Let I1, I2 and I3 be the currents flowing through
R1, R2 and R3 respectively.
(Draw figure 12.10, textbook pg 213)

By Ohm’s Law,

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼1 = 𝑅 , 𝐼2 = 𝑅 , 𝐼3 = 𝑅
1 2 3
⸫ Total current = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +𝑅
𝑅1 𝑅2 3

1 1 1
I = V [𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 ] →①
1 2 3

Let the 3 resistors in parallel be replaced by an equivalent single resistor Rp such that the
current ‘I’ through the circuit and the P.D ‘V’ across it remain the same.

V
I= →②
Rp

From ① and ②,

V 1 1 1
=V[ + + ]
Rp 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝐑𝐩 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

When a number of resistors are connected in parallel, then the reciprocal of effective
resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of individual resistances. This is called the
law of parallel combination of resistors.

CHARACTERISTICS OF

Series Combination Parallel Combination

1. The current through each resistance 1. Current flowing through different
remains the same in a series circuit. resistors are different and the total
current in the circuit is given by:
I= I1+ I2+ I3….
2. Potential difference across each 2. There is a constant P.D across all
resistance will be different in a series the components in a parallel circuit.
circuit. The total P.D in a series circuit
is given by:
V= V1+ V2+ V3…..
3. The effective resistance is maximum 3. The effective resistance is the lowest
in a series circuit and is given by: in a parallel circuit and is given by:
RS= R1+ R2+ R3… 1
=
1 1
+𝑅 +𝑅
1
Rp 𝑅1 2 3

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1. Why is parallel combination preferred in domestic circuits?

Ans. Parallel combination is preferred because:
a) In parallel circuit, all the appliances work at a constant potential difference, which is
the same as that of the power supply line.
b) In parallel circuits, the effective resistance is lowest due to which the current from the
power supply is high. Therefore, every appliance can draw the required amount of
current.
c) In parallel circuit, each electrical appliance has its own switch due to which it can be
turned on/off independently.
d) In parallel circuits, if one electrical appliance stops working due to some defect, then
all other appliances keep working normally.

Due to the above advantages, electrical appliances are connected in parallel in

household circuits.

2. List the disadvantages of a series circuit. OR Why series arrangements are not used in
domestic circuits?

Ans. The disadvantages are:

a) In series circuit, the appliances do not get the same voltage as that of the power
supply line because voltage is shared by all appliances.
b) Since the overall resistance of a series circuit is very high, current draw from
appliances from the power supply line is low.
c) In series circuits, all the electrical appliances have only one switch, due to which they
cannot be turned on/off separately.
d) If one appliance stops working due to some defect, then all other appliances also stop
working because the whole circuit is broken.
e) Since the amount of current flowing throughout the series circuit is the same,
appliances of different power ratings cannot draw sufficient current for their proper
working.

Q3. Why is an ammeter connected in series in a circuit?

Ans. An ammeter is a low resistance instrument. If it is connected in parallel in a circuit,

majority of the circuit current will flow through the ammeter due to its low resistance.
Since the ammeter coil cannot withstand such extremely high currents, the coil gets
burned off easily. Therefore, an ammeter should be connected in series in a circuit.

Q4. Why is a volt meter connected in parallel in a circuit?

Ans. A voltmeter is a high resistance instrument. It should be connected in parallel in a circuit

so that it may not draw appreciable current from the main circuit. On the other hand, if it
is connected in series in a circuit, the current flowing through the circuit is reduced too
much due to its high resistance.

(Numericals based on combination of resistors (Refer notebook)

HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

When an electric current is passed through a high resistance wire, the temperature of the wire
increases and heat is developed in it. In this case, the source energy (electrical energy)
continuously gets dissipated entirely in the form of heat. This is known as the heating effect
of electric current. This effect is utilised in devices such as electric toaster, electric iron,
electric kettle etc.

To derive expressions for the heat energy developed in a resistor (OR derive the
equation H=I2Rt)

Consider a current (I) flowing through a resistor of resistance (R) under a potential difference
(V) across it. Let, a charge (Q) flow through the resistor in time (t) seconds.

(Draw fig 12.13, textbook pg 217)

The amount of work done in moving the charge ‘Q’ through a potential difference ‘V’, is
given by :
W= VQ
Since Q= It,
W=V I t
Since the entire electrical work done is dissipated in the form of heat, the expression for heat
energy can be written as:
H= VIt →①
𝑉
Since 𝐼 = , equation ① becomes:
𝑅
H= VxVxt
R
ie, H= V t →②
2

R
Since V=IR, equation ① becomes:

ie, H=I2RT → 3

Thus the various expressions for the heat energy developed in a resistor R;
 H=VIt

H= V2t
R
2
H= I Rt

JOULE’S LAW OF HEATING

The law states that the heat energy produced in a resistor is:
I. Directly proportional to the square of current in a given resistance.
II. Directly proportional to resistance for given current.
III. Directly proportional to the time for which current flows through the circuit.

The mathematical expression for Joule’s Law of heating is:

H=I2Rt

ELECTRIC POWER

It is defined as the rate at which electric energy is consumed or dissipated in an electic circuit.

The electric power is given by:

𝑊 𝐸
𝑃= =
𝑡 𝑡
The various equations of electric power are:

I. P= VI
𝑽𝟐 𝒕 𝑽𝟐
II. P= =
𝑹𝒕 𝑹
𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕
III. P= = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
𝒕

𝑽𝟐
P= VI = = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
𝑹

SI unit of electric power : Watt (W)

We have 1W= 1volt x1A
1W is defined as the power consumed by a device when 1A of current flows through it
under a potential difference of 1V

The bigger units of power are:

1kW= 103W
 1MW= 106W
1HP= 746W

Commercial unit of electric energy:

The SI unit of energy is Joule. Since the unit ‘Joule’ is very small, in actual practice, we use a
much larger unit called ‘kilowatt hour’ (kWh). Kilowatt hour is called the commercial unit
of energy or the practical unit of energy. 1kWh is known as 1 unit of energy.

Relation between kWh and Joule:

1kWh= 1000W x 3600S

= 1000𝐽/𝑆 x 3600S
= 36 x 105 J
1kWh= 3.6 x 106 J

Thus, 1 unit of energy= 3.6 x 106 J

1kWh is defined as the electric energy consumed by a device when 1kW of power (1000W)
is used for 1 hour.

Practical application of heating effect of electric current:

i. The heating effect of current is utilised in the working of electrical heating appliances
such as electric iron, electric toaster, room heaters, water heaters etc. All these
heating appliances contain coils of high resistance wire made of nichrome alloy.
When these appliances are connected to a power supply, then a large amount of heat
is produced in the heating coils due to their high resistance.

ii. The heating effect of electric current is utilised in electric bulbs for producing light.
When electric current passes through a very thin, high resistance tungsten filament of
an electric bulb, the filament becomes white-hot and emits light.

iii. The working principle of an electric fuse is heating effect of electric current. Electric
fuse is the most important safety device used in domestic circuits for protecting
electrical appliances and household wiring.

A fuse is a thin wire made of a metal or an alloy having high resistance and a low
melting point. The fuse is placed in series with the live wire of the circuit. If a current
larger than the specified value flows through the circuit, the temperature of the fuse
wire increases. This melts the fuse wire and breaks the circuit and hence, prevents
damage to various electrical appliances.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q1. What determines the rate at which energy is delivered by a current?

Ans) Resistance of the circuit
Q2. Why does the cord of an electric heater not glow while the heating element does?
Ans) This is due to the difference in the resistance of the heating element and the cord. The
heating element of an electric heater is made up of nichrome alloy. Due to the high
resistance of the heating coil, the amount of heat produced in it is large. On the other
hand, the cord of an electric heater is made of copper. Due to the low resistance of the
cord, the heat produced in it is negligible and that is why it does not grow.

Q3. An electric bulb is filled with argon or nitrogen. Why?

Ans) Gases like argon and nitrogen are chemically unreactive. Hence, they do not react with
the hot tungsten filament and thus, prolong the life of the filament of an electric bulb.

(Numericals based on Heating effect and Power refer notebook)

NUMERICALS FOR PRACTICE

1. Draw a schematic circuit diagram for a circuit in which three resistors R1, R2 and R3, a
plug key under closed condition, an ammeter joined in series with a 5V battery. A
voltmeter is also connected to measure the potential difference across the resistor R1.

2. Three resistors of 5Ω, 10Ω and 15Ω are connected in series and the combination is
connected to the battery of 30V. Ammeter and voltmeter are connected in the circuit.
Draw a circuit diagram to connect all the devices in proper correct order. What is the
current flowing and potential difference across 10Ω resistance?

3. Draw a circuit diagram for a circuit consisting of a battery of five cells of 2V each, a 5Ω
resistor, a 10Ω resistor and a 15Ω resistor, an ammeter and a plug key’ all connected in
series. Also connect a voltmeter to record the potential difference across the 15Ω
resistor and calculate:
i. The electric current passing through the above circuit and
ii. Potential difference across 5Ω resistor when the key is closed.

4. A hot place connected to a 220V line has two resistance coils A and B, each of 22Ω
resistance. Calculate the amount of electric current flowing when these coils are:
i. Used individually
ii. Connected in series
iii. Connected in parallel.

5. i) Draw a diagram to show how two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel.

ii) In a circuit if two resistors of 4Ω and 8Ω are connected in parallel, find out the ratio
of current passing through the two resistors.

6. Define electric power. An electric motor is rated at 2kW. Calculate the cost of using it
for 2 hours daily for the month of September if each unit costs Rs 6.00.
7. Calculate the amount of heat generated while transferring 90000 coulombs of charge
between the two terminals of a battery of 40V in one hour. Also determine the power
expanded in the process.

8. A lamp rated 60W and an electric iron rated 800W are used for 6 hours every day.
Calculate the total energy consumed in 30 days.

9. An electric iron consumes energy at a rate of 840W when heating is at the maximum and
360W, when the heating is at the minimum. The voltage at which is running is 220V.
What are the current and resistance values in each case?

10. A 400W refrigerator operates for 16 hours per day. Calculate the cost to operate it for
30 days at Rs3.40 per kWh.

********************